HUMAN MOVEMENT

2013, vol. 14(2), 116-122

THE EFFECTS OF RESISTED SPRINT TRAINING
ON SPEED PERFORMANGIIM WOMEN
doi: 10.2478/humo-2013-0013
BEATA MAKARURi *, HENRYK SOZASKI^, HUBERT MAKARUK', TOMASZ SACEWICZ^
' Biaia Podlaska Faculty of Physical Education and Sport, Jzef Pilsudski University of Physical Education, Warszawa, Poland
^ Jzef Pifsudski University of Physical Education, Warszawa, Poland
ABSTRAGT
Purpose. The main aim of the study was to examine the effects of resisted and standard sprint training on the kinematics of sprint-
running acceleration in women. Methods. Thirty-six untrained but physically active female college students were randomly
assigned to one of three groups: a running resisted training group (RTG, n = 12), a standard training group (STG, n = 12), and
a control group (CON, n = 12). All participants in the experimental groups trained three times a week for four weeks, followed
by a 1-week training break, after which they trained again for four weeks. Pre-training, post-training and detraining (three weeks
after completing the training programs) measures of mean running velocity, stride length, stride frequency, knee angle at toe
off and footstrike, ground contact time, and flight time were analyzed by a 20 m sprint test. Results. The RTG improved mean
running velocity and increased stride length and knee angle at toe off. Simultaneously, the RTG featured decreased stride
frequency and increased ground contact time. The STG demonstrated an increase in mean running velocity due to higher stride
frequency and a decrease in ground contact time. All of the measured parameters did not significantly decrease after the three-week
detraining period. The control group featured no changes. Conclusions. Both resisted and standard sprint training improves
speed in sprint-running acceleration in women by improving different sprint kinematic parameters.
Key words: speed, acceleration performance, kinematics, stride length, stride frequency
Introduction
It is speed that to a large extent determines athletic
success in sports [1]. Running speed is in a large part
determined by running form, as it determines the body's
movement as a function of time and space by the diago-
nal, cyclical stride of the lower limbs. Running stride
and therefore speed, from a mechanical point of view, is
determined by two antagonistic kinematic parameters,
stride length and stride frequency. This makes running
at the fastest speed possible only by exhibiting a com-
bination of optimum stride length and frequency. They
are not, however, constant values; the contribution of
each in creating a "golden ratio" depends on running
gait phase as well as sex, age, competitive level. It has
been suggested that stride frequency is dependent on
nerve conduction velocity and thus strongly linked to
genetic factors. Hence, research has focused more on
the second parameter - stride length - and how it can be
improved by adapting existing training techniques [2].
One of the most basic ways used to lengthen run-
ning stride is through the use of resisted training, a type
of conditioning performed by adding external load by
pulling a sled, tire, or a specially designed parachute;
resisted bands; or by running uphill or against the wind.
The greatest benefits provided by such forms of condi-
Corresponding author.
tioning are increases in the strength and power of the leg
extensor muscles at toe off, mainly in the first stage of
running - the acceleration phase [3, 4]. This relation-
ship between increasing strength and power with run-
ning velocity has been observed by many researchers
[5-7\. On the other hand, Saraslanidis [8], among others,
did not find an increase in running velocity after an
eight-week resisted running program, although meas-
urements were taken only after completing a run. In tests
carried out by Zafeiridis et al. [9], an eight-week pro-
gram led to improvements in maximum velocity during
acceleration (0-20 m) and in stride frequency, but not
stride length. Similarly, Spinks et al. [10] noted a sig-
nificant improvement in velocity when running short
distances (up to 15 m) but noted no significant changes
in stride length or frequency.
In view of the lack of clear results on the effects of
resisted sprint training on improving running velocity,
as well as a lack of research and recommendations that
take sex into account (all of the above mentioned tests
were performed only on males), the aim of present study
was to evaluate the effectiveness of resisted sprint train-
ing in women by measuring changes in running velocity
and other kinematic parameters. With this in mind,
the following research questions were formulated:
1. Does resisted running with the use of an external
load improve speed in physically active women?
2. Does the type of the sprint training program
differentiate the kinematic parameters of stride
in women?
116
HUMAN MOVEMENT
15. Makaruk, IT. So/aski, M. Makaruk, T. Sacewicz, Resisted sprint training in women
3. What are the long-term effects of resisted sprint
training when compared with standard sprint
training?
Material and methods
The research group consisted of 36 female physical
education students who did not practice professional
sports. However, in light of the participants' field of study
(8-10 h of physical activity per week), they can be speci-
fied as highly physically active individuals. The study
group was randomly divided into three sub-groups: the
first experimental group trained resisted running with
an external load (RTG, n = 12), the second trained under
normal sprint training technique (STG, M = 12), and the
third was a control group (CON, n = 12) who participated
only in the measurement sessions. Age, body height,
and body mass are presented in Table 1. All were asked
to refrain from participating in any physical activity
outside of their normal university classes. The partici-
pants were informed about the aim of the study and
research procedure, which was accepted hy the Research
Ethics Committee at Jzef Pilsudski University of Physi-
cal Education in Warsaw, Poland.
Testing
The participants' sprint performance was tested on
three separate occasions: three days before the train-
ing programs for the experimental groups were to begin
(pre-training), three days after the programs were
completed (post-training), and then three weeks later
(detraining). The test consisted of a 20-m sprint (R20),
run at the fastest speed possible. Participants began from
a standing start position with the legs in stride, the front
leg located just before the starting line and the rear leg
approximately 30 cm behind. They were checked for
proper starting posture, with a slight bend at the knees
Table 1. Characteristics of the participants
Group
Age Body height Body mass
(years) (m) (kg)
RTG (n = 12)
STG (n = 12)
GON (n = 12)
22.0 0.9
22.3 0.8
21.9 0. 7
1.67 0.07
1.66 0.06
1.68 0.08
61.5 4. 7
61.3 5.4
62.1 4.9
RTG - running resisted training group
STG - standard training group
CON - control group
and the torso slightly bent forward. All participants
performed the task in appropriate sportswear (t-shirt
and shorts).
The participants completed two trials; they were
allowed to start at their leisure, no starting command
was given. The run with the highest mean velocity was
recorded for later analysis. All tests were performed at
a track and field stadium at an ambient air tempera-
ture of 21-23 degrees Celsius with minor wind (0. 3-
0.6 m s' ), measured by an electronic anemometer
(Slandi 2000, Poland) in the direction of track. Seven
to eight min of rest was provided between trials [11]:
the first four min consisted of absolute rest, the next
three or four min were spent preparing for the run by
performing dynamic stretching exercises, each of which
were followed by shaking the leg muscles.
A warm-up prior to measurement taking was per-
formed, beginning with a low-intensity run (5 min) and
dynamic stretching exercises (7-8 min) of the most in-
volved muscle groups when sprinting, i.e., hip, knee, and
ankle extensors and flexors [12]. The rest interval be-
tween each stretching exercise was 10-15 s. After the
general warm-up, skipping exercises were performed
(1 X 20 m) and another run at submaximal intensity
(1 X 40 m). The warm up was performed while wearing
a sweatshirt and sweatpants, which were removed just
before completing the sprint test.
The sprint test (R20) was preceded by a pilot study
whose aim was to determine the reliability of the R20
test as well as calculate the external load for the partici-
pants who would take part in the resisted sprint training
program. Previous studies have suggested an optimal load
that can reduce normal running velocity by 10% [14].
For this purpose, a sled was constructed from two 70-cm
circular runners held together hy perpendicular tubing
45 cm in length. Located in the center of the sled was
a vertical shaft on which disc weights (plates) were placed.
A 5-m harness was used to connect the sled to a leather
belt worn above the hip bones. The total weight of sled
without additional plates was 3 kg. The participants
performed three runs with an external load of 5%, 7.5%,
and 10% body mass, performed in random order. The
procedure and conditions for this pilot test were the
same as when performing the Rao test. External load was
determined by multiplying body mass by the percent of
external load to be used (e.g., 5% body mass = 0.05),
subtracting the mass of the sled [15]. Based on the cri-
Figure 1. Resisted running
.- with an external load
117
HUMAN MOVEMENT
B. Makaruk, H. Sozaski, H. Makuruk, T. Sacewicz, Resisted sprint training in women
teria for selecting resisted running load (10% reduction
in mean running velocity), a weight of 7.5% of body mass
was used for eight of the participants, while for the re-
maining four a weight of 10% of body mass was used.
Kinematic analysis
Two digital cameras were used to record the sprint
trials at a sampling rate of 100 Hz; video was later ana-
lyzed using SteamPix 3.34.0 software (Norpix, Ganada).
The cameras were set perpendicularly to the track at
a distance of 24 m (Eig. 2), each filming a 10-m portion
of the track including 1 m before and 1 m after the start
and finish lines with an overlap of 2 m at the center.
Only every 3rd and 4'*' stride were considered for analysis.
Eive tracking markers were placed on the right side
of the body during measurement taking: at the height
of anterior superior iliac spine, the greater trochanter
of the femur, the lateral condyle of the tibia, the lateral
malleolus, and the 5th metatarsal [15, 16]. Later, two-
dimensional kinematic analysis of the recorded test
runs was performed using APAS-XP marker-tracking
software (Ariel Dynamics, USA). The video was scaled
with the use of a flat calibration system.
The following kinematic parameters were measured
during the tests, all of which were performed only on
the right side of the body: mean running speed (m s''),
calculated by first adding ground contact time and
flight, then having this value divide stride length [16];
stride length (m), determined by the distance from the tip
of the front shoe at toe off to the tip of the opposite
shoe at footstrike; stride frequency, calculated on the basis
of the number of steps in a certain period of time; knee
angle at toe off and footstrike, measured by the angle be-
tween the thigh and lower thigh by a straight line passing
through the greater trochanter of the femur and the
lateral condyle of the tibia and a line passing through
the lateral condyle of the tibia and lateral malleolus;
ground contact time, as the time between footstrike and
toe off; and flight time, measured as the time between
toe off by one foot until footstrike by the opposite foot.
The reliability of the above-measured parameters, deter-
mined by intraclass correlation coefficients (IGG), was
found to be high and ranged between 0.79-0.92 [13].
Sprint training programs
Due to the intensive nature of the sprint training pro-
grams, the participants in the two experimental groups
(RTG and STG) concluded a three-week compensatory
physical fitness course, held twice a week, before their
actual training programs were to begin. Average dura-
tion of each class was approximately 50 min. The course
focused on basic exercises aimed at improving sprint
Table 2. Sprint training programs implemented
by both experimental groups
(resisted and standard sprint training)
Week
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Training program
Set X repetition
X distance [m]
3 X 3 X 20
4 X 3 X 20
3 X 3 X 25
4 X 3 X 25
Rest
3 X 3 X 30
4 X 3 X 30
3 X 3 X 35
3 X 3 X 20
Rest intervals*
Set [min]
X repetition [s]
3x60
3x60
3x90
3x90
Rest
4x120
4x120
4x150
4x150
* rest provided in accordance with previous
recommendations [11]
-20-
START
CAMERA
- FINISH
Figure 2. Graphic representation of the track used to measure sprint velocity at a distance of 20 m
118
HUMAN MOVEMENT
B. Makaruk, H. Sozanski, 11. Makaruk, !. Sacevvic/., Resisted sprint training in women
performance, with particular attention placed on proper
execution. After completing the compensatory physical
fitness course, groups RTG and STG began a nine-week
speed training program (with a rest interval during the
fifth week where no training was performed) with classes
held three times per week (Tab. 2). The design of the
sprint training programs included periodization, as its
performance benefits have been scientifically verified
in a number of studies [1, 17]. The training programs
were conducted by a coach specializing in short-dis-
tance running. Time was measured with a 83520 stop-
watch (Casio, Japan). Immediately after finishing a sprint,
the participants received feedback on their time as well
as motivational support, such as "maintain the same
time" or "try to run faster". In addition, sprint technique
was continuously monitored, such as performing larger
extensions of the rear leg at the knee at toe off or main-
taining correct posture along the axis made between
the ankle and hip of the propulsive leg (at toe off). The
RTG performed all runs with the sled, whose weight
was previously calculated for each individual; the STG
ran with no external load.
Statistical analysis
The collected data were summarized as mean and
standard deviation (SD). The Shapiro-Wilk test was used
to confirm whether the variables were normally distrib-
uted. Significant differences among the analyzed stride
kinematic parameters were analyzed by a two-way re-
peated measures ANOVA. Tukey's t test was applied if
the results were statistically significant. Statistical sig-
nificance was set at p < 0.05. All statistical analysis was
performed using Statistica v. 5.1 PL software (Statsoft,
Poland).
Results
Figures 3-9 present the results as means SD for the
kinematic parameters measured during the R20 test be-
fore (pre-training) and after (post-training) the training
programs as well as three weeks after completion (de-
training). Statistical analysis found significant effects
between: group (RTG, STG, CON) x time (post-training,
post-training, and detraining), x mean running velocity
(F4.6fi = 4.92; p < 0.01), x stride length (E4.66 = 8.47; p <
0.001), X stride frequency {4,(.(,= 2.72; p < 0.05), x knee
angle at toe off (F4,;s= 3.42; p < 0.01); x knee angle at
footstrike {^,^f. = 4.42; p < 0.01). Both experimental
groups (RTG and STG) significantly increased their
mean running velocity upon completing their training
programs by 2.5% and 4.9% (p < 0.05), respectively,
with the velocity attained by the STG being significantly
higher (p < 0.05) than the control group. Mean running
velocity of both experimental groups three weeks after
completing training (detraining) did not significantly
differ (p > 0.05) from post-training velocity. For stride
Pre-training
D Post-training
B Detraining
5 4
RTG STG CON
$ - significantly different (p < 0.05) from the control group
# - significantly different (p < 0.05) from pre-training values
RTG - running resisted training group
STG - standard training group
CON - control group
Figure 3. Mean SD running velocity measured
pre-training, post-training, and three weeks
after completing training (detraining)
I Pre-training
G Post-training
B Detraining
1.40
RTG STG CON
$ - significantly different (p < 0.05) from the control group
# - significantly different (p < 0.05) from pre-training values
RTG - running resisted training group
STG - standard training group
CON - control group
Figure 4. Mean SD stride length measured pre-training,
post-training, and three weeks after completing training
(detraining)
Prc-trainlng
Post-training
IX'training
RTG STG CON
# - significantly different (p < 0.05) from pre-training values
RTG - running resisted training group
STG - standard training group
CON - control group
Figure 5. Mean SD stride frequency measured
pre-training, post-training, and three weeks
after completing training (detraining)
119
HUMAN MOVl'MKNT
1). Makariik, II. So/at'iski, i L \iak;irtik, T. .S;H:CVVCZ, Resisted sprint training in women
Pre-training
D Post-training
M Detraining
180
176
172 -i
168 1
164
160 -H
R G STG CON
# - significantly different (p < 0.05) from pre-training vaiues
RTG - running resisted training group
STG - standard training group
CON -control group
Figure 6. Mean SD knee angle at toe off measured
pre-training, post-training, and three weeks
after completing training (detraining)
Pre-training
D Post-training
Detraining
156 '
RTG STG CON
RTG - running resisted training group
STG - standard training group
CON - control group
Figure 7. Mean SD knee angle at footstrike measured
pre-training, post-training, and three weeks
after completing training (detraining)
Pre-training
D Post-training
Detraining
0.16
0.15
' 0.14 -
0.13
0.12
RI G STG CON
# - significantly different (p < 0.05) from pre-training values
RTG - running resisted training group
STG - standard training group
CON - control group
Figure 8. Mean SD ground contact time measured
pre-training, post-training, and three weeks
after completing training (detraining)
0.14
0.13
0.12 -
0.11
RTG STG CON
RTG - running resisted training group
STG - standard training group
CON - control group
Figure 9. Mean SD flight time measured pre-training,
post-training, and three weeks after completing training
(detraining)
lengtb, the only significant differences were observed
among tbe resisted training group (RTG) after com-
pleting the training program (by 5.9%; p < 0.05). In
turn, stride frequency changed significantly (p < 0.05) in
both experimental groups, for the RTG it decreased by
3.4%, while for the STG it increased by 3.3%. The RTG
featured a significant increase in knee angle at toe off at
post-training (by 2.3%; p < 0.05). Additionally, group
RTG was the only one with a significant increase in
ground contact time (by 7.2%; p < 0.05). For the control
group none of the measured parameters changed sig-
nificantly (p > 0.05).
Discussion
Tbe obtained results confirm the validity of using
resisted sprint training in increasing running speed.
The RTG, which trained for nine weeks by pulling an
external load, improved mean running speed during tbe
acceleration pbase as well as increased stride length
despite a decline in stride frequency. In addition, tbe
effects of resisted sprint training were observable even
in measurements taken tbree weeks after completing
the training program (detraining).
An improvement in running speed was also observed
in the STG, suggesting that tbis form of training -
probably due to its specificity - is also effective in im-
proving running velocity. However, tbe mechanisms
behind botb groups' velocity improvements proved to be
different. Running stride length increased only in the
RTG, which is an effect that has also been confirmed
by Delecluse [18] when studying resisted sprint training.
It is believed that increase in stride length is the result of
performing a fuller leg extension at tbe knee witb eacb
additional step, as evidenced by the increasing rise in
tbe knee angle at toe off. Some researchers believe [3] tbat
this change indicates an increase in strength among hip
and knee extensor muscles. The results of this study did
confirm the findings of Zafeiridis et al. [9] or Spinks
120
l'>. Makar uk, II. Sozanski , 11. Mcik
HUMAN MOVl-MKN r
-.isted sprint training in women
et al. [10], who did not observe any change in stride length.
It is worth mentioning that the differences in the results
between these researchers and the present study's may
stem from the use of different training techniques. Un-
fortunately, as is usual in scientific literature, details
on the types of solutions used to monitor correct tech-
nique during movement execution are rarely provided.
Therefore, if the methodology used was in fact the cause
of such a discrepancy, this could be the result of inef-
fective controls, such as when providing instructions on
extending the rear leg at the knee during toe off, this
could have lead participants to perform an even larger
bend at the knee than necessary, resulting in shorter stride
length. Furthermore, the increase in stride length as
observed in group RTG was found to be long-term, as
three weeks after completing the training program (de-
training) not only were there no decreases in stride length
when compared with post-training values, but this para-
meter was still significantly higher than when meas-
ured pre-training.
Nonetheless, not all of the effects of resisted sprint
training were positive, such as the decrease in stride
frequency. These findings are in complete discrepancy
with those by Zafeiridis et al. [9], who observed an in-
crease in stride frequency, and by Spinks et al. [10], who
observed no significant change. We believe that group
STG's decrease in stride frequency may have been the
result of increased stride length, and thus prolonged
contact with the ground due to the larger distance that
the body's center of mass needed to cross. This obser-
vation is in line with other researchers [16, 19], who
confirmed that stride length and stride frequency, de-
termined by the ground contact time as well as flight
time, are antagonistic parameters. Although shortening
ground contact time is highly desirable in sprinting, it
should be noted that longer ground contact time (within
limits) is conducive to producing more force during toe
off; this is advantageous, as Weyand et al. [20] observed,
since running velocity is determined to a great extent
by the force developed by the legs during the stance
phase and not by the speed of the legs when in flight
(swing phase).
It is highly probable that the increase in stride fre-
quency by group STG was due to shorter ground contact
time, although this result was not statistically significant
(p > 0.05). Shortened ground contact time has been
linked with increased stiffness of the muscle-tendon
unit, thus allowing for more efficient use of the extension-
contraction cycle [21], as Markovic et al. argued [22].
It also is worth emphasizing that no changes were
observed in knee angle at the moment when the foot
makes contact with the ground (footstrike) in either of
the experimental groups, which may indirectly indicate
poor technique during the forward swing phase. We as-
sumed that greater knee angle is equivalent to increased
stride length, especially in regards to the distance be-
tween the body's center of mass and the point of foot-
strike. Therefore, as this distance increases so does brak-
ing force [23], which consequently carries with it an
increased risk in straining the rear thigh muscles [24].
This type of injury is very common among individuals
who practice speed-strength sports [25].
One of the limitations of this study, besides the
small sample size and relatively short duration of the
training programs, is that only the lower limbs were sub-
jected to analysis. However, the significance of omit-
ting the upper limbs from analysis may be minimized by
taking into consideration the results of Spinks et al. [10],
who found no changes in the kinematic parameters of the
upper limbs after standard and resisted sprint training,
emphasizing the relatively minor role the upper limbs
play in improving running speed [26].
It needs to be highlighted that the implementation
of a resisted sprint training program requires carefully
research, especially during the competitive season, as
research has shown that this form of training signifi-
cantly impacts a number of kinematic parameters that
form the core of running technique, such as by lowering
stride frequency. Significant changes introduced during
the running season may lead to instable locomotor pat-
terns and thus adversely affect running times. On the
other hand, it would be desirable for future studies to
determine which solutions are suitable for developing
strength, especially when beginning training with the
use of resisted training. This is important in light of the
findings by Moira et al. [27], who noticed a decrease
in running speed and a reduction in stride frequency
(increased ground contact time and flight time) as the
result of strength training, where solutions based on
resisted training could provide an alternative to standard
strength-building exercises.
The above aspect also requires careful consideration
when choosing the correct external load. We found
that the weight used in this study (7.5% of body mass, but
also 10%) was adequate in terms of the exercise potential
of the relatively untrained, although physically active,
female students. However, depending on the desired
outcome, every situation requires an individual and
careful assessment as to best decide the most optimal
load. This includes taking into consideration not just sex,
age or physical fitness level, but also the movement and
functional specifics of a given sport and its requirements
as to speed.
Conclusions
1. The results of the present study indicate that re-
sisted sprint training in women, by pulling an external
load, improves short-distance running velocity.
2. Resisted sprint training led to increases in stride
length and completing fuller leg extensions at the knee
joint during toe off but, concomitantly, caused an de-
crease in stride frequency and increase in ground contact
time. Standard sprint training was found to increase
121
HUMAN
.o/ai'iski, 11. Makaruk, V. Snccwic/, Resisted sprint
stride frequency, without any significant changes in
stride length.
3. The long-term effects of the sprint training pro-
grams (resisted and standard) used in present study were
similar for both experimental groups. The three-week
detraining period following the completion of the train-
ing programs had no significant effect on any of the
running gait parameters.
References
1. Sozaski H., Witczak T., Starzyski T., The basis of speed
training [in Polish]. GOS, Warszawa 1999.
2. Mackata K., Kowalski P., Sprint running training [in
Polish]. AWF, Wroclaw 2007.
3. Donati A., The association between the development of
strength and speed. New Stud Athl, 1996, 2 (3), 51-58.
4. Murray A., Aitchison T.G., Ross G., Suthedand K., Watt 1.,
McLean D., Grant S., The effect of towing a range of
relative resistances on sprint performance. / Sports Sei,
2005,23 (9), 927-935, doi: 10.1080/02640410400023332.
5. Mero A., Komi P.V., Gregor R.J., Biomechanics of sprint
running. A review. Sports Med, 1992, 13 (6), 376-392,
doi: 10.2165/00007256-199213060-00002.
6. Hunter J.P, Marshall R.N., McNair P.J., Relationships
between ground reaction force impulse and kinematics
of sprint-running acceleration. J Appl Biomeeh, 2005,
21 (1), 31-43.
7. Giacci S., Di Michle R., Merni F., Kinematic analysis
of the braking and propulsion phases during the sup-
port time in sprint running. Gait Posture, 2010, 31 (2),
209-212, doi: 10.1016/j.gaitpost.2009.10.007.
8. Saraslanidis P., Training for the improvement of maxi-
mum speed: flat running or resistance training? New
Stud Athl, 2000, 15(3/4), 45-51.
9. Zafeiridis A., Saraslanidis P., Manou V., Ioakimidis P.,
Dipla K., Kellis S., The effects of resisted sled-pulling sprint
training on acceleration and maximum speed perfor-
mance. / Sports Med Phys Fitness, 2005, 45 (3), 284-290.
10. Spinks Gh.D., Murphy A.J., Spinks W.L., Lockie R.G.,
The effects of resisted sprint training on acceleration per-
formance and kinematics in soccer, rugby union, and
Australian football players. J Strength Cond Res, 2007,
21 (1), 77-85, doi:10.1519/00124278-200702000-00015.
11. Prus G., Zaj^c A., Sprint training. Practical applications
[in Polish]. Sport Wyczynowy, 1986, 2-3, 39-46.
12. Makaruk H., Makaruk B., Kdra S., Effects of warm-up
stretching exercises on sprint performance. Phys Edue
Sport, 2008, 52 (1), 23-26, doi: 10.2478/vl0030-008-
0005-7.
13. Makaruk B., Makaruk H., Sacewicz T., Makaruk T.,
Kdra S., Dlugolcka B., The accuracy and reliability of
kinematic measurements in tests measuring running
velocity [in Polish]. Pol J Sport Tourism, 2009, 16 (2),
85-92.
14. McFarlane B., Speed a basic and advanced technical model.
Traek Teehnique, 1994, 96, 4016-4020.
15. Lockie R.G., Murphy A.J., Spinks G.D., Effects of resisted
sled towing on sprint kinematics in field-sport athletes.
J Strength Cond Res, 2003, 17 (4), 760-767.
16. Paradisis G.P., Gooke G.B., The effects of sprint running
training on sloping surfaces. J Strength Cond Res, 2006,
20 (4), 767-777, doi:10.1519/R-16834.1.
17. Hauschildt M.D., Integrating high-speed treadmills into
a traditional strength and conditioning program for speed
and power sports. Strength CondJ, 2010, 32 (2), 21-32,
doi: 10.1519/SSG.0b013e3181caddd9.
18. Delecluse G.H., Influence of strength training on sprint
running performance: Gurrent findings and implications
for training. Sports Med, 1997, 24 (3), 147-156, doi:
10.2165/00007256-199724030-00001.
19. Mero A., Komi P.V., Force-, EMG-, and elasticity-velocity
relationships at submaximal, maximal and supramaximal
running speeds in sprinters. Eur J Appl Physiol Oeeup
Physiol, 1986,55 (5), 553-561, doi: 10.1007/BF00421652.
20. Weyand P.G., Sternlight D.B., Bellizzi M.J., Wright S.,
Faster top running speeds are achieved with greater
ground forces not more rapid leg movements. / Appl
Physiol, 2000, 89 (5), 1991-1999.
21. Makaruk H., Sacewicz T., Effects of plyometric training
on maximal power output and jumping ability. Hum
Mov, 2010,11 (1), 17-22, doi: 10.2478/vl0038-010-0007-l.
22. Markovic G., Jukic 1., Milanovic D., Metikos D., Effects
of sprint and plyometric training on muscle function
and athletic performance. J Srew^/j Cond Res, 2007, 21
(2), 543-49, doi:10.1519/R-19535.1.
23. Gorn R., Knudson D. Effect of elastic-cord towing on the
kinematics of the acceleration phase of sprinting./Srew^/?
Cond Res, 2003, 17 (1), 72-75.
24. Orchard J., Biomechanics of muscle strain injury. NZJ
Sports Med, 2002, 30, 92-98.
25. Witvrouw E., Danneels L., Asselman P., D'Have T., Gam-
bier D., Muscle flexibility as a risk factor for developing
muscle injuries in male professional soccer players. A pro-
spective study. Am J Sports Med, 2003, 31 (1), 41-46.
26. Hinrichs R.N., Upper extremity function in running. II:
Angular momentum considerations. IntJ Sport Biomeeh,
1987, 3, 242-263.
27. Moir G., Sanders R., Button Gh., Glaister M., The effect
of periodized resistance training on accelerative sprint
performance. Sports Biomeeh, 2007, 6 (3), 285-300, doi:
10.1080/14763140701489793.
Paper received by the Editors: October 30, 2012
Paper accepted for publication: March 18, 2013
Correspondence address
Beata Makaruk
Wydziat Wychowania Fizycznego i Sportu
w Bialej Podlaskiej
Akademia Wychowania Fizycznego
Jzefa Pitsudskiego
ul. Akademicka 2
21-500 Biata Podlaska, Poland
e-mail: [email protected]
122