m CHAPTER 3p BEBE eee ee ages = Motion of Particles in a Fluid & SELLER eee = 3.1. INTRODUCTION & BEEBE e eee ee Cee eee B Processes for the separation of particles of various sizes and shapes often depend on the J ® Variation in the behaviour of the particles when they are subjected to the action of a ® moving fluid. Further, many of the methods for the determination of the sizes of particles i in the sub-sieve ranges involve relative motion between the particles and a fluid. | The flow problems considered in Volume | are unidirectional, with the fluid flowing along a pipe or channel, and the effect of an obstruction is discussed only in so far as it causes an alteration in the forward velocity of the fluid. In this chapter, the force exerted ona body as a result of the flow of fluid past it is considered and, as the fluid is generally diverted all round it, the resulting three-dimensional flow is more complex. The flow of fluid relative to an infinitely long cylinder, a spherical particle and a non-spherical particle is considered, followed by a discussion of the motion of particles in both gravitational and centrifugal fields.‘The flow of fluid past an infinitely long cylinder, in a direction perpendicular to its axis. is considered in the first instance because this involves only two-directional flow, ‘with no_flow parallel to the axis. For a non-viscous fluid flowing past a cylinder, as shown in ® Figure 3.1, the velocity and direction of flow varies round the circumference. Thus _at A B and_D the fluid is brought to rest and at_B and C the velocity is at a maximum. Since B the fluid is non-viscous, there is no drag, and_an infinite velocity gradient exists atthe fl ® surface of the cylinder. If the fluid is incompressible_and the cylinder is small, the sum ™ of the kinetic energy and the pressure energy is constant at all points on the surface. The Kinetic energy is a maximum at B and C and zero at A and D, so that the pressure falls from A to B and from A to C and rises again from B to D and from C to D; the pressure aLA and D being the same, No net force is therefore exerted by the fluid on the cylinder, It is found that, although the predicted pressure variation for a non-viscous fluid agrees well with the results obtained with a viscous fluid over the front face, very considerable differences occur at the rear face. It is shown in Volume 1, Chapter 11 that, when a viscous fluid flows over a surface, the fluid is retarded in the boundary layer which is formed near the surface and that the boundary layer increases in thickness with increase in distance from the leading edge. If the pressure is falling in the direction of flow, the retardation of the fluid is less and theBFigure 3.1. Flow round a cylinder E a boundary layer is thinner in consequence. If the pressure is rising, however, there will be a greater retardation and the thickness of the boundary layer increases more rapidly. The force acting on the fluid at some point in the boundary layer may then be sufficient j to bring it to rest or to cause flow in the reverse direction with the result that an eddy current is set up. A region of reverse flow then exists near the surface where the boundary layer has separated as shown in Figure 3.2. The velocity rises from zero at the surface to a maximum negative value and falls again to zero. It then increases in the positive direction until it reaches the main stream velocity at the edge of the boundary layer, as shown in Figure 3.2. At PQ the velocity in the X-direction is zero and the direction of flow in the eddies must be in the Y-direction.Direction of increasing pressure — Fonvard tlow Q Zero velocity in X direction +— Reversed flow Boundary Eddy formation layer separates Figure 3.2. Flow of fluid over a surface against a pressure gradient For the flow of a viscous fluid past the cylinder, the pressure decreases from A to B and from A to C so that the boundary layer is thin and the flow is similar to that obtained with a non-viscous fluid. From B to D and from C to D the pressure is rising and therefore the boundary layer rapidly thickens with the result that it tends to separate from the surface. If separation occurs. eddies are formed in the wake of the cylinder and energy is thereby dissipated and an additional force, known as form drag, is set up. In this way, on the forward surface of the cylinder, the pressure distribution is similar to that obtained with the ideal fluid of zero viscosity, although on the rear surface, the boundary layer is thickening rapidly and pressure variations are very different in the two cases. All bodies immersed in a fluid are subject to a buoyancy force. In a flowing fluid, there is an additional force which is made up of two components: the skin friction (orBERBER REPRE RRP viscous drag) and the form drag (due to the pressure distribution). At low rates of flow no separation of the boundary layer takes place, although as the velocity is increased, separation occurs and the skin friction forms a gradually decreasing proportion of the total drag. If the velocity of the fluid is very high, however, or if turbulence is artificially ® induced, the flow within the boundary layer will change from streamline to turbulent @ before separation takes place. Since the rate of transfer of momentum through a fluid in ® (turbulent motion is much greater than that in a fluid flowing under streamline conditions, ® Separation is less likely to occur, because the fast-moving fluid outside the boundary layer is able to keep the fluid within the boundary layer moving in the forward direction. If ; separation does occur, this takes place nearer to D in Figure 3.1, the resulting eddies are | smaller and the total drag will be reduced. Turbulence may arise either from an increased fluid velocity or from artificial rough- ening of the forward face of the immersed body. Prandtl roughened the forward face of a sphere by fixing a hoop to it, with the result that the drag was considerably reduced. Further experiments have been carried out in which sand particles have been stuck to the front face, as shown in Figure 3.3. The tendency for separation, and hence the magnitude of the form drag, are also dependent on the shape of the body.(a) igure 3.3. Effect of roughening front face of a sphere () 216 mm diameter ball entering water at 298 K eee eee ee eee ‘onditions of flow relative to a spherical particle are similar to those relative to a cylinder, except that the flow pattern is three-directional. The flow is characterised by the Reynolds number Re'(= udp/je) in which p is the density of the fluid, is the viscosity of the fluid, d is the diameter of the sphere, and w is the velocity of the fluid relative to the particle.For the case of creeping flow, that is flow at very low velocities relative to the sphere, the drag force F on the particle was obtained in 1851 by Stokes“) who solved the hydrodynamic equations of motion, the Navier-Stokes equations, to give: F =3npdu B.1) Equation 3.1, which is known as Stokes’ Jaw is applicable only at very low values of the particle Reynolds number and deviations become progressively greater as Re’ increases. Skin friction constitutes two-thirds of the total drag on the particle as given by equation 3.1. Thus, the total force F is made up of two components: i) skin friction: 27 udu im total 3x du (ii) form drag: udu As Re’ increases, skin friction becomes proportionately less and, at values greater than about 20, flow separation occurs with the formation of vortices in the wake of the sphere. At high Reynolds numbers, the size of the vortices progressively increases until, at values of between 100 and 200, instabilities in the flow give rise to vortex shedding. The effect of these changes in the nature of the flow on the force exerted on the particle is now considered.3.3. THE DRAG FORCE ON A SPHERICAL PARTICLE 3.3.1. Drag coefficients The most satisfactory way of representing the relation between drag force and velocity involves the use of two dimensionless groups, similar to these used for correlating infor- mation on the pressure drop for flow of fluids in pipes. The first group is the particle Reynolds number Re’(= wdp/).). The second is the group R’/pu’, in which R’ is the force per unit projected area of particle in a plane perpendicular to the direction of motion. For a sphere, the projected area is that of a circle of the same diameter as the sphere. , F r= (xd?/4) 4F pur xd2 pur R'/pu? is a form of drag coefficient, often denoted by the symbol C7. Frequently, a drag coefficient Cp is defined as the ratio of R’ to 4pu? (3.4) It is seen that Cj, is analogous to the friction factor (= R/pu?) for pipe flow, and Cop is analogous to the Fanning friction factor /.When the force F is given by Stokes’ law (equation 3.1), then: Equations 3.1 and 3.5 are applicable only at very low values of the Reynolds number Re’. Go.pstrin® has shown that, for values of Re’ up to about 2, the relation between R’/pue? and Re’ is given by an infinite series of which equation 3.5 is just the first term. PB pet y pet 1280 20,480 30.179 yg 122,519 0s — DONT gat LRT 34.406.400- * 560,742,400 2 LS Re! go lltaghe- Re’ Oscen®) employs just the first two terms of equation 3.6 to give: (3.7) The correction factors for Stokes’ law from both equation 3.6 and equation 3.7 are given in Table 3.1. It is seen that the correction becomes progressively greater as Re’ increases.Table 3.1. Correction factory for Stokes? law Goldstein Oseen Schiller & Naumann Wadell Khan & Richardson eqn. 3.6 eqn. 3.7 eqn. 3.12 eqn. 3.13 1.002 1.002 r 0.983 1.038 1.006 1.006 x 1,00 1.009 1.019 1.019 L042 1.006 1.037 1.067 1.021 1.056 x Luis 1.038 1.113 . 1.346 1.085 1.19 - 1.675 1.137 38 - L917 1.240 Several workers have used numerical methods for solving the equations of motion for flow at higher Reynolds numbers relative to spherical and cylindrical particles. These include, Jenson, and Le CLaik, HAMIELEC and PRUPPACHER®), The relation between R’/pu? and Re’ is conveniently given in graphical form by means of a logarithmic plot as shown in Figure 3.4. The graph may be divided into four regions as shown, The four regions are now considered in turn. Region (a) (10-4 < Re’ < 0.2) R In this region, the relationship between and Re’ is a straight line of slope —1 represented by equation (equation 3.5)Region a Region b Region c Region d 10? 101 10° 10° 10° 104 10° 10° Re’ Figure 3.4. R’/pu? versus Re’ for spherical particlesThe limit of 10~* is imposed because reliable experimental measurements have not been made at lower values of Re’, although the equation could be applicable down to very low values of Re’, provided that the dimensions of the particle are large compared with the mean free path of the fluid molecules so that the fluid behaves as a continuum. The upper limit of Re’ = 0.2 corresponds to the condition where the error arising from the application of Stokes’ law is about 4 per cent. This limit should be reduced if a greater accuracy is required, and it may be raised if a lower level of accuracy is acceptable. Region (b) (0.2 < Re’ < 500-1000) In this region, the slope of the curve changes progressively from —1 to 0 as Re’ increases. Several workers have suggested approximate equations for flow in this intermediate region. DaLLa\ (© proposed that R’/pu? may be regarded as being composed of two component parts, one due to Stokes’ law and the other. a constant, due to additional non-viscous effects. Thus: 12Re'“! + 0.22 SCHILLER and NAUMANN gave the following simple equation which gives a reasonable approximation for values of Re’ up to about 1000:Region (c) (500-1000 < Re! < ca2 x 10°) In this region, Newton's law is applicable and the value of R’ [pu is approximately constant giving: Region (d) (Re' > ca 2 x 10°) When Re’ exceeds about 2 x 10°, the flow in the boundary layer changes from streamline (o turbulent and the separation takes place nearer to the rear of the sphere. The drag force is decreased considerably and: Values of R’/pu? using equations 3.5, 3.9, 3.10 and 3.11 are given in Table 3.2 and plotted in Figure 3.4. The curve shown in Figure 3.4 is really continuous and its divisionR'/ pu? (R'/pu2) Re® and (R'/pu2) Re’! as a function of Re’ RY pur (R'/pu?) Re (Rp 12,000 6000 2400 1200 1.20 > 600 2 3.00 > 40 80 > 4 24 > 63 15 26.3 13.8 TAS 3.49 2.08 1.30 0.768 0.547 0.404 0.283 0.221 0. c c c 0. 0.22 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05into four regions is merely a convenient means by which a series of simple equations can be assigned to limited ranges of values of Re’. A comprehensive review of the various equations proposed to relate drag coefficient to particle Reynolds number has been carried out by Curr, Grace and Weeer®), One of the earliest equations applicable over a wide range of values of Re’ is that due to WapELL” which may be written as: R (0a ‘ 3.39 ) pur" VRet Subsequently, KHAN and Ricuarpson( have examined the experimental data and suggest that a very good correlation between R’/pu* and Re’, for values of Re! up to 10°, is given by: a ao EH BaRe + 0.293 REP In Table 3.3. values of R’/pu?. calculated from equations 3.12 and 3.13, together with values from the Schiller and Naumann equation 3.9, are given as a function of Re’ over the range 10-7 < Re’ < 10°. Values are plotted in Figure 3.5 from which it will be noted that equation 3.13 gives a shallow minimum at Re’ of about 10°, with values rising to 0.21 at Re’ = 10°. This agrees with the limited experimental data which are available in this range.Table 3.3. Values of drag coefficient R’/pu as a function of Re’ Schiller & Naumann eqn. 3.9 1208 124 13.8 2.07 0.55 0.281 0.219 0.151 0.10 Wadell Khan & Richardson eqn. 3.12 eqn. 3.13 1246 121 13.7 2.09 0.52 0.283For values of Re’ < 2, correction factors for Stokes’ law have been calculated from equations 3.9, 3.12 and these 3.13 and are these included in Table 3.1. 3,3.2, Total force on a particle The force on a spherical particle may be expressed using equations 3.5, 3.9, 3.10 and 3.11 for each of the regions a, b, c and d as follows. Ih region (a):4000 10000. 199000 T T $ 3 = 2 3 2 5 3 8 2 a Khan & Richardson ——— — Schiller & Naumann 10 100 1000 10000 100000 Reynolds number (Re’)The projected area of the particle is x7d2/4. Thus the total force on the particle is given by: 2 2 F= ae dad? =3npdu é (3.15) This is the expression originally obtained by Stokes") already given as equation 3.1. In region (b), from equation 3.9: and therefore: In region (c): and: Lupe d F = 3apdu(1 +0.15Re™*) R’ =0.22pu? R= (1 +0.15Re" 7) F = 0.22pu? tard? = 0.055xd" pu? This relation is often known as Newton’s law. In region (d): R’ = 0.05pu? F =0.01252d pu? (3.16) G17) (3.18) (3.19) Alternatively using equation 3.13, which is applicable over the first three regions (a), (b) and (ce) gives: pur(L.84Re’ >! 4 0.293 Re™3.3.3. Terminal falling velocities If a spherical particle is allowed to settle in a fluid under gravity, its velocity will increase until the accelerating force is exactly balanced by the resistance force. Although this state is approached exponentially, the effective acceleration period is generally of short duration for very small particles. If this terminal falling velocity is such that the corresponding value of Re’ is less than 0.2, the drag force on the particle is given by equation 3.15. If the corresponding value of Re’ lies between 0.2 and 500, the drag force is given approximately by Schiller and Naumann in equation 3.17. It may be noted, however, that if the particle has started from rest, the drag force is given by equation 3.15 until Re’ exceeds 0.2. Again if the terminal falling velocity corresponds to a value of Re’ greater than about 500, the drag on the particle is given by equation 3.19. Under terminal falling conditions, velocities are rarely high enough for Re’ to approach 10°, with the small particles generally used in industry. The accelerating force due to gravity is given by: = (4rd \(py — pg where p, is the density of the solid.The terminal falling velocity wo corresponding to region (a) is given by PY py — pig = 3rpduy and: wy = The terminal falling velocity corresponding to region (c) is given by: Gad \(p. — p)g = 0.0552 d? pup 2 (Ps — P) < ud = 3dg@Po—P” ade -25) Pe In the expressions given for the drag force and the terminal falling velocity. the following assumptions have been made: (a) That the settling is not affected by the presence of other particles in the fluid. This condition is known as “free settling”. When the interference of other particles is appreciable, the process is known as “hindered settling”. (b) That the walls of the containing vessel do not exert preciable retarding effect That the fluid can be considered as a continuous medium, that is the particle is large compared with the mean free path of the molecules of the fluid, otherwise the particles may occasionally “slip” between the molecules and thus attain a velocity higher than that calculated. These factors are considered further in Sections 3.3.4 and 3.3.5 and in Chapter From equations 3.24 and 3.25, it is seen that terminal falling velocity of a particle in given fluid becomes greater as both particle size and density are increased. If for aparticle of material A of diameter d and density p4. Stokes’ law is applicable, then the terminal falling velocity up, is given by equation 3.24 as: d oa = (3.26) Similarly, for a particle of material B: “on = 79 deg LL The condition for the two terminal velocities to be equal is then: dy dp = (22) pap If Newton’s law is applicable, equation 3.25 holds and: Oa = Upp = > _ 3dag(pa— Pp) p > _ 3dgg(pp - p)For equal settling velocities: dp (& = 2) da PRP In general, the relationship for equal settling velocities is: 5 de (& *) (3.32) da PRP where S = } for the Stokes” law region, S = I for Newton’s law and, as an approximation, 4 <8 ca. 10) (3.39) (Ry/pug)Ree can be evaluated if the properties of the fluid and the particle are known. In Table 3.4, values of log Re’ are given as a function of log{(R’'/pu2) Re?) and the data taken from tables given by Heywoon), are represented in graphical form in Figure 3.6. In order to determine the terminal falling velocity of a particle, (R/./ou}) Re’? is evaluated and the corresponding value of Rep, and hence of the terminal velocity, is found either from Table 3.4 or from Figure 3.6.Table 34. Values of log Re! as a function of log{(R’/ou?)Re”} for spherical particles log((R'/pu?) Re} 3 04 05) (06 «(078 jon 3720 dois 217 315 353 2612 i7 L 1007 1.405 3 1495 1591 (.686 1.967 0.008 3 0410 0.495 0817 0895 1199 1.273 1562 1.632 7 1907 1.974 2126 2300 24 s 2.548 2.608 2841 2.899 3013 327 3.183Example 3.1 What is the terminal velocity of a spherical steel particle, 0.40 mm in diameter, settling in an oil of density 820 kg/m? and viscosity 10 mN s/m?? The density of steel is 7870 kg/m*. Solution For at sphere: From Table 3.4: Thus: and: (equation 3.35) 24.2 logy, 24.2 = 1.384 logiy Ref, = 0.222 Rel, = 1.667 1.667 x 10 x 107% 820 x 0.0004 = 0.051 m/s or $1 mm/s upExample 3.2 A finely ground mixture of galena and limestone in the proportion of 1 to 4 by mass is subjected to elutriation by an upward-flowing stream of water flowing at a velocity of 5 mm/s. Assuming that the size distribution for each material is the same, and is as shown in the following table, estimate the percentage of galena in the material carried away and in the material left behind. The viscosity of water is | mN s/m? and Stokes’ equation (3.1) may be used. Diameter (um) 20 30 40500 70 80-100 Undersize (per cent by mass) 15 2848 5464 72 78 88 The densities of galena and limestone are 7500 and 2700 kg/m’, respectively. Solution The first step is to determine the size of a particle which has a settling velocity equal to that of the upward flow of fluid, that is 5 mm/s. Taking the largest particle, d = (100 x 107®) = 0.0001 m and: Re x 10~* x 0.0001 x 1000)/(1 x 107) Thus, for the bulk of particles, the flow will be within region (a) in Figure 3.4 and the settling, velocity is given by Stokes’ equation: up = (d?g/18p)(p, — p) (equation 3.24)For a particle of galena settling in water at 5 mm/s (5 x 107) = (@? x 9.81)/(18 x 1075))(7500 = 1000) = 3.54 x 10%a? and d= 3.76 x 107 mor 37.6 pm For a particle of limestone settling at 5 nmm/s: (5x 1073) = (a? x 9.81)/(18 x 1074))(2700 — 1000) = 9.27 x 105d? and: d=7.35 x 107 mor 73.5 pm Thus particles of galena of less than 37.6 jum and particles of limestone of less than 73.5 jum will be removed in the water stream. Interpolation of the data given shows that 43 per cent of the galena and 74 per cent of the limestone will be removed in this way In 100 kg feed, there is 20 kg galena and 80 kg limestone. Therefore galena removed = (20 x 0.43) = 8.6 kg, leaving 11.4 kg, and limestone removed = (80 x 0.74) = 59.2 kg, leaving 20.8 kg. Hence in the material removed concentration of galena = (8.6 x 100)/(8.6 + 59.2 7 per cent by massand in the material remaining: concentration of galena = (11.4 x 100)/(11.4 + 20.8) = 35.4 per cent by mass As an alternative, the data used for the generation of equation 3.13 for the relation between drag coefficient and particle Reynolds number may be expressed as an explicit relation between Ref (the value of Re’ at the terminal falling condition of the particle) and the Galileo number Ga. The equation takes the form'!®: Rel = (2.33Ga™S — 1.53Ga 85 (3.40) The Galileo number is readily calculated from the properties of the particle and the fluid, and the corresponding value of Rep, from which wo can be found, is evaluated from equation 3.40. A similar difficulty is encountered in calculating the size of a sphere having a given terminal falling velocity, since Ref and Rj,/pu’ are both functions of the diameter d of the particle. This calculation is similarly facilitated by the use of another combination, (Rb/puz)Rey which is independent of diameter. This is given by: , Ro 0 —~> 2, a) 3.41) a = peLog Re’ is given as a function of log[(R’/pu2)Re’'] in Table 3.5 and the functions are plotted in Figure 3.6. The diameter of a sphere of known terminal falling velocity may be calculated by evaluating (Ri,/pup) Rei, and then finding the corresponding value of Re}, from which the diameter may be calculated. As an alternative to this procedure, the data used for the generation of equation 3.13 may be expressed to give Rej as an explicit function of {(R'/pup)Rey'}, which from Table 3.5. Values of log Re’ as a function of log((R’/pu?)Re'~!) for spherical particles log((R'/pu2)Re!'} 0.0 OL 02 03 04 05 06° 07 3316 3. 3.148 3.065 2.984 2.903 2.824 2517 2443 2.372 2.300 2.231 2.162 2.095 1829 1 1.699 1.634 1.571 1.508 1.496 1.200 1. 1.081 1.022 0.963 0.904 0.846 0.616 0.560 0.505 0.449 0.394 0.339 0.286 0.072 04 1.969 1.919 1.865 i811 1.760 1.554 1.452 1401 1.350 1.299 1.249 2.946 2.895 2.845 2.794 3.744 2443 2303 2.343 2.202 ee =o Stein &equation 3.40 is equal to 2/3[(4g/p°u))(es — p)|. Then writing Kp = (ug/p?ui)(ps — p)|, Ref may be obtained from: Rey = (1.47 Kp 40.11 KpAy* (3.42) d may then be evaluated since it is the only unknown quantity involved in the Reynolds number. 3.3.4, Rising velocities of light particles Although there appears to be no problem in using the standard relations between drag coefficient and particle Reynolds number for the calculation of terminal falling velocities of particles denser than the liquid, KARAMANEY, CHAVARIE and Mayer” have shown experimentally that, for light particles rising in a denser liquid, an overestimate of the terminal rising velocity may result. This can occur in the Newton’s law region and may be associated with an increase in the drag coefficient Cp’ from the customary value of 0.22 for a spherical particle up to a value as high as 0.48. Vortex shedding behind the rising particle may cause it to take a longer spiral path thus reducing its vertical component of velocity. A similar effect is not observed with a falling dense particle because its inertia is too high for vortex-shedding to have a significant effect. Further experimental work by Dewspury, Karamay and Marcarimis) with shear-thinning power-law solutions of CMC (carboxymethylcellulose) has shown similar effects.3.3.5. Effect of boundaries The discussion so far relates to the motion of a single spherical particle in an effectively infinite expanse of fluid. If other particles are present in the neighbourhood of the sphere, the sedimentation velocity will be decreased, and the effect will become progressively more marked as the concentration is inereased. There are three contributory factors. First, as the pauticles settle, they will displace an equal volume of fluid, and this gives rise to an upward flow of liquid. Secondly, the buoyancy force is influenced because the suspension has a higher density than the fluid. Finally, the flow pattern of the liquid relative tothe particle is changed and velocity gradients are affected. The settling of concentrated suspensions is discussed in detail in Chapter 5. The boundaries of the vessel containing the fluid in which the particle is settling will also affect its settling velocity. If the ratio of diameter of the particle (d) to that of the tube (d,) is significant, the motion of the particle is retarded. Two effects arise. First. as the particle moves downwards it displaces an equal volume of liquid which must rise through the annular region between the particle and the wall. Secondly, the velocity profile in the fluid is affected by the presence of the tube boundary. There have been several studies“) of the influence of the walls, most of them in connection with the use of the “falling sphere” method of determining viscosity, in which the viscosity is calculated from the settling velocity of the sphere. The resulting correction factors have been tabulated by Cur, Grace and Weper'"). The effect is difficult to quantify accurately because the particle will not normally follow a precisely uniform vertical path through the fluid. It is therefore useful also to take into account work on the sedimentation of suspensions of uniform spherical particles at various concentrations, and to extrapolate the results to zero concentration to obtain the free falling velocity for different values of the ratio d/d,.The correction factor for the influence of the walls of the tube on the settling velocity of a particle situated at the axis of the tube was calculated by Lapensurc' who has given the equation: Uo d\! —= (: + 24°) (d/d, < 0.1) (3.43) HO a where 1g, is the settling velocity in the tube, and ug is the free falling velocity in an infinite expanse of fluid. Equation 3.43 was obtained for the Stokes’ law regime. It overestimates the wall effect, however, at higher particle Reynolds number (Re' > 0.2). Similar effects are obtained with non-cylindrical vessels although, in the absence of adequate data, it is best to use the correlations for cylinders, basing the vessel size on its hydraulic mean diameter which is four times the ratio of the cross-sectional area to the wetted perimeter.The particles also suffer a retardation as they approach the bottom of the containing vessel because the lower boundary then influences the flow pattern of the fluid relative to the particle. This problem has been studied by Lapengurc'”), Tanner"? and Surrerny?), Ladenburg gives the following equation: dl -l or (: + 1657] (3.44) ug where L’ is the distance between the centre of the particle and the lower boundary, for the Stokes’ law regime. 3.3.6. Behaviour of very fine particles Very fine particles, particularly in the sub-micron range (d < | jum), are very readily affected by natural convection currents in the fluid, and great care must be taken in making measurements to ensure that temperature gradients are eliminated.The behaviour is also affected by Brownian motion. The molecules of the fluid bombard each particle in a random manner. If the particle is small, the net resultant force acting at any instant may be large enough to cause a change in ils direction of motion. This effect has been studied by Davies?) who has developed an expression for the combined effects of gravitation and Brownian motion on particles suspended in a fluid. In the preceding treatment, it has been assumed that the fluid constitutes a continuum and that the size of the particles is small compared with the mean free path 4 of the molecules. Particles of diameter d < 0.1 jm in gases at atmospheric pressure (and for larger particles in gases at low pressures) can “slip” between the molecules and therefore attain higher than predicted settling velocities. According to CuNNINGHAM??) the slip factor is given by: 1+ p- (3.45) d Davies) gives the following expression for B: B = 1.764 40.5620 09)3.3.7. Effect of turbulence in the fluid Ifa particle is moving in a fluid which is in laminar flow, the drag coefficient is approxi- mately equal to that in a still fluid, provided that the local relative velocity at the particular location of the particle is used in the calculation of the drag force. When the velocity gradient is sufficiently large to give a significant variation of velocity across the diameter of the particle, however, the estimated force may be somewhat in error. When the fluid is in turbulent flow, or where turbulence is generated by some external agent such as an agitator, the drag coefficient may be substantially increased. BRucATO eral.» have shown that the increase in drag coefficient may be expressed in terms of the Kolmogoroff scale of the eddies (Ag) given by: de =[u/py fel (3.47) where ¢ is the mechanical power generated per unit mass of fluid by an agitator, for example. The increase in the drag coefficient Cp over that in the absence of turbulence Cpo is given by: w = (Cp —Cpo)/Cpo = 8.76 x 104d /agy (3.48) Values of wy of up to about 30, have been reported.3.3.8. Effect of motion of the fluid If the fluid is moving relative to some surface other than that of the particle, there will be a superimposed velocity distribution and the drag on the particle may be altered. Thus, if the particle is situated at the axis of a vertical tube up which fluid is flowing in streamline motion, the velocity near the particle will be twice the mean velocity because of the parabolic velocity profile in the fluid. The drag force is then determined by the difference in the velocities of the fluid and the particle at the axis. The effect of turbulence in the fluid stream has been studied by RICHARDSON and Meike?) who suspended a particle on a thread at the centre of a vertical pipe up which water was passed under conditions of turbulent flow. The upper end of the thread was attached to a lever fixed on a coil free to rotate in the field of an electromagnet. By passing a current through the coil it was possible to bring the level back to a null position. After calibration, the current required could be related to the force acting on the sphere. The results were expressed as the friction factor (R'/pu’), which was found to have a constant value of 0.40 for particle Reynolds numbers (Re’) over the range from 3000 to 9000, and for tube Reynolds numbers (Re) from 12,000 to 26,000. Thus the value of R’/pu has been approximately doubled as a result of turbulence in the fluid. By surrounding the particle with a fixed array of similar particles on a hexagonal spacing the effect of neighbouring particles was measured. The results are discussed in Chapter 5.Rowe and Henwoon* made similar studies by supporting a spherical particle 12.7 mm diameter, in water, at the end of a 100 mm length of fine nichrome wire. The force exerted by the water when flowing in a 150 mm square duct was calculated from the measured deflection of the wire. The experiments were carried out at low Reynolds numbers with respect to the duct (<1200), corresponding to between 32 and 96 relative to the particle. The experimental values of the drag force were about 10 per cent higher than those calculated from the Schiller and Naumann equation. The work was then extended to cover the measurement of the force on a particle surrounded by an assemblage of particles, as described in Chapter 5. If Re’ is of the order of 10°, the drag on the sphere may be reduced if the fluid stream is turbulent. The flow in the boundary layer changes from streamline to turbulent and the size of the eddies in the wake of the particle is reduced. The higher the turbulence of the fluid, the lower is the value of Re! at which the transition from region (c) to region (d) occurs. The value of Re’ at which R'/pu? is 0.15 is known as the turbulence number and is taken as an indication of the degree of turbulence in the fluid.3.4, NON-SPHERICAL PARTICLES 3.4.1. Effect of particle shape and orientation on drag There are two difficulties which soon become apparent when attempting to assess the very {f} large amount of experimental data which are available on drag coefficients and terminal falling velocities for non-spherical particles. The first is that an infinite number of non- spherical shapes exists, and the second is that each of these shapes is associated with an infinite number of orientations which the particle is free to take up in the fluid, and the orientation may oscillate during the course of settling. In a recent comprehensive study, CHHABRA, AGARWAL, and Siva” have found that the most satisfactory characteristic linear dimension to use is the diameter of the sphere of equal volume and that the most relevant characteristic shape is the sphericity, (surface area of particle / surface area of sphere of equal volume). The limitation of this wholeapproach is that mean errors are often as high as about 16 per cent, and maximum errors i may be of the order of 100 per cent. The extent of the errors may be reduced however, by using separate shape factors in the Stokes” and Newton’s law regions. Another problem is} that, when settling, a non-spherical particle will not travel vertically in a fixed orientation } unless it has a plane of symmetry which is horizontal. In general, the resistance force to } movement in the gravitational field will not act vertically and the particle will tend to j spiral, to rotate and to wobble. A spherical particle is unique in that it presents the same area to the oncoming fluid whatever its orientation. For non-spherical particles, the orientation must be specified before the drag force can be calculated. The experimental data for the drag can be corre- lated in the same way as for the sphere, by plotting the dimensionless group R'/, pu? against the Reynolds number, Re’ = ud'p/p., using logarithmic coordinates, and a separate curve is obtained for each shape of particle and for each orientation. In these groups, R’ is taken, as before, as the resistance force per unit area of particle, projected on to a plane perpendicular to the direction of flow. d’ is defined as the diameter of the circle having the same area as the projected area of the particle and is therefore a function of the orientation, as well as the shape, of the particle.The curve for R'jpw against Re’ may be divided into four regions, (a), (b), (c) and f (d), as before. In region (a) the flow is entirely streamline and, although no theoretical j expressions have been developed for the drag on the particle, the practical data suggest | that a law of the form: ~=KRe"! (3.49) | pur is applicable. The constant K varies somewhat according to the shape and orientation of the particle although it always has a value of about 12. In this region, a particle falling freely in the fluid under the action of gravity will normally move with its longest surface nearly parallel to the direction of motion. At higher values of Re’, the linear relation between R’/pu? and Re! no longer holds and the slope of the curve gradually changes until R’/pu? becomes independent of Re’ in region (c). Region (b) represents transition conditions and commences at a lower value of Re’, and a correspondingly higher value of R'/pu?, than in the case of the sphere. A freely falling particle will tend to change its orientation as the value of Re’ changes and some instability may be apparent. In region (c) the particle tends to fall so that it is presenting the maximum possible surface to the oncoming fluid. Typical values of R’/pu? for non-spherical particles in region (c) are given in Table 3Table 3.6. Drag coefficients for non-spherical particles Configuration Length/breadth Thin rectangular plates with their planes perpendicular to 1-5 the direction of motion 20 oo Cylinders with axes parallel to the direction of motion I Cylinders with axes perpendicular to the direction of motion I 5 20 ooIt may be noted that all these values of R’/pu? are higher than the value of 0.22 for a sphere. Curr, Grace and Weser'? have critically reviewed the information available on non-spherical particles. 3.4.2. Terminal falling velocities Heywoop" has developed an approximate method for calculating the terminal falling velocity of a non-spherical particle, or for calculating its size from its terminal falling velocity. The method is an adaptation of his method for spheres. A mean projected diameter of the particle d, is defined as the diameter of a circle having the same area as the particle when viewed from above and lying in its most stable position. Heywood selected this particular dimension because it is casily measured by microscopic examination. If d, is the mean projected diameter, the mean projected area is nd,/4 and the volume is Kd}, where k’ is a constant whose value depends on the shape of the particle. For a spherical particle, k’ is equal to 7/6. For rounded isometric particles, that is particles in which the dimension in three mutually perpendicular directions is approximately the same, k’ is about 0.5, and for angular particles k’ is about 0.4. For most minerals k’ lies between 0.2 and (1.5.The method of calculating the terminal falling velocity consists in evaluating (Rj,/pu") | Ree. using d, as the characteristic linear dimension of the particle and xd, /4 as the projected area in a plane perpendicular to the direction of motion. The corresponding value of Rei is then found from Table 3.4 or from Figure 3.6, which both refer to spherical particles, and a correction is then applied to the value of log Ref to account for the deviation from spherical shape. Values of this correction factor, which is a function both of k! and of (R’/pu?) Re”, are given in Table 3.7. A similar procedure is adopted for calculating the size of a particle of given terminal velocity, using Tables 3.5 and 3.8. Table 3.7. Corrections to log Re’ as a function of log{(R’/pu?)Re?} for non-spherical particles log{(RY/pu2)Re?} k= 04 ko =03 k= 02 0.022 —0,002, +0,032, +0.131 0.023 —0.003 +0.030 +0.131 0.025 0.005 +0.026 +0.129 0.027 —0.010 +0.021 +0.122 =0.016 +0.012 40.111 —0.020 0.000 +0.080 —0.032 —0.022 +0.025, 0.052 0.056 0.040 —0.074 —0,089 —0.098, —0.093 0.114 0.146 —0.110 —0.135 —0.186 =0.125 0.154, 0.224 —0.134 0.172 0.255Table 3.8. Corrections to log Re’ as a function of {log(R'/pu’)Re'~!) for non-spherical particles log{(R’/pu?) Re'"} Kv =04 kh =03 KK =02 M=01 +0.185 +0.217 +0.289 +0.149 +0.175 +0.231 +0.114 +0.133 +0.173 +0.082 +0.095, +0.119 +0.056 +0.061 +0.072 +0.038 +0.034 +0.033 +0.028 +0.018 +0.007 +0.024 +0.013 —0.003 +0.022 +0.011 —0.007 +0.019 +0.009 +0.017 +0.007 +0.015 +0.005 +0.013 +0.003 +0.012 +0,002The method is only approximate because it is assumed that k/ completely defines the shape of the particle, whereas there are many different shapes of particle for which the value of k’ is the same. Further, it assumes that the diameter d, is the same as the mean projected diameter d’. This is very nearly so in regions (b) and (c), although in region (a) the particle tends to settle so that the longest face is parallel to the direction of motion and some error may therefore be introduced in the calculation, as indicated by Hetss and Cou), For a non-spherical particle: total drag force, F = Ryyrd, = (Ps — pgk'ds pus oa a Kodg 0 = jo R *o Re pug Ry 0 Rel! and: eo pup Provided k’ is known, the appropriate dimensionless group may be evaluated and the terminal falling velocity, or diameter, calculated.Example 3.3 What will be the terminal velocities of mica plates, 1 mm thick and ranging in area from 6 to 600 mm, settling in an oil of density 820 kg/m? and viscosity 10 mN s/m?? The density of mica| is 3000 kg/m’, Solution smallest particles 6x 10° m V4 x 6x 10-S/2) = 2.76 x 10% m 2.103 x 10 m3 volume 6x 10° m K 0.285 iR\ ( *) Rey = pur largest particles 6x 10-4 m? VA x 6 x 104/; 2.103 x 10> m* 6x 107 mi 0.0285 (equation 3.52 = (4 x 0.285/m x 0.01°)(3000 — 820)(820 x 2.103 x 10™* x 9.81) = 1340 for the smallest particles and, similarly, 134,000 for the largest articles,smallest particles largest particles 5.127 log Ref, 1581 2.857 (from Table 3.4) Correction from Table 3.6 —0.038 —0.300 (estimated) Corrected log Ref, 1528 2557 Rel, 49 361 up 0.154 mis 0.159 mis Thus it is seen that all the mica particles settle at approximately the same velocity.3.5. MOTION OF BUBBLES AND DROPS The drag force acting on a gas bubble or a liquid droplet will not, in general, be the same as that acting on a rigid particle of the same shape and size because circulating currents are set up inside the bubble. The velocity gradient at the surface is thereby reduced and the drag force is therefore less than for the rigid particle. Hapamarp@) showed that, if the effects of surface energy are neglected, the terminal falling velocity of a drop, as calculated from Stokes” law, must be multiplied by a factor Q, to account for the internal circulation, where: 3+ 3p) Qu + 3py (3.54) In this equation, je is the viscosity of the continuous fluid and jy is the viscosity of the fluid forming the drop or bubble. This expression applies only in the range for which Stokes’ law is valid. If u)/ is large, Q approaches unity. If y4,/j2 is small, Q approaches a value of 1.5. Thus the effect of circulation is small when a liquid drop falls in a gas although is large when a gas bubble rises in a liquid. If the fluid within the drop is very viscous, the amount of energy which has to be transferred in order to induce circulation is large and circulation effects are therefore small.Hadamard’s work was later substantiated by Bono“ and by Bono and Newron")) who showed that equation 3.51 is valid provided that surface tension forces do not play a large role. With very small droplets, the surface tension forces tend to nullify the tendency for circulation, and the droplet falls at a velocity close to that of a solid sphere. In addition, drops and bubbles are subject to deformation because of the differences in the pressures acting on various parts of the surface. Thus, when a drop is settling ina still fluid, both the hydrostatic and the impact pressures will be greater on the forward face than on the rear face and will tend to flatten the drop, whereas the viscous drag will tend to elongate it. Deformation of the drop is opposed by the surface tension forces so that very small drops retain their spherical shape, whereas large drops may be considerably deformed and the resistance to their motion thereby increased. For drops above a certain size, the deformation is so great that the drag force increases at the same rate as the volume, and the terminal falling velocity therefore becomes independent of size.Garner and SkELLAND"*)) have shown the importance of circulation within a drop in determining the coefficient of mass transfer between the drop and the surrounding medium. The critical Reynolds number at which circulation commences has been shown'”? to increase at a rate proportional to the logarithm of viscosity of the liquid constituting the drop and to increase with interfacial tension. The circulation rate may be influ- enced by mass transfer because of the effect of concentration of diffusing material on both the interfacial tension and on the viscosity of the surface layers, As a result of circulation the falling velocity may be up to 50 per cent greater than for a rigid sphere, whereas oscillation of the drop between oblate and prolate forms will reduce the velocity of fall, Terminal falling velocities of droplets have also been calculated by Hanaetec and Jounson™ from approximate velocity profiles at the interface and the values so obtained compare well with experimental values for droplet Reynolds numbers up to 80.3.6. DRAG FORCES AND SETTLING VELOCITIES FOR PARTICLES IN NON-NEWTONIAN FLUIDS Only a very limited amount of data is available on the motion of particles in non-Newtonian fluids and the following discussion is restricted to their behaviour in shear-thinning power- Jaw fluids and in fluids exhibiting a yield-stress, both of which are discussed in Volume 1, Chapter 3. 3.6.1. Power-law fluids Because most shear-thinning fluids, particularly polymer solutions and flocculated suspen- sions, have high apparent viscosities, even relatively coarse particles may have velocities in the creeping-flow of Stokes’ law regime. CHHABRA) has proposed that both theoreti- cal and experimental results for the drag force F on an isolated spherical particle of diameter d moving at a velocity u may be expressed as a modified form of Stokes’ law: F =3zp.duY (3.55)where the apparent viscosity jz. is evaluated at a characteristic shear rate u/d, and Y is a correction factor which is a function of the rheological properties of the fluid. The best available theoretical estimates values of Y for power-law fluids are given in Table 3.9. Table 3.9. Values of ¥ for power-law fluids) 09 08 07 0.6 05 04 0.3 0.2 OL Ll4 1.24 132 1.38 1.42 144 1.46 1.4L 135 Several expressions of varying forms and complexity have been proposed’) for the prediction of the drag on a sphere moving through a power-law fluid. These are based on a combination of numerical solutions of the equations of motion and extensive experimental results. In the absence of wall effects, dimensional analysis yields the following functional relationship between the variables for the interaction between a single isolated particle and a fluid: 2Cp =Cp= F (Re, n)where Cp and Cp are drag coefficients defined by equation 3.4, n is the power-law index and Re}, is the particle Reynolds number given by: Rel = (u"d"p)/k (3.57) where k is the consistency coefficient in the power-law relation. Combining equations 3.55 and 3.56: Cp = 24Re WY (3.58) Cy = (12 WY (3.59)From Table 3.9 it is seen that, depending on the value of n, the drag on a sphere in a power-law fluid may be up to 46 per cent higher than that in a Newtonian fluid at the same particle Reynolds number. Practical measurements lie in the range | < Y < 1.8, with considerable divergences between the results of the various workers. Tn view of the general uncertainty concerning the value of Y, it may be noted that the unmodified Stokes’ law expression gives a acceptable first approximation. The terminal settling velocity uo of a particle in the gravitational field is then given by equating the buoyant weight of the particle to the drag force to give: (3.60) ed"(p,—p) |" ug = } —————. TSkY where (¢; — p) is the density difference between the particle and the fluid. From equation 3.59, it is readily seen that in a shear-thinning fluid (2 < 1) the terminal velocity is more strongly dependent on d, g and ps — p than in a Newtonian fluid and a small change in any of these variables produces a larger change in uo. Outside the creeping flow regime, experimental results for drag on spheres in power- law fluids have been presented by Trrextat et al.) and Granam) for values of Re,up to 100, and these are reasonably well correlated by the following expressions with an average error of about 10 per cent: Cp = (035.2Re, 2") + nfl - 20.9Re V2") (3.6la) (0.2 < (2"Rel) < 24) Cp =(G7Re,'')2"| + [0.36n + 0.25] (3.61b) (24 < (27*Re’) < 100) Ch = [(17.6Re)2"] + nfs — W0.5Re 2") (3.620) [0.2 < "Rel < 24] Ch = [(18.5Re'")2"] + [0.18n + 0.125] (3.626) [24 < (27 Rel) < 100}It may be noted that these two equations do not reduce exactly to the relation for a Newtonian fluid (n = 1). Extensive comparisons of predictions and experimental results for drag on spheres suggest that the influence of non-Newtonian characteristics progressively diminishes as the value of the Reynolds number increases, with inertial effects then becoming dominant, and the standard curve for Newtonian fluids may be used with little error. Experimentally deter- mined values of the drag coefficient for power-law fluids (1 < Re’ < 1000; 0.4 (.73) u and: us fe +) (3.74) There are two forces acting on the body: (a) In the vertical direction, the apparent weight of the particle,(b) The drag force which is equal to RA’ and acts in such a direction as to oppose the motion of the particle. Its direction therefore changes as o changes. Here 4’ is the projected area of the particle on a plane at right angles to the direction of motion and its value varies with the orientation of the particle in the fluid. The drag force can be expressed by: (3.76) pal pu? A’ cosa Alpi JX? + 3°) and in the Y-direction of: Alps JP + $7) tions are therefore: be ed ad 2 24 32 pus A SVE + $ deme ( bIf allowance is now made for the added mass, m' = m[1 + (o/2p.)| must be substituted for m. Equations 3.77 and 3.78 refer to conditions where the particle is moving in the positive sense in the X-direction and in the positive (downward) sense in the Y-direction. If the particle is moving in the negative X-direction, the form of solution is unchanged, except that all increments of x will be negative. If, however, the particle is initially moving upwards, the sign of only the frictional term in equation 3.78 is changed and the form of solution will, in general, be different from that for downward movement. Care must therefore be exercised in the application of the equation, particularly if a change of sense may occur during the motion of the particle. Tt may be noted that the equations of motion for the two directions (X and Y) are coupled, with x and y appearing in each of the equations. General solutions are therefore not possible, except as will be seen later for motion in the Stokes’ law region. a Ty. . . Putting m = ates and A’ = 7 ~ for a spherical particle, then: VE +e)If allowance is made for the added mass and m’ is substituted for m in equation 3.78, then: R' 3 : 7 x pu’ d (2ps + p) _R3 Similarly: =) 7? similarly: je a Wn Pile and allowing for the added mass: ‘RB ped tara ie where the minus sign in equations 3.81 and 3.82 is applicable for downward motion and the positive sign for upward motion (with downwards taken as the positive sense).3.7.2. Motion of a sphere in the stokes’ law region Under these conditions, from equation 3.5: 3 = 12RE = pur dpe + ¥*) Substituting in equations 3.79, 3.80, 3.81 and 3.82 gives: 18. . -— i = -at =a (2p. + p) if allowance is made for the added mass. 1-2) =-w5 +8 Ps s - , 28(Ps—p) jp TP) wap oS = -a'y! +b! Pp. +p) Qps +p) “ fe if allowance is made for the added mass.In this particular case, the equations of motion for the X and Y directions are mutually independent and therefore can be integrated separately. Furthermore, because the frictional term is now a linear function of velocity, the sign will automatically adjust to take account of whether motion is downwards or upwards. The equations are now integrated, ignoring the effects of added mass which can be accounted for by replacing a by a’ and b by b’. For the Y-direction, integrating equation 3.86 with respect to 7: J} = ay + bt + constant. The axes are chosen so that the particle is at the origin at time ¢ =0. If the initial component of the velocity of the particle in the Y-direction is v, then, when t = 0, y =0 and § = v, and the constant = v, or: Stay shit ey teMay = (bt + ue” at a oy = (bt tu) ~ [oa a a at e Da = (bt + v)— — Se + constant a @bouv When t = 0, y = 0, and the constant = = - -. Thus: where: p and: *) & > (3.90) Ps Tt may be noted that b/a = uo, the terminal falling velocity of the particle. This equation enables the displacement of the particle in the Y-direction to be calculated at any time t. For the X-direction, equation 3.84 is of the same form as equation 3.86 with b = 0. Substituting b = 0 and writing w as the initial velocity in the X-direction, equation 3.88 becomes: » =(1-e") (3.91) aThus the displacement in the X-direction may also be calculated for any time 7. By eliminating ¢ between equations 3.89, 3.90 and 3.91. a relation between the displace- ments in the X- and Y-directions is obtained. Equations of this form are useful for calculating the trajectories of particles in size-separation equipment From equation 3.91: and: G.92) Substituting in equation 3.88 gives: ‘in( (-*)}+ 2-3 4+( ax) bx , vx =-2m 1) ae aww _ 8es(ps = pdt pat 18x 18pex 18em we (ra) * nat The values of @ and b can now be substituted and the final relation is: 3 3.94, we.d?) * wp, Pip, — Fone) Co» If allowance is made for added mass, a’ and b’ are substituted for a and b, respectively Then: (2p. + PVPs pdt ' 36pu. — 6d8uee wl 2p. + oe) 36x (1 18vyp. a) | w(2p. + p)d* Pps — pre3.7.3. Vertical motion (general case) For the Stokes’ law regime equations 3.88, 3.89 and 3.90 are applicable. For the Newton's law regime, R'/pu? is a constant and equal to 0.22 for a spherical particle. Therefore, substituting in equation 3.81 and putting & =0 for vertical motion. and using the negative sign for downward motion (and neglecting the effect of added mass): (3.96) (3.97) Thus: and: (3.98) where: = —_—— 6.) and: b Monee) ——P —G..100) z Integrating equation 3.98 gives: I ra f-1 When 1 = 0, $ =v, say, and therefore the constant = in( £4”), 2f fr-v Thus: Jin (3) (4 — “) =ct 2f L-3/\f+v Thus: (5) (Fa) se" f-s]\ft+v and: (f -») = — Putting: s=lt+je" then: ds = pje? dt = p(s — 1) dtds yarn f Ps(s — ’ = ft-2f [ems In — My constant s =ft- t,——__1 + constant c When 1 =0, y = 0 and: 1 f-v ( constant = — In c 1 Thus: vasre tnt {io f- Fro Thus for downward motion: Io v= fi —|In— po 2 fet ya fttcmse lf tut ver} G.101)If the added mass is taken into account, f remains unchanged, but c must be replaced by cin equations 3.97 and 3.101, where: 1 >» d= . (3.102) 3d(2p. + p) For vertical upwards motion in the Newton's law tegime: the positive sign in equation 3.81 applies and thus, by analogy with equation 3.98: dy ae edt (3.103) Ty . | yj Integrating: ; tan! ; = ct + constantWhen t=0, }=v, say, and the constant=(1/f)tan-'(v/f), v is a negative quantity. Thus: Ios Ie star —=ct+—tar — fof fof = sta (jatar) jens ieeee') y =—Incos| fet + tan — } + constant -fe fWhen t = 0, y = 0, and: I _e constant = —Incostan™ —, c cos (ss tan! “) f y= hr cos tan=! — f cos fet cos [i ‘| —sin fet sin [i ‘| ! f f =--ln c U cos [i A f I ) ye--hn (0 fet- 2 sin fa) c fThe relation between y and t may also be obtained graphically, though the process is more tedious than that of using the analytical solution appropriate to the particular case in question. When Re’ lies between 0.2 and 500 there is no analytical solution to the problem and a numerical or graphical method must be used. When the spherical particle is moving downwards, that is when its velocity is positive: A g (from equation 3.81) J wdR’ 3p pd dt 2d p, pw Rey t= | —__* App, - Bu OR Re, (Pe PIB HR pe MPs 2d ps pu?If the particle is moving upwards, the corresponding expression for f is: (3.106) - [" dRe oes, loos, SH Ry ip, pg pu? Equations 3.105 and 3,106 do not allow for added mass. If this is taken into account then: Re, dRe’ Mir-ps eR ~ yh RE wp. tp) €°(2p. + p) pur Where the positive sign applies to upward motion and the negative sign to downward motion,From these equations, Re’ may be obtained as a function of t. The velocity} may then be calculated. By means of a second graphical integration, the displacement y may be found at any time t. Jn using the various relations which have been obtained, it must be noted that the law of motion of the particle will change as the relative velocity between the particle and the fluid changes. If, for example, a particle is initially moving upwards with a velocity v, so that the corresponding value of Re’ is greater than about 500, the relation between y and t will be given by equation 3.104, The velocity of the particle will progressively decrease and, when Re’ is less than 500, the motion is obtained by application of equation 3.106. The upward velocity will then fall still further until Re’ falls below 0.2. While the particle is moving under these conditions, its velocity will fall to zero and will then gradually increase in the downward direction. The same equation (3.88) may be applied for the whole of the time the Reynolds group is less than 0.2, irrespective of sense. Then for higher downward velocities, the particle motion is given by equations 3.105 and 3.101. Unidimensional motion in the vertical direction, under the action of gravity, occurs frequently in elutriation and other size separation equipment, as described in Chapter 1.Example 3.4 ‘A material of density 2500 ke/m? is fed to a size separation plant where the separating fluid is water rising with a velocity of 1.2 nvs. The upward vertical component of the velocity of the particles is 6 m/s. How far will an approximately spherical particle, 6 mm diameter, rise relative to the walls of the plant before it comes to rest relative to the fluid? Solution Initial velocity of particle relative to fluid, v = (6.0 — 1.2) = 4.8 mis. Thus: Re! = (6 x 107 x 4.8 x 1000)/(1 x 1075) = 28,800 When the particle has been retarded to a velocity such that Re’ = 500, the minimum value for which equation 3.104 is applicable: ¥ = (48 x 500)/28,800 = 0.083 m/s In this solution, the effect of added mass is not taken into account. Allowance may be made by adjustment of the values of the constants in the equations as indicated in Section 3.7.3. When Re’ is greater than 500, the relation between the displacement of the particle y and the time ris:I =--In (oe - ean fa) (equation 3.104) c 1 c= Une (0.33/6 x 10°)(1000/2500) = 22.0 (equation 3.99) aap, — f= v(“"*) = VJ [(6 x 107 x 1500 x 9.81)/(0.33 x 1000)] (equation 3.100) =0.517 v=-48 m/s y == sg in(sonst7 x 22t + —— 48 sin0.517 x 2) . 22.0 0.517 = —0.0455 In (cos 11.37¢ + 9.28 sin 11.37t) 0.0455 (—11.37 sin 11.377 +9.28 x 11.37 cos 11.377) cos 11.371 + 9.28 sin 11.371 0.517(9.28 cos 11.37¢ — sin 11.371) ~ cos 11.371 +9.28sin 11.371 yerThe time taken for the velocity of the particle relative to the fluid to fall from 4.8 m/s to 0.083 m/s is given by: 0.517(9.28 cos 11.37t = sin 11.371) © cos .370-+9.28sin 11371 cos L137 + 9.28 sin 11.374 = -6.23 sin 11.37 + 57.8.cos LL.37t —0,083 = 56.8 cos 11.37 = 15.51 sin H1.37r sin LL.37t = 3.66.08 1. 37t squaring: 1 cos HL37t = [34cos? I3t cos L1.37t = 0.204The corresponding distance the particle moves relative to the fluid is then given by: y = —0.0455 In(0.107 + 9.28 x 0.994) =-0.102 m that is the particle moves only a very small distance with a velocity of less than 0.083 m/s. If form drag were neglected for all velocities less than 0.083 m/s, the distance moved by the particle would be given by: (equation 3.88)18 x 0.001 eo = eT = 0.20 (equation 3.89) @p, \ 0,006 x 2500 Jes [1 = (1000/2500)]9.81 = 5.89 (equation 3.90) bla = 29483 v= —0.083 mis wna (use ieet™) y = 29.431 - | —— -— ; 020 ” 0.20 2951 = 29.4% - (1-6 020 $= 2043 -20.51e°0™When the particle comes to rest in the fluid, ¥ = 0 and: 0" = 99.43/29.51 and: 1=0.0141 s The corresponding distance moved by the particle is given by: y = 29.43 x 0.0141 = (29.51/0.20)(1 = e204) = 0.41442 — 0.41550 = —0.00108 m Thus whether the resistance force is calculated by equation 3.15 or equation 3.19, the particle moves a negligible distance with a velocity relative to the fluid of less than 0.083 m/s. Further, the time is also negligible. and thus the fluid also has moved through only a very small distance. It may therefore be taken that the particle moves through 0.102 m before it comes to rest in the fluid. The time taken for the particle to move this distance, on the assumption that the drag force corresponds to that given by equation 3.19, is given by: cos 11.37t = 0.264 (from equation (i) above) 11.377 = 1.304 t=O0.115sThe distance travelled by the fluid in this time = (1.2 x 0.115) = 0.138 m Thus the total distance moved by the particle relative to the wally of the plant = 0,102 + 0.138 = 0.240 m or 240 mm Example 3.5 Salt of density 2350 kg/m’ is charged to the top of a reactor containing a 3 m depth of aqueous liquid of density 1100 kg/m? and viscosity 2 mN s/m?, and the crystals must dissolve completely before reaching the bottom. If the rate of dissolution of the crystals is given by: dd /dt = (3 x 107%) + (2 x 107) where d is the size of the crystal (m) at time ¢ (s) and w its velocity in the fluid (m/s), calculate the maximum size of crystal which should be charged. The inertia of the particles may be neglected and the resistance force may be taken as that given by Stokes’ law (3zdu), where d is taken the equivalent spherical diameter of the particle.Solution Assuming that the salt always travels at its terminal velocity. then for the Stokes law region this is given by equation 3.24. up = (d?/g/18)(o,—p) or, in this case, uy = (d? x 9.81)/ (18 x 2 x 1075)(2350 — 1100) = 3.406 x 105d? mis The rate of dissolution: —dd/dt = (3 x 107) + (2 x 10-4) m/s and substituting: dd/dt = (3 x 10§) = (2 x 10 x 3.406 x 10%a?) =-3x 10° = 68.10? The velocity at any point h from the top of the reactor is w = dh/dr and: dh = dh dt 542 6 2 — = —— = 3406 x 10?°d°/(—3 x 10 — 68.10") dd dt dd [u- — ie (3x 10% + 68.1d*) d 7 d = sax ([ =-e/ ae) Jo O C3 lo (C/O) +where C Thus: and: 3 = (3.406 Substituting for C, and C; and error: d= (rt d) and, solving by tialThe integration may also be carried out numerically with the following results: a a Interval Mean value Integral Total 3x 10-6 + 68.1d? of d of function over integral in interval interval 0 0 Ixl0* 1x 10-8 4.63 x10? 0.0463 2x14 4x 10% 8 x 10° 1.65 x 10° 0.1653 3x10 9x 10-8 3.358 x 10° 2.86 x 10° 0.2869 4x10 16x 1077 3.922 x 108 3.64 x 10° 0.364 Sx lo 25x 1077 4.25 x 10° 4.09 x 10° 0.409 6x10" 3.6 x 107 4.46 x 10° 4.35 x 10° Tx lO 4.9.x 107 4.589 x 10° 8x lo 6.4 x 107 4.679 x 10° 4.634 x 10° 9x10 8.1 1077 474 x 10° 4.709 x 10° From which d = 0.9 mm. The acceleration of the particle to its terminal velocity has been neglected, and in practice the time taken to reach the bottom of the reactor will be slightly larger, allowing a somewhat larger crystal to dissolve completely.3,8, MOTION OF PARTICLES IN A CENTRIFUGAL FIELD In most practical cases where a particle is moving in a fluid under the action of a centrifugal field, gravitational effects are comparatively small and may be neglected. The equation of motion for the particles is similar to that for motion in the gravitational field, except that the gravitational acceleration g must be replaced by the centrifugal acceler- ation ro”, where r is the radius of rotation and w is the angular velocity. It may be noted, however, that in this case the acceleration is a function of the position r of the particle. For a spherical particle in a fluid, the equation of motion for the Stokes’ law region is:As the particle moves outwards, the accelerating force increases and therefore it never acquires an equilibrium velocity in the fluid. If the inertial terms on the right-hand side of equation 3.108 are neglected, then: de Lp, — pyro? ar Obs = pyro” (3.109) dt 18 _ &(o- pero” Beg ro =p (“) (3.110) 8 Thus, the instantaneous velocity (dr/dt) is equal to the terminal velocity wp in the gravitational field, increased by a factor of rw” /g.Returning to the exact form (equation 3.108), this may be re-arranged to give: tr iWedr p.-p 5 >+s=-—- or =0 di? Pp, de Ds er dr R + a —qr=0 The solution of equation 3.112 takes the form: p= Bye 2 Halt 4B, onla/2-Vier +a) B.11) =e" (Bo + Bel} (3.114) 8 , ; = a=(1-2)o" and k =V[(e?/4) +4] (115) ps PsThe effects of added mass, which have not been taken into account in these equations, require the replacement of a by a’ and q by q', where: d=- 36H and g = Py #(2ps + p) (2p; +p) Equation 3.114 requires the specification of two boundary conditions in order that the constants By and By may be evaluated. Tf the particle starts (¢ = 0) ata radius ry with zero velocity (dr/dr) = 0, then from equation 3.114: d 7 Ki ki 2) bi by ar = TRB ett + Boe" _ Sor B, ett +B of) dt =e? {fi - ) Belt — (i + ) By aaSubstituting the boundary conditions into equations 3.114 and 3.116: r =B\ +B a 0=Bi(k— 5 k-a/2 Hence: B= 2k Thus: rae? | k-a/2 oy, k+a/2- kt a rye 2k rye r 2 A and: —ae tt? [eosnar + “sinh ui (3.118) r 2k Hence r/r, may be directly calculated at any value of t, although a numerical solution is required to determine ¢ for any particular value of r/ry. If the effects of particle acceleration may be neglected, equation 3.112 simplifies to: dr Sgr =0 “t qrDirect integration gives: 3.119) Bu G.119) Thus the time taken for a particle to move to a radius r from an initial radius ry is given by: Su -— gt (3.120) @o(p,-p) ry For a suspension fed to a centrifuge, the time taken for a particle initially situated in the liquid surface (7; = rp) to reach the wall of the bowl (r = R) is given by: 18 R =a hn @o(ps—p) 1If h is the thickness of the liquid layer at the walls then: h=R-1 R In—=In n% al sift “ROAR If h is small compared with R. then: Equation 3.120 then hecomes:For the Newton’s law region, the equation of motion is: 3. er > To > mam» (dr\ 2 = - * —0.22—d°p(—]) == gi pra — 0.2: qf o( ) r oa dt This equation can only be solved numerically. If the acceleration term may be neglected, then: ar = BP), dt - p 12 Thus: ed [aque (BO) dt p Integration gives: 5 _ ya art? = Al) = [oor=? t p Pe a i =|—*>—]_ 2! 1)" 3.124 ‘ Lanza oon onUnits in Stsystem Projected area of particle in plane perpendicular to dirsetion Of motion 18a /d7 p, 36 /d? (2p. + PY CoShicionts in Gquation 3.111 LU /e dle Datos ~ p)/ Cp + p) Drag coefficient 2R’/pu? Drag Coefficient '/pus Diag coefficient in the absence of turbulence p/sipn Shameter of sphere or characteristic dimension oF par Mean projected diameter of particle Diameter of tubs or vessel Linear dimension ot particle ‘Toul force on particle Vio Xecdieration due to gravity Whickness oF Iiquid ayer Pose Constant for given shape and orientation of part 38 /u2\(Rej, !)-nee equation 3.12 Consistency coefficient for power law fluid Consistency Coeficient for Herschel Bulkley fluid Gequation 3.67) Constant for calculating volume of part Distance or particle trom bottom of’conta Mass of particle Varta ntass (mass + added mass) Tndow for non-Newtonian Aud nex for Herschel-Bulkley Muid (Equation 3.67) U1 = (e/ps)}eo? (equations 3.111 and 3.107) 2p. — p)w*/ps + p) rection Tactor for Velocity oF bubbleRadius of basket, or Shear stress at wall of pipe Resistance per unit projected area of particle Resistance per unit projected area of particle at free falling condition Radius of rotation Radius of inner surface of liquid Coefficient in equation 3.65 Exponent in equation 3.65 Index in equation 3.32 1+jer" Density ratio (ps/p) Time Velocity of fluid relative to particle ‘Terminal falling velocity of patticle Terminal falling velocity of particle in vessel Initial component of velocity of particle in ¥-direction Apparent (buoyant) weight of particle Initial component of velocity of particle in X-direction Displacement of particle in X-direction at time ¢ Velocity of particle in X-direction at time t Acceleration of particle in X-direction at time ¢ Correction factor in Stokes’ law for power-Jaw fluid Units in Dimensior SI System, in M, L, m Nim? Nim? Nim?Bi Ga Gay Re Ref, Reyp Rel, Suffixes AB Displacement of particle in ¥-direction at time ¢ Velocity of particle in ¥ direction at time ¢ Acceleration of particle in Y-direction at time 1 Ratio of forces due to yield stress and to gravity (equation 3.66) Angle between direction of motion of particle and horizontal Coefficient in equations 3.45 and 3.46 Shear rate Mean free path Kolmogoroff scale of turbulence (equation 3.46) m Viscosity of flui N sim? Viscosity of fluid in drop or bubble N sin? Viscosity at shear rate (u/d) Ns/m? Pipe friction factor R/ pu? - Yield stress Nim? Density of fluid kgfm? Density of solid kein? Angular velocity rad/s (Cp = Cr)/C dy Bingham umber (equation 3.69) Galileo number d3(p, — p)og/u2 Galileo number for power-law fluid (equation 3.63) Reynolds number udp/q or ud p/t Reynolds number uqdo/ 1 Reynolds number for spherical particle in a Herschel-Bulkley fluid Reynolds number for spherical particle in power-law fluid Particle A, BPROBLEM 3.1 A finely ground mixture of galena and limestone in the proportion of 1 to 4 by mass, is subjected to elutriation by a current of water flowing upwards at 5 mm/s. Assuming that the size distribution for each material is the same, and is as follows, estimate the percentage of galena in the material carried away and in the material left behind. The absolute viscosity of water is | mN s/m? and Stokes’ equation should be used. Diameter (um) 20, 30 «40-50 60 70 80 100 Undersize (per cent mass) 15 28 «48 S4 64 72 78 88 The density of galena is 7500 kg/m? and the density of limestone is 2700 kg/m’, Solution See Volume 2, Example 3.2.PROBLEM 3.2 Calculate the terminal velocity of a steel ball, 2 mm diameter and of density 7870 kg/m? in an oil of density 900 kg/m? and viscosity 50 mN s/m?. Solution For a sphere: (Ri,/ ud Re? = (2d*/3u7)p(ps — p)g (equation 3.34) = (2 x 0,0023/3 x 0,05)900(7870 — 900)9.81 = 1313 logyy 131.3 = 2.118 From Table 3.4: logy) Rej, = 0.833 or: Ref, = 6.80 Thus: ug = (6.80 x 0.05)/(900 x 0.002)PROBLEM 3.3 What is the terminal velocity of a spherical steel particle of 0.40 mm diameter, settling in an oil of density 820 kg/m? and viscosity 10 mN s/m?? The density of steel is 7870 kg/m’. Solution See Volume 2, Example 3.1.PROBLEM 3.4 What are the settling velocities of mica plates, | mm thick and ranging in area from 6 to 600 mm”, in an oil of density 820 kg/m? and viscosity 10 mN s/m*? The density of mica is 3000 kg/m*. Solution Smallest particles Largest particles A 6x 10-5 m? 6x 10-4 m?* dy VIG x 6 x 107) /2] = 2.76 x 10-3 m VI(4 x 6 x 10-4) /x] = 2.76 x 10°? m @ 2.103 x 10-8 m? 2.103 x 10-5 m3 volume 6x 10-9 m3 6x 10-7 m3 K 0.285 0.0285 (Rb /pu? Reg = (AK /1Em Vip. — p) ede (equation 3.52) = [(4 x 0.285)/ (or « 0.017) |(3000 — 820)(820 x 2.103 x 1078 x 9.81) = 1340 for smallest particle and 134,000 for largest particleSmallest particles Largest particles log yo( Ri/eu) Reg 3.127 5.127 logiy Rey 1.581 2.857 (from Table 3.4) Correction from Table 3.6 —0.038 —0.300 (estimated) Corrected logy) Re} 1.543 2.557 34.9 361 0.154 m/s 0.159 m/s hus it is seen that all the mica particles settle at approximately the same velocity.PROBLEM 3.5 A material of density 2500 kg/m’ is fed to a size separation plant where the separating fluid is water which rises with a velocity of 1.2 m/s. The upward vertical component of the velocity of the particles is 6 m/s. How far will an approximately spherical particle, 6 mm diameter, rise relative to the walls of the plant before it comes to rest in the fluid? Solution See Volume 2, Example 3.4. PROBLEM 3.6 A spherical glass particle is allowed to settle freely in water. If the particle starts initially from rest and if the value of the Reynolds number with respect to the particle is 0.1 when it has attained its terminal falling velocity, calculate: (a) the distance travelled before the particle reaches 90 per cent of its terminal falling velocit (b) the time elapsed when the acceleration of the particle is one hundredth of its initial value.Solution When Re’ < 0.2, the terminal velocity is given by equation 3.24: ug = (d°g/18)4)(ps — p) Taking the densities of glass and water as 2750 and 1000 kg/m*, respectively, and the viscosity of water as 0.001 Ns/m?, then: uo = [(9.81d7)/(18 x 0.001)](2750 — 1000) = 9.54 x 10d? m/s The Reynolds number, Re’ = 0.1 and substituting for uo: (9.54 x 10°d*)(1000/0.001) = 0.1 d=4.76x 105 m a = 18/d"p, = (18 x 0.001)/[4.76 x 107)? x 2750] (equation 3.89) = 2889 s-! b = [1 —(e/ps)|g = LU — (1000/2750)]9.81 = 6.24 m/s> (equation 3.90)In equation 3.88: vob yert+--S+ aca @ 0 and differentiating gives: 3= (b/ay -e™) or, since (b/a) = uo, the terminal velocity: y= uo(l —e™) When ¥ = 0.9u0, then: 0.9 = (1 — e778") or: 2889r = 2.303 and +=8.0x 107s Thus in equation 3.88: (6.24 « 8.0 x 1074) /2889 — (6.24/28897) + (6.24/28897) exp(—2889 x 8.0 « 1074) = (1.73 x 107°) — (7.52 x 1077) + (7.513 x 1078) = 1.053 x 10° mor 1.05 mmFrom equation 3.86: vsb-asy At the start of the fall, } = 0 and the initial acceleration, ¥ = b. When ¥' = 0.014, then: 0.01b = b — ay JF = (0.89 x 6.24)/2889 = 0.00214 m/s 0.00214 = (6.24/2889)(1 — e7 788") 2889 = 4.605 2=0.0016sPROBLEM 3.7 Tn a hydraulic jig, a mixture of two solids is separated into its components by subjecting an aqueous slurry of the material to a pulsating motion, and allowing the particles to settle for a series of short time intervals such that their terminal falling velocities are not attained. Materials of densities 1800 and 2500 kg/m} whose particle size ranges from 0.3 mm to 3 mm diameter are to be separated. It may be assumed that the particles are approximately spherical and that Stokes’ Law is applicable. Calculate approximately the maximum time interval for which the particles may be allowed to settle so that no particle of the less dense material falls a greater distance than any particle of the denser material. The viscosity of water is | mN s/m?. Solution For Stokes’ law to apply, Re’ < 0.2 and equation 3.88 may be used:or, assuming the initial velocity v = 0: where: b=[l—(p/p)lg and a= 18p/d?p,. (equations 3.89 and 3.9 For small particles of the dense material: b = [1 — (1000/2500)]9.81 = 5.89 m/s” a = (18 x 0.001)/[(0.3 x 107*)*2500] = 80 s™! For large particles of the light material: b = [1 — (1000/1800)]9.81 = 4.36 m/s? a= (18 x 0.001)/[(3 x 107)?1800] = 1.11 st In order that these particles should fall the same distance, from equation 3.88: (5.89/80)¢ — (5.89/807)(1 — e8") = (4.36/1.11)0 — (4.36/1.117)C1 — ey Thus: 3.85041 + 3.5316 e!!" — 0.00092 2 = 3.5307 and, solving by trial and error: 0.0L sPROBLEM 3.8 Two spheres of equal terminal falling velocity settle in water starting from rest at the | law is valid and this assumption should be checked. . S The diameter of one sphere is 40 jum and its density is 1500 kg/m” and the density of 1 mNs/m? respectively. Solution Assuming Stokes” law is valid, the terminal velocity is given by equation 3.24 as: ug = (d?g/18))(p; — p) For particle up = {[(40 x 10-°)? x 9,81]/(18 x 1 x 1073)}(1500 — 1000) = 4.36 x 10 m/sSince particle 2 has the same terminal velocity: 4.36 x 104 = [(d} x 9.81)/(18 x 1 x 107*)](3000 — 1000) From which: d= (2x10) m or 20pm From equation 3.83: a= 18)./d’p, For particle 1: ay = (18 x 1 x 1073) /((40 x 107°)? x 1500) = 7.5 x 10? su! and for particle 2; ay = (18 x 1 x 1077)/((20 x 107°)? x 3000) = 1.5 x 104s From equation 3.90: b=(1—p/psdg For particle 1: by = (1 — 1000/1500)9.81 = 3.27 m/s? and for particle 2: by = (1 — 1000/3000)9.81 = 6.54 m/s? The initial velocity of both particles, v = 0, and from equation 3.88: bob by yS-t->+5e awe! @Differentiating: = (b/a)(l—e™) or, from equation 3.24: ssu—e") When } = wo. the terminal velocity, it is not possible to solve for 7 and hence } will be taken as 0.9919. For particle 1: (0.99 x 4.36 x 10-4) = (4.36 x 10™)[1 — exp(-7.5 x 10*7)] and: t=6.14 x 10's The distance travelled in this time is given by equation 3.88: y = (3.27/7.5 x 10°)6.14 x 1074 — [3.27/(7.5 x 10°)7] [1 — exp(—7.5 x 10° x 6.14 x 107*)] = 2.10 x 1077 mFor particle 2: (0.99 x 4.36 x 10-4) = (4.36 x 10~4)[1 — exp(—1.5 x 10*7)] and: t = 3.07 x 1074 s Thus: y = ((6.54/1.5 x 10*)3.07 x 107) — [6.54/(1.5 x 10*)7] [1 —exp(—1.5 x 10+ x 3.07 x 1074)] = 1.03 x 1077 m Particle 2 reaches 99 per cent of its terminal velocity after 3.07 x 10~+ s and it then travels at 4.36 x 10-4 m/s for a further (6.14 x 10-+ — 3.07 x 10-4) = 3.07 x 104s during which time it travels a further (3.07 x 107+ x 4.36 x 10~+) = 1.338 x 10-7 m. ea Thus the total distance moved by particle 1 = 2.10 x 10-7 m and the total distance moved by particle 2 = (1.03 x 107? + 1.338 x 1077) = 2.368 x 10-7 m. The distance apart when both particles have attained their terminal velocities is: (2.368 x 1077 — 2.10 x 1077) = 2.68 x 107° m For Stokes’ law to be valid, Re’ must be less than 0.2. For particle 1, Re = (40 x 10~® x 4.36 x 10-4 x 1500)/(1 x 10-3) = 0.026 and for particle 2, Re = (20 x 107 x 4.36 x 10™ x 3000)/(1 x 1073) = 0.026 and Stokes’ law applies.PROBLEM 3.9 The size distribution of a powder is measured by sedimentation in a vessel having the sam- pling point 180 mm below the liquid surface. If the viscosity of the liquid is 1.2 mNs/m?, and the densities of the powder and liquid are 2650 and 1000 kg/m? respectively, deter- mine the time which must elapse before any sample will exclude particles larger than 20 jm. If Stokes’ law applies when the Reynolds number is less than 0.2, what is the approx- imate maximum size of particle to which Stokes’ Law may be applied under these conditions? Solution The problem involves determining the time taken for a 20 jum particle to fall below the sampling point, that is 180 mm. Assuming that Stokes’ law is applicable, equation 3.88 may be used, taking the initial velocity as v Thus: = (bt/a) — (b/a2) — ary where: b = 2(1 — p/p,) = 9.81[1 — (1000/2650)] = 6.108 m/s? and: a = 18;4/d?p, = (18 x 1.2 x 1079)/[(20 x 107%)? x 2650] = 20,377 s In this case: 180 mm or 0.180 m ‘Thus: O.180 (6.108 /20,377)1 — (6.108/20. 3770 = = 0,0003¢ + (1.4071 x LO~%e770-377) 20,3771) Ignoring the exponential term as being negligible, then: = (0.180/0.0003) = 600 sThe velocity is given by differentiating equation 3.88 giving: ES f= @/a -e") ES When f = 600 s: oes J = [(6.108a? x 2650)/(18 x 0.0012)]{1 — exp[—(18 x 0.0012 x 600)/d? x 2650]} \ = 7.49 x 10°d?] 1 — exp(—4.89 x 1073d7)] EA For Re’ = 0.2, then d(7.49 x 10°d?)[1 — exp(—4.89 x 1073d~?)] x 2650/0.0012 = 0.2 or: 1.65 x 10? a°[1 — exp(—4.89 x 10-3d~?)] = 0.2 When d is small, the exponential term may be neglected and: d= 1.212x 10-4 or: d=546x 105m or 54.6 pmPROBLEM 3.10 Calculate the distance a spherical particle of lead shot of diameter 0.1 mm settles in a glycerol/water mixture before it reaches 99 per cent of its terminal falling velocity. The density of lead is 11,400 kg/m? and the density of liquid is 1000 kg/m*. The viscosity of liquid is 10 mN s/m?. Tt may be assumed that the resistance force may be calculated from Stokes’ Law and is equal to 3r1du, where u is the velocity of the particle relative to the liquid. Solution The terminal velocity, when Stokes’ law applies, is given by: 1 gre los — p)g =3xpduy or: = Tg p= ee g(1— p/ps) = (b/a) (equations 3.24, 3.89 and 3.90) where: b = g(1 — p/ps) = 9.81[1 — (1000/11,400)] = 8.95 mvs? and: a = 18/d7p, = (18 x 10 x 107)/[(0.1 x 1077)711,400] = 1579 s7! Thus: uo = (8.95/1579) = 5.67 x 10-9 m/s When 99 per cent of this velocity is attained, then: } = (0.99 x 5.67 x 1079) = 5.61 x 1073 m/sAssuming that the initial velocity v is zero, then equation 3.88 may be differentiated | to give: } = (b/ay(1—e™) z Thus: (5.61 x 1073) = (5.67 x 107)(1 =e") and = ¢ = 0.0029 s Substituting in equation 3.88: & y = (b/a)t — (b/a?)(1 — e“) si = (5.67 x 107° x 0.0029) — (5.67 x 1073/1579)(1 — e71979*0.0029) = (1.644 x 107) — (3.59 x 10 x 9.89 x 107!) =129x 107° m or 0.013 mmPROBLEM 3.11 What is the mass of a sphere of material of density 7500 kg/m? whose terminal velocity in a large deep tank of water is 0.6 m/s? Solution Ri oy ug 7 Reo (Ps — p) (equation 3.41) pur 3p2u}, Taking the density and viscosity of water as 1000 kg/m? and 0.001 Ns/m? respec- tively, then: (Ro /eu2)/ Rel, = ((2 x 0.001 x 9.81)/(3 x 1000 x 0.63)](7500 — 1000) = 0.000197 Thus: logyo(Ry/eup)/ Reg = 4.296 From Table 3.5, logj) Rel, = 3.068 Rel, = 1169.5 d = (1169.5 x 0.001)/(0.6 x 1000) = 0.00195 m or 1.95 mm.The mass of the sphere = wd°p,/6 = (a x 0.00195* x 7500)/6 2.908 x 10> kg or 0.029 g "| PROBLEM 3.12 Two ores, of densities 3700 and 9800 kg/m? are to be separated in water by a hydraulic classification method. If the particles are all of approximately the same shape and each is sufficiently large for the drag force to be proportional to the square of its velocity in the fluid, calculate the maximum ratio of sizes which can be completely separated if the particles attain their terminal falling velocities. Explain why a wider range of sizes can be ae separated if the time of settling is so small that the particles do not reach their terminal velocities. An explicit expression should be obtained for the distance through which a particle will settle in a given time if it starts from rest and if the resistance force is proportional to the square of the velocity. The acceleration period should be taken into account.Solution Tf the total drag force is proportional to the square of the velocity, then when the terminal velocity uo is attained: F =kuja2 since the area is proportional to d? and the accelerating force = (p, — p)gkodp where ky is a constant depending on the shape of the particle and d, is a mean projected area. When the terminal velocity is reached, then: kup? = (p; — p)gkods and: uo = (es — p)gksdp I> In order to achieve complete separation, the terminal velocity of the smallest particle (diameter d)) of the dense material must exceed that of the largest particle (diameter dy) of the light material. For equal terminal falling velocities: [(9800 — 1000)9.8 ks; | = [8700 — 1000)9.81k3d2 °° and: (dy/a)) = (8800/2700) = 3.26" which is the maximum range for which complete separation can be achieved if the particles settle at their terminal velocities. If the particles are allowed to settle in a suspension for only very short periods, they will not attain their terminal falling velocities and a better degree of separation may be obtained. All particles will have an initial acceleration g(1 — e/p;) because no fluid frictional force is exerted at zero particle velocity. Thus the initial acceleration is a function of density only, and is unaffected by both size and shape. A very small particle of the denser material will therefore always commence settling at a higher rate than a large particle of the less dense material. Theoretically, therefore, it should be possible to effect complete separation irrespective of the size range, provided that the periods of settling are sufficiently short. In practice, the required periods will often be so short that it is impossible to make use of this principle alone. As the time of settling increases some of the larger particles of the less dense material will catch up and then overtake the smaller particles of the denser material.If the total drag force is proportional to the velocity squared, that is to §?, then the equation of motion for a particle moving downwards under the influence of gravity may be written as: mg(1 = p/ps) — ky? gC = p/ps) — (kim) 5? b-cy Thus: or: where b = ¢(1 — p/p,).¢ = ki/m, and ky is a proportionality constant. Thus: dy/(b — cx") = at or: OS/(P? = §) = ede where f = (b/c). Integrating: (/2f) Inf + 9)/(F — SH) set + he Whens = 0, then: = =O and ky=0 Thus: (1/2) Inf + H/F — Her (FEI Her fa y=2F/+et") ys ft—2f fava elt) y= ft — (A/c) Infe* /. +67) ] + kswhen ¢ = 0, then: y=0 and ks = (1/c)In0.5 Thus: 1 — (I/e) In (0.SeF")/(1 +4") where f = (b/c)5,b = g(1—p/p,), and c=kj/m. PROBLEM 3.13 Salt, of density 2350 kg/m’, is charged to the top of a reactor containing a 3 m depth of aqueous liquid of density 1100 kg/m? and of viscosity 2 mN s/m? and the crystals must dissolve completely before reaching the bottom. If the rate of dissolution of the crystals is given by: dd 6 4 —— =3 x 10°42 x 10*u dt where d is the size of the crystal (m) at time f (s) and wu is its velocity in the fluid (m/s), calculate the maximum size of crystal which should be charged. The inertia of the particles may be neglected and the resistance force may be taken as that given by Stokes" Law (37jedu) where d is the equivalent spherical diameter of the particle. Solution See Volume 2, Example 3.5.PROBLEM 3.14 A balloon of mass 7 g is charged with hydrogen to a pressure of 104 kN/m?. The balloon is released from ground level and, as it rises, hydrogen escapes in order to maintain a = constant differential pressure of 2.7 KN/m?, under which condition the diameter of the balloon is 0.3 m. If conditions are assumed to remain isothermal at 273 K as the balloon rises, what is the ultimate height reached and how long does it take to rise through the first 3000 m? It may be assumed that the value of the Reynolds number with respect to the balloon exceeds 500 throughout and that the resistance coefficient is constant at 0.22. The inertia of the balloon may be neglected and at any moment, it may be assumed that it is rising at its equilibrium velocity.Solution Volume of balloon = (4/3)7(0.15)> = 0.0142 m>. Mass of balloon = 7 g or 0.007 kg. The upthrust = (weight of air at a pressure of P N/m?) — (weight of hydrogen at a pressure of (P + 2700) N/m?). The density of air p, at 101,300 N/m? and 273 K = (28.9/22.4) = 1.29 kg/m*, where the mean molecular mass of air is taken as 28.9 kg/kmol. The net upthrust force W on the balloon is given by: W = 9.81{0.0142[(p, P/ 101,300) — p,(2/28.9)( P + 2700)/ 101,300] — 0.007) = 0.139[0.0000127 P — 0000000881 (P + 2700) ] — 0.0687 = (0.00000164P — 0.0690) N @The balloon will stop using when W = 0, that is when: P = (0.0690/0.00000164) = 42,092 N/m?. From equation 2.43 in Volume 1, the variation of pressure with height is given by: gd +vdP =0 For isothermal conditions: v = (1/p2)(101,300/P) m° Thus: dz + [101,300/(9.81 x 1.29P)|dP =0 and, on integration: (22 — 24) = 8005 In(101,300/ P) When P = 42,092 Nim’, (z2 — z1) = 8005 In(101,300/42.092) = 7030 mThe resistance force per unit projected area R on the balloon is given by: (R/ pau?) = 0.22 or: R = 0.22p,(P/101,300)(a x 0.3°/4)(dz/dr)? N/m? = 1.98 x 10-7 P(dz/dr)? This must be equal to the net upthrust force W, given by equation (i), or: 0.00000164P — 0.0690 = (1.98 x 10-7 P)(dz/dr)* and: (dz/dt?? = (8.28 — 3.49 x 10°)/P But: z = 8005 In(101,300/P) Therefore: (dz /dt)? = 8.28 — [(3.49 x 105) e/85]/101,300 and: (dc/dt) = 1,892.41 — el 25410-* 0s‘The time taken to rise 3000 m is therefore given by: 3000 i" t= ays f dz/(2.41 — ef 25x10™% 0s 0 3000 Writing the integral as: T= f dz/(a — ¢%)°5 0 and putting: (a—e” then: dz = 2x dx/[b(a — x?)] and: T= 24ym f arpa =) va-Ja-e) Po" = (-2/0911/26/a)1| In ED) (OMh/2¢aN) In Fa) [ya — (a — 0) fa + Ya - 1) [va + Jae) Ya = Ja — 1) a =[l/JaylInal Substituting: a=241 and b=1.25 x 107+ then: 5161 In[(1.55 — 0.977) /(1.55 + 0.977) [1.55 — 1.19)/(1.55 + 1.19)] = 2816 Thus: ¢ = [2816(1/1.89)] = 1490 s (25 min) PROBLEM 3.15 A mixture of quartz and galena of densities 3700 and 9800 kg/m? respectively with a size range of 0.3 to | mm is to be separated by a sedimentation process. If Stokes’ Law is applicable, what is the minimum density required for the liquid if the particles all settle at their terminal velocities? A separating system using water as the liquid is considered in which the particles were to be allowed to settle for a series of short time intervals so that the smallest particle of galena settled a larger distance than the largest particle of quartz. What is the approximate maximum permissible settling period’?According to Stokes’ Law, the resistance force F acting on a particle of diameter d,.> settling at a velocity w in a fluid of viscosity jx is given by: F =3rpdu The viscosity of water is 1 mN s/m*. Solution For particles settling in the Stokes’ law region, equation 3.32 applies: g/d = (ea p)/(pn — p))* For separation it is necessary that a large particle of the less dense material does not overtake a small particle of the dense material, or: (1/0.3) = [(9800 — p)/(3700 — p)|°> and p = 3097 kg/m?Assuming Stokes’ law is valid, the distance travelled including the period of acceleration is given by equation 3.88: y = (b/a)t + (v/a) — (b/a?) = [(b/a7) = (v/a) |e" When the initial velocity v = 0, then: y = (b/ayt + (b/a°\(e™" = 1) where: a = 18p/d*p, (equation 3.89) and: b=g(1—p/ps) (equation 3.90) For a small particle of galena b = 9.81[1 — (1000/9800)] = 8.81 m/s? a = (18 x 1 x 1079)/[(0.3 x 1074)? x 9800] = 20.4 sFor a large particle of quartz 3 b = 9.81[1 — (1000/3700)] = 7.15 m/s? a= (18 x 1 x 1073)/[(1 « 1073)? x 3700] = 4.86 s7! In order to achieve separation, these particles must travel at least the same distance in © me 7. Thus: (8.81/20.4)t + (8.81/20.47) (e704 — 1) = (7.15/4.86)1 + (7.1 or: (0.0212 e~2°4" — 0,303 e= #86) = 1.0397 — 0.282 86?)(e' 8" — 1) and solving by trial and error: PROBLEM 3.16 A glass sphere, of diameter 6 mm and density 2600 kg/m’, falls through a layer of oil of density 900 kg/m} into water. If the oil layer is sufficiently deep for the particle to have reached its free falling velocity in the oil, how far will it have penetrated into the water before its velocity is only 1 per cent above its free falling velocity in water? It may be assumed that the force on the particle is given by Newton’s law and that the particle drag coefficient R'/pu? = 0.22.Solution The settling velocity in water is given by equation 3.25, assuming Newton’s law, or: Uy = 3dg(o. — p)/p For a solid density of 2600 kg/m* and a particle diameter of (6/1000) = 0.006 m, then: uw = (3 x 0.006 x 9.81)(2600 — 1000)/1000 and ito = 0.529 m/s The Reynolds number may now be checked taking the viscosity of water as 0.001 Ns/m?. Thus: Re’ = (0.529 x 0.006 x 1000)/0.001 = 3174 which is very much in excess of 500, which is the minimum value for Newton’s law to be applicable.The settling velocity in an oil of density 900 kg/m? is also given by equation 3.2 u3, = (3 x 0.006 x 9.81)(2600 — 900)/900 and up = 0.577 mvs. Using the nomenclature of Chapter 3 in Volume 2, a force balance on the particle in water gives: 3 = mg(1 — p/p.) — Ap}? (R'/pu’) Substituting R’/pu? = 0.22, then: g(1 — p/ps) — 0.22 Ap/m)s” = 9.81 (1 — (1000/2600)) — 0.22((7/4)d? p37) /((/6)d* p,) (1000/2600) /0.006) = 6.03 — 21.457 = 6.03 — (0.3 or from equation 3.97: = bei? Following the reasoning in Volume 2, Section 3.6.3, for downward motion, then: y= ftt (fey nd/2flftvt(f — vee] (equation 3.101)ed where f = (b/c)"5. FEU + v) + F = ve UF — vie *F"(—2 fey] = fll-{e/1+ (fF + ve"/(f — vy Thus: c = f (1 —-——__~________ ( oan) When 7 = 00: y= f = (b/c) = (6.03/21.4)°> = 0.529 m/s, as before. The initial velocity, v = 0.577 m/s. Thus: (f + v)/(f — v) = (0.529 + 0.577)/(0.529 — 0.577) = —23.04 2fe = (2 x 0.529 x 21.4) = 22.6 When (3/f) = 1.01, then: 1.01 = 1 —2/(1 — 23.04 e) and: e872 andIn equation 3.101: y = (0.529 x 0.0958) + (1/21.4) In(1/(2 x 0.529))(0.529 + 0.577) + (0.529 — 0.577) exp[—(22.6 x 0.0958)] and: y=0.048m or 48 mm PROBLEM 3.17 Two spherical particles, one of density 3000 kg/m? and diameter 20 jum, and the other of density 2000 kg/m? and diameter 30 jum start settling from rest at the same horizontal level in a liquid of density 900 kg/m? and of viscosity 3 mN s/m?. After what period of settling will the particles be again at the same horizontal level? It may be assumed that Stokes’ Law is applicable, and the effect of added mass of the liquid moved with each sphere may be ignored. Solution For motion of a sphere in the Stokes’ law region equation 3.88 is valid: y = (b/a)t + (v/a) — (b/a*) + [(b/a?) — (w/ayle™ When the initial velocity, v = 0, then: y = (b/a)t — (b/a) — e")From equation 3.89, a = 18/(d?~p,) and hence, for particle 1: a, = (18 x 3 x 1079)/[(20 x 107°)? x 3000] = 45,000 and for particle 2: a) = (18 x 3 x 10-4)/[(30 x 10-°)? x 2000] = 30,000 Similarly: b= g(l—(p/ps)) (equation 3.30) For particle 1: b, = 9.81[1 — (900/3000)] = 6.867 and for particle 2: by = 8.81[1 — (900/2000)] = 5.395 Substituting for ay, a2, by, by in equation (i), then: y) = (6.867/45,000)1 — (6.867/45,0007)(1 — e 45-0) (ii) yr = (5.395/30,000)1 — (5.395/30,0007) (1 — e770)Putting y; = y, that is equating (ii) and (iii), then: £ = 0.0002203(1 — e7*r) — 0.0001247(1 — a0) and solving by trial and error: . 81 x 107s i PROBLEM 3.18 A binary suspension consists of equal masses of spherical particles of the same shape and density whose free falling velocities in the liquid are | mm/s and 2 mm/s, respectively. The system is initially well mixed and the total volumetric concentration of solids is 0.2. As sedimentation proceeds, a sharp interface forms between the clear liquid and suspension consisting only of small particles, and a second interface separates the suspension of fines from the mixed suspension. Using a suitable model for the behaviour of the system, estimate the falling rates of the two interfaces. It may be assumed that the sedimentation. velocity 1, in a concentrated suspension of voidage e is related to the free falling velocity up of the particles by: u-/ug = 24| Solution In the mixture, the relative velocities of the particles, wp are given by: for the large particles: upp =uope"! (from equation 5.108) © and for the small particles: Ups = Use"! If the upward fluid velocity is wp m/s, then the sedimentation velocities are: for the large particles: Mer = Ugie" | — ur and for the small particles: ues = uose"™| — up Combining these equations and noting that the concentrations of large and small particles are equal then: upe =u (lL —e)/2 +Ues(1 — e)/2 = (uppe"—! —up)(1 = e)/2 + (uyse"! = up) = e)/2Thus: up = (e" "(1 —€)/2)(uor + tos) and: ucr = ugie” | —(e"'( — e)/2)(uor + us) =e! ug (1 + @)/2 ~ tes — €)/2] 0) Similarly: ucs =e" '[uos(1 + €)/2 — worl — e)/2] (ii) If, in the upper zone, the settling velocity of the fine particles and the voidage are w, and €, respectively, Neer reer eee eS 6: then: (ux /tos) = & (ii) The rate at which solids are entering the upper, single-size zone is (iter, — Wes)(1 — €)/2, per unit area, and the rate at which the zone is growing = (tex — us) Thus: (l= ey) = Wer — Wes (1 = €)/2(Uen — Us) (iv) Tn equation (i): ue = (1 — 0.297912 + 1 = 0.2)/2 — 11 = (1 = 0.2))/2) = and: ues = (1 — 0.2311 + 1 = 0.2)/2 — 2(1 — (1 — 0.2))/2) = 0.523 mm/sIn equation (iii): a (u/s 3 ” on and in equation (iv): (1 = ex) = (0.733 — 0.523)(1 — 0.8)/2(0.733 — uy) = 0.021/(0.733 — uy) (vi) SMCS) By solving equations (v) and (vi) simultaneously and, by assuming values of e, in the range 0.7-0.9, it is found that e, = 0.82, at which v, = 0.634 mm/s ee This is the settling rate of the upper interface. The settling rate of the lower interface as before: uot, = 0.733 mmsPROBLEM 3.19 What will be the terminal falling velocity of a glass sphere | mm in diameter in water if the density of glass is 2500 kg/m>? Solution For a sphere, (Rj/pu) Re? = (28/3) p(p, — pg (equation 3.34) Noting that: d=1mm or 0.001 m (= 1 mNs/m? = 0.001 Ns/m?, per water and: p = 1000 kg/m? per water then: (Rj/ uz) Reo? = [(2 x 0.0017) /(3. x 0,0017)]1000(2500 — 1000)9.81 = 9810 logo 9810 = 3.992 From Table 3.4: logy Ref, = 2.16 or: Ref = 144.5 Thus: tip = (1445 x 0.001)/(1000 x 0.001) = 0.145 m/sPROBLEM 3.20 What is the mass of a sphere of density 7500 kg/m* which has a terminal falling velocity of 0.7 mV/s in a large tank of water? Solution For a sphere diameter d, the volume = 2d*/6 = 0.524d° m* The mass of the sphere is then: m = 0.524d* x 7500 = 3926d* kg or: d = 0.0639 m™ m From equation 3.34: (2dg/3pup)(es — p)and: (Rj/puz)Re'! = [(2dg/3pur)(ps — p)Mje/duop) = [2¢(p. — pV Bp7u9) =[(2 x 9.81)(7500 — 1000) x 1 x 1077]/(3 x 1000? x 0.73) = 1.24 x 10-* From Figure 3.6: Re’ = 1800 d = 1800 /(uop) = (1800 x 1 x 10 3)/(0.7 x 1000) =2.57x 10m or 2.6mm The mass of the sphere is then: m = 3926(2.57 x 107*)° =6.6x 10 kg or 0.066 g As Re is in the Newton’s law region, it is more accurate to use: R’/puz, = 0.22 (equation 3.18)or: [2de(p, — p)I/3eu = 0.22 from which: d = pus /3g (ps — p)] = (1000 x 0.77)/[(3 x 9.81)(7500 — 1000)] 2.56x 1073 mor 2.6 mm, as before.