PRACTICAL NO 1

AIM:~ To study soldering and desoldering of various components.

INTRODU TION:

Once a defective component needs to be isolated from the given faulty equipment, it is required to remove the defective component from the PCB & all this require a good practice of soldering & desoldering.

!O"D#RIN$ %RO #!!:

Soldering is the process of joining t o or more metals at temperature belo there melting points using filler metal !solder" having melting point belo #$%&c. 'he solder binds the metal together by chemical & physical processes. Chemically solder reacts ith small part of each metal to be joined or soldered, thus forming a ne compound. Physically the liquid solder alloy then enters the e(posed pores of the metals. Solder on cooling solidifies and forms a continuous metallic bond. )f the metals are not heated properly, solder ill not penetrate into the metal pores. *s a result solder ill solidify over the top of the pores in the metal & this result in defective joint +no n as cold solder joint

!O"D#R :

,ost of the soldering in electronics is done using tin lead alloy. Pure lead melts at -./&c here as tin melts at .-.&c and their mi(ture at 011&c hen ratio of tin & lead is 2%3#%. 'he tin lead ratio at hich the solder alloy goes directly to liquid stage is called #"# TRNONI OM%OI!ITION & resultant alloy is +no n as #UT# TI A""O&. 'his alloy is generally referred to as 2-3-/ .'he addition of antimony to this alloy increases the strength. 'he tin lead alloy is dra n into hollo ire hose centre is fi(ed ith flu(. 'his is +no n as RO!IN OR# !O"D#R. 4or general soldering 01 gauge ire solder is used.

'"U(#!:

'he soldering process requires that the surface should be totally clear so that metal to metal contact can be established. ,ost of the metals in the air form an o(ide layer hich prevents etting. 'o maintain a clean surface flu( is used. )t dissolves
0

o(ides and allo s good soldering. 'he flu( ill also assist in the transfer of heat from the soldering iron tip t the joint area. 4lu( is imbedded in solder !rosin core solder". )t is also available in paste or liquid form.
A flu) s*ould *ave t*e follo+ing properties:

0 )t must be sufficiently active at room temperature to remove o(ides. . )t must be mobile enough to allo the solder to flo at this temperature. - )t must remove fingerprints, dirt, grease etc.
Traditionally flu)es can ,e grouped as:

0. 5osin based flu(es. .. 6ater soluble flu(es. -. Solvent removable synthetic flu(es. #. 7o solid flu(es. Of these rosin based flu(es are generally used for repair rosin dissolved in some solvent. or+. 'hese consist of

TINNIN$:

'he component leads may get rusted during storage. )t ill be difficult t solder such leaded components. 'hus leads of such components or ires need to be tinned. 'inning consist of the application of the thin layer of solder to the surface of metal hich could be lead of a component or copper trac+ on PCB. T*e t+o c*ief met*ods are 8 0. 9ot dip tinning. .. :sing soldering iron. Before tinning a ire, the insulation must be removed ith ire strippers. 'he first method consists of immersing the metal surface to be tinning in to hot solder bath, after application of flu(. 'his method is not used for repair or+. ;uring repair or re or+, tinning is done using soldering iron. 4irst of all flu( is applied to the surface to be tinned.

!O"D#RIN$ IRON! :

Soldering iron is used during soldering process to supply sufficient heat to melt solder by transfer of heat from soldering iron tip. 'he tip of the soldering iron is applied to a connection hich is to be soldered . T*ere are generally t*ree classes or types of soldering irons: 0. 5esistive soldering irons. .. Soldering gun. -. 'emperature controlled soldering gun.

R#!I!TI-# !O"D#RIN$ IRON:

)t is cheapest soldering iron. 'hese can not be used for precision or+ as heat produced is in e(cess then required to melt solder. 'he e(cessive heat can be very damaging PCB,S and semiconductor devices. 'his should be used in emergency and hen used should be applied for minimum of time to prevent damage of devices due to overheating. 'his consists of a copper tip hich is heated electrically by resistive coil. 'his tip acts a heat store and heat conductor.

!O"D#RIN$ $UN
Soldering gun is used for soldering heavy iring. )t is not recommended for use on PCB<S. 'his operates on the principle of resistive heating of lo resistance copper tip. 9eavy currents flo through the copper tip. Because of the current involved corrosion of attachments nut ill result in slo or no heating of the tip. )t has trigger s itch to control the application of the a.c. po er to resistive element. 'he or+ing 'emperature s reached instantaneously.

T#M%#RATUR# ONTRO""#D !O"D#RIN$ $UN

'he soldering irons are most suited to maintenance purposes especially hen dealing ith semiconductors components hich are li+ely to be damaged by overheating. 'his iron operates much slo ly as compared to uncontrolled iron.

!#"# TION O' !O"D#RION$ IRON :

Soldering irons are available in variety of si=es, shapes and attages. )n standard iron, the input voltage is fi(ed> this resulting temperature depends on capacity of the heating unit and si=e of the tip. ?enerally, soldering irons are selected on the basis of the input attage or the tip, idling, temperature neither of these is valid criterion for matching the right to iron to the job. )deal tip or+ing temperature is defined as the temperature range bet een appo( 2%% to /%% for most electronic assembly .

!O"D#RIN$ IRON TI% "#ANIN$ 8

)ron plated tips should be cleaned hile hot ith metal brush or ith cellulose sponge ! et" and hile cold ith a ire brush to remove o(ide film. 'hese should not be cleaned ith files, sand paper or emery cloth.

D#!O"D#RIN$:

'his operation is frequently required during maintenance for replacing a component. )t consists of removal of solder from a previously soldered joint. The following techniques are often used for this purpose.

.. U!# O' D#!O"D#RIN$ %UM%

;esoldering pump is a mechanically operated, hand held desoldering tool,. 'his tool consist of a outer shaft, piston handle and release pin and 'eflon pin. )t is designed to be held and operated in one hand. 'he pump can be disassembled and cleaned as required . The step by step procedure for desoldering is8
-

7oad the pump 9eat the solder connected ith soldering iron until solder melts. 9old desoldering pump lightly against the melted solder. Press the pin to vacuum solder from connection. 5eload and repeat as necessary to clean the area of solder.

/. U!# O' D#!O"D#RIN$ 0RAID

;esoldering braid is loosely oven, flu( impregnated, stranded braid of copper ire. 'he joint to be desoldered is not heated using soldering iron. 'he braid ! ic+" is heated first. 'he solder is suc+ed into the braid due to capillary action hen it is brought near joint. 'he used portion is cut and thro n a ay. )n this method soldering iron never touches the solder so prevents over heating of components.

1. U!# O' D#!O"D#RIN$ 0U"0

'his also operates on vacuum principle. 'he rubber is simply a hollo rubber ball ith heat resistant 'eflon tip. )t can be used ith any soldering iron. 'he iron is held in one hand and used to melt the solder. 'he bulb held in second hand is then squee=ed to create vacuum. 'he tip is ne(t applied to the reheated solder. Connection action that suc+s the solder up through hollo tip into bulb.

2. U!# O' D#!O"D#RIN$ TI% AND DI% #(TRA TOR

'his method is used for desoldering )C<S. 9ere clips of the e(tractor are fi(ed over the chip and ;)P chip is applied at the other side of the PCB. *ll connection ill melt simultaneously. *s the e(tractor is spring loaded , the )C chip ill automatically come up once the solder melts.

!O"D#RIN$ D#'# T!:

'he defects can be classified according to their nature into major or minor defects. Some of the defects encountered during soldering are8 D#3#TTIN$4 )t occurs due to contaminated base metal surface. ;e etting of solder film as ater on greasy surface.

%ARTIA" 3#TTIN$4 'his is due to incomplete coverage of the surface by

solder film. 'his is usually a result of an inadequate time temperature cycle or of insufficient flu( activity.

OT5#R !O"D#RIN$ D#'# T! MA& O !O"D#RIN$ %RO #!! AR#8

UR DURIN$

@AC@SS SO7;@5 )C)C7@S B5);?)B? PO5OS)'C OD@5 9@*'@; EO)B'S

OM%ON#NT %R#%RATION AND MOUNTIN$.

Components are generally on one side of PCB. )n double sided PCB<s, the component are generally mounted usually opposite to the major conductor pattern side depending upon design. Before mounting any component it is essential to clean the surface to be soldered ith some braided cleaning tool. Component leads are bent so that component properly fit into the circuit. Bending of component should be done ith minimum stress. 'he bent leads should fit into the holes perpendicular to the board . 9ori=ontally mounted components should touch the board surface to avoid lifting of solder joint. Dertically mounted components should not be flush to the board to avoid strain on solder joint. Sealed components should be mounted in such a ay to provide a certain distance from the board as insulation coating on component is e(tended to a certain length along the leads.

PRACTICAL NO 2
AIM: To c*ec6 and measure various po+er supply voltages of pc. T*eory:
'he PC po er supply is primarily designed simply to ta+e *C from the all outlet & convert into the much lo er ;C voltages needed by the system. 6hen system shut do n, it must prevent any voltage overshoot & fluctuations so that none of sensitive circuits are e(posed to any damaging voltage fluctuation .)t must include some ay of providing cooling air flo , because of the conversion process al ays has some heat by product.

onverting A to D po+er:

'he s itching mode po er supply used in a PC is much lighter & more efficient then the more common linear mode po er supplies. Often used in the past systems, & therefore is a good choice for a po er supply. 'he first part of PC s itching po er supply is rectifier. Be(t is the s itches circuit hich chops up .the input voltage at a frequency much higher than the *C supply. 4urther more, any load fluctuation are fed bac+ to the input in such a ay as to cause s itcher circuit to adjust the input po er to the transformer so that it can maintain the output voltage to final regulator. 'he s itcher circuitry it self generate @,), hich can feed bac+ into the building *C po er & contribute to problems else here.

Output voltage supply voltage lines:

'he voltages delivered by the po er supply to the motherboard must remain stable in spite of a ide range of input *C voltage and varying load conditions

78 volt supply:
'his is the basic supply voltage for nearly allFelectronic components. 'he $D supply is no sometimes used by motors, but usually only in smaller drives, such as G..$inchH & some -.$inch drive. 'he I$D supply ires should al ays be red in any standard PC system.)f regulated voltage is adjustable, the jumpers or s itches ill probably be found near regulator circuit.

7./- po+er supply:

'his line supplies most if not all, motors in the system, from drive motor to cooling fans. Because motors often used up to $%J more po er on start up then hile running ,the I0.D supply may sho adequate operation hile running , but be in an over loaded condition during the $ seconds or so immediately .after the system or a particular drive is turned on .

4./ - po+er supply:

'his supply line is usually used for some of the same communications circuits that use I0. D line.

48 - po+er supply:
'his voltage is no longer used by any device and is retained only the purpose of bac+ ard compatibility ith the older )S* slots. Originally, this voltage as used by some ;5*, memory chips in original PC design. ,icro channel system omitted this voltage from the po er supply entirely
/

71.1- po+er supply:

Starting ith the *'A designed in 0KK$ any system ith *'A compatible po er supplies include a -.- volt supply line from the po er supply to the motherboard. Currently most CP:s & ;5*, used -.-D as ell as some PC) adapter cards.

%o+er !upply ontrol !ignals:

*lthough the primary function of the po er supply is indeed to supply clean electrical po er to systems, the po er supply also interacts ith the motherboard to perform an increasing number of functions, including CP: startup, system po er do n, voltage and temperature detection and other functions.

%o+er $ood !ignal:

'he signal is actually a logic level signal designed as a po er supply output signal to the CP: circuitry, to start the CP: running.

%o+er On:
Prior to the *'A standard, *' compatible po er supplies either had the po er s itch mounted on the bac+ or side of po er supply itself ,or had a remote s itch mounted on the front panel. 'he po er on signal ire is apart of *'A standard and carries only a lo voltage logic level signal from the motherboard to the po er supply, telling it hen to turn on and hen to turn off.

PRACTICAL NO 3
Aim: To ma6e comparative study of mot*er ,oards: 19:; 29:; %entium4I ; %entium4II; %entium4III. T*eory: %#NTIUM .

Pentium (3.1M transistors in 2 3 pin p!g." Super scalar8 multiple e(ecution units, each pipelined ith multiple stages as opposed to Super pipeline !single e(ecution unit ith several pipeline stages" Super scalar arch ith - e(ec units8 . for )nteger data !$ stages ea", 0 for 4P: !1 stages" 2# bit !1B" data bus. )nternal register si=e same as -12 and #12 ie -. bit -. bit adders bus !*-0F*-" 1 B@ !byte enable" pins !B@%, .., B@/" to access 1B data 1 ;P !;ata Parity" pins !;P%, .., ;P/" pins to errorFchec+ 1B data 02LB onFchip cache8 1LB for code, 1LB for data Cache org8 .F ay set assoc, 1LBM0.1 sets of 2#B, ea set M . lines, ea lineM-.B
K

Code cache is 5Fonly ;ata cache is 536> uses riteFthough or riteFbac+ 5eplacement policy for both caches is 75: Branch prediction predicts a branch and loads it into pipeline units ahead of time. Pentium uses #LB, and optional #,B pages. -123#12 has #LB for page si=e. :ses . sets of '7Bs8 one for code & one for data. ;ata '7B has 2# entries for #LB pages & 1 entries for #, pages. Code '7B has -. entries for #LB pages & -. entries for #, pages -123#12 has -. '7B entries. Pentium has both bursts read and burst rite.

%#NTIUM /
)s in same family !P2" as Pentium Pro e(cept it incorporates ,,A ;ual )ndependent Bus *rch. !dedicated 2#B cache bus" -.L !02LI02L " 70 cache $0.L 7. cache :p to #?B of addressable memory space. @ase of ,ultiprocessing same as in Pentium Pro.

#eature ) *ddr. lines ) +ata lines ,egister -i.es ) cl!s per bus cycle Multiple/ed *ddr'+ata0 Protected Mode0

$%$&'$$ .%b !0,B *ddr. Space 02b31b 0231 # Ces Bo

2$& .#b !02,B *ddr. space 02 0231 . Bo

3$& -.b !#?B *ddr. space" -.b -. . Bo

($& -.b !#?B *ddr. space" -.b -.b 0 via pipelining Ces. Protected to real mode s itch by soft are Ces

1irtual Memory0 Paging' segmenting0

Ces ith segmentation Segmentation only

Ces. Protected to Ces. Protected to real mode real mode s itch by requires soft are hard are resetting Ces8 5eal Ces ,odeM0,B, protected mode M 02,B Seg Only Ces

Ces

0%

Bo 2ache0

Bo

Ces. @(ternal Cache. 1LB onFchip *ddress Cache !'7B" cache for data onFchip. '7B ith -. I instructions> entries. .F ay set assoc. ith riteFthrough update

1irtual *ddress -pace Parity Pins0 Math 2oprocessor0

0#b seg. 5egs allo addr space of .0# . .-. M .#2 B M 2# 'eraBytes Bo

0#b seg. 5egs allo addr space of .0# . .-. M .#2 B M 2# 'eraBytes Bo Bo Ces. # pins one for each data byte8 ;P%, N, ;PCes. OnFchip

Bo . pins8 B5;C !Burst 5;C to ,P: and B7*S' !Burst 7ast from ,P:" ;efault

Bo

Ces. Separate -1/ chip

3/tra Pins 1irtual $%$& Mode0

Ces

Ces

4--53 8ear 4ntroduced ) transistors )pins 3/t data bus *ddress bus Phys Memory (M*9" 1irtual Memory +ata types (,eg si.e" 2ache1 (:1" 2ache2 (:2" -uperscalar )e/ec units -uper pipeline0

P36T45M 0KK-.-A 0%2 ./2# -. #?B 2#'B 1, 02, -. 02LB !1L code, 1L data" @(ternal .F ay Bo !$ stages"

P36T45M P,7 (P& code name" 0KK$ $.$A0%2 -1/ 2# -2 2#?B 2#'B 1, 02, -. 02LB !1L code, 1L data" On same p+g, but different die !.$2LB3$0.LB" -F ay $ Ces !0. stages. ;ue to instructions being bro+en into 5)SCFli+e pieces called
00

micro Ops. ;ranch Prediction Ces Bo Ces Ces. 6ith results stored in temporary regs. 'hey are released as needed. Can go .%F-% instructions deep. 5etire :nit provides results in programmer visible regs !eg. @*A, @BA," yes

7ut<of<7rder 3/ec

3ase of Multiprocessing

Bo

PRACTICAL NO (
Aim: !tudy t*e various ca,les; connections and parts used in computer communication. T*eory: Male vs. 'emale onnector: )<m not going too far into this, but a male
connector is the side of a connection that has the prongsFFli+e the po er plug on your computer monitor. 'he side that goes from your monitor into the all is the male. 'he outlet is the female side of the connector. D0: 'his term you ill see in the conte(t of ;BF.$ or ;BFK. 6hat this is describing is the shape of the connector. 'he connector has a definite shape li+e a capital ; !also could be called a trape=oid ith rounded angles".

Bo letOs ta+e a loo+ at some of the various cable types.

!erial %ort
-tandard 2onnector 6ame Transfer mode : 5SF.-. : ;BFK !most common" sometimes ;BF .$ : *synchronous
0.

-ometimes called 6umber found on a system 4,= 4'7 range Ma/ length Ma/ data rate 6ormally used with

: CO, ports : . possible of # : -!Com 0&-" and #!Com .&#" : CO, 0M%-f1F%-ff CO, .M%.f1F%.ff CO, -M-@1F-@4 and CO, : $% feet : 0.$ ,bps ! ith 02$$%* :*5'" : 'his is normally seen on older mice and modems. ' o computers can be net or+ed together using a null modem cable. 'his is a serial cable that has its send and receive crossed over so the . computers are not trying to send information to the otherOs send port.

%arallel %ort
-tandard 2onnector 6ame Transfer mode -ometimes called 6umber found on a system Ma/ length Ma/ data rate 6ormally seen on :SB. : )@@@F0.1# : ;BF.$!on PC", Centronics : Synchronous : 7P' : 0 !up to ." : 0% ,eters !appro(. -% feet" absolute ,a(imum : # ,bps : Cou usually see this on printers and scanners. 'his is being replaced ith

DIN :
2onnector 6ame -ometimes called mini 6umber found on a system : +46 & (& pin" : PS3. port, ,ouse port, +eyboard port, ;)B 2 :.

DIN 8
2onnector 6ame Transfer mode -ometimes called 6umber found on a system 4,= : ;)B $ : B3* : old +eyboard connector :0 :0

U!0 ...
0-

-tandard 2onnector 6ame Transfer mode 6umber found on a system Ma/imum number of +e>ices 4,= Ma/ length Ma/ data rate Power

: :SB 0.0 !by :SBF)4" 8 :SB *3B 8 *synchronous 8 .F$ 8 0./ 8 00 8 -F$ meters 8 0. ,bit3sec !0.$ ,B3sec" 8 ..$

#eatures8 'o connect many devices, you can use a :SB hub. 'his is a bo( that you connect into your computer through one of your :SB ports and then you can plug many other devices into it. *lso, the speed of each :SB chain is shared bet een all devices on that chain. So the more devices you have operating at once, the slo er they all ill go.

U!0 /
-tandard 2onnector 6ame Transfer mode -ometimes called 6umber found on a system 4,= Power : :SB . !by :SBF)4" : :SB : *synchronous : :SB . : Still being determined : 00 : ..$

'ire+ire <I###4.1=2>
-tandard 2onnector 6ame Transfer mode -ometimes called : )@@@F0-K# : )@@@F0-K# * B : *synchronous3)sosynchronous : 4ire ire, )@@@F0-K# or i7in+ !*pple computers has trademar+ed the term G4ire ire.H So, if you see it called that, someone is paying for that ability. i7in+ is hat Sony calls )@@@F0-K#". :. : #.$m !bet een devices" : 0%%,bps, .%%,bps, #%%,bps !0..$,B3sec .$$,B3sec $%%,B3sec". ,ost computers support #%%,bps but devices are only .%%,bps : 2-

6umber found on a system Ma/ length Ma/ data rate most Ma/ ) of de>ices

0#

#eatures: Some on the added features are that you do not need a PC to connect them together. Cou could conceivably have a video camera connected to a ;D;F5 and burn your movies ithout needing a computer connected to it. 'hey can tal+ to one another ithout using up the band ith to the computer and bac+. Cou can daisy chain them together so there is no need for a hub as in :SB. *lso there is more po er supplied. So, for e(ample, you have enough to have a hard dis+ drive running ithout po er coming from the all. Some companies have set it up so you can connect an ,P- player to your computer using )@@@F0-K# and transfer the data plus recharge the playerOs internal batteries off the fire ire cable.

-ideo
)n this section e are not so orried about things li+e transfer rates and )5Ps. 'he monitor ill only refresh so fast and )5Ps ould affect your video board not your monitor. 'he point of this part is so that you can intelligently find and tal+ about these. -tandard 2onnector 6ame : D?* !Dideo ?raphics *rray" : ;BF0$

?uic6 recognition on a computer:

'his is our old standby and by far the most common of our video connectors. )t is easy to find. )t is the only small threeFro ed ;B connector e ill find on a PC. )t is usually a ay from the other connectors because it is on a replaceable card. 'here are, ho ever, motherboards that do have video built in. )f so, then this connector ill be close to the other connectors.

%o+er
'he po er connector is almost completely standard. 'his loo+s almost e(actly li+e an e(tension cord ith the e(ception of the ground being a slot instead of a round hole. Bot much more to say. ,a+e sure that the po er s itch on the bac+ of your computer is set for the correct voltage !00$ or .-%" for your location. Be careful ith laptops and some ne er *pple ,acintosh computers that may have different loo+ing po er connectors on the computer.

Mini@ac6
2onnector 6ame -ometimes called 6umber found on a system Telephone cable 'he : 031 minijac+ : headphone jac+ : 0F$ : 5EF00 is a common telephone cable. end is called an 5EF00 connector and the cable is called category 0 !Cat 0".
0$

#t*ernet ca,le
-tandard 2onnector 6ame Transfer mode -ometimes called : Conectors @)*3')* $21a3b Cables Category -, #, $ or $e : 5EF#$ : Serial : :nshielded t isted pair !:'P" Shielded t isted pair !S'P just :'P ith some more shielding", 0%Base', 0%%Base', 0%%%Base'.Crossover cable : 0 !sometimes more" : 6ould be assigned to the Bet or+ interface card. : 0%% meters !-.1 ft." : 0 ,eter !- ft." : 0%30%%30%%% ,bp3sec

6umber found on a system 4,= Ma/ length Min length Ma/ data rate

'here is also a PlenumFgrade @thernet cable. 'his is a cable that is necessary for fire code. 'he issue is that if there is a fire and the PDC outer coating of nonFPlenum grade cable catches on fire, it ill release deadly gasses. )n that case, if you have an enterprise grade net or+ here you have literally thousands of these cables running through the alls, this can cause deadly results in a fire. Before iring a building, chec+ ith the 4ire ,arshall about needing this cable.

! !I
2onnector 6ame Centronics Pin, and 6umber found on a system the Ma/ length the Ma/ data rate ?% Pin 2entronics : ;B.$, );C$%, Centronics $%, 9;)-%, ;B$%, 9P;B$%, 9P;B21, 9P 2%, 9P Centronics 21, SC* 1%F D9;C)21 : SCS) devices can be daisy chained, so number connected to a system ill vary : 0.$ meters to .$ meters depending on type : -2% ,B3sec ma( 8 'his is connector is at the device end of some peripherals

2? Pin + -ub8 'his one you have to loo+ out for. Cou can plug a parallel connector into this and they ill match up perfectly. But this is found on an *pple ,acintosh. 'o help you out, you ill not find a parallel connector on a ,ac ma+ing this easy. )f you are or+ing on a ,ac, it is a SCS) interface not a parallel connector. +;<?%8
02

'his is a rare connector that has - ro s of pins. )t as used on 9P and ;@C computers. )t is not very common. ?% Pin Micro+ (@igh +ensity"8 'his is a connector that has . ro s of squared off holes. )t is used on 1Fbit fast SCS). &$ Pin Micro+8 'his loo+s li+e the $% Pin ,icro; but longer and ith more pins. 'his interface is used on all SCS) 6ide connectors.

PRACTICAL NO ?
AIM: To study various cards used in a system. DI!%"A& ARD :4

T*ree components in a video card 'he video card is just as important as the screen Q and more often overloo+ed. ;uring the years 0KKKF.%%0 the overall quality of video adapters has been improved. @arlier there ere some very lousy products in the mar+et. 4ollo my articles to +no more of the video adapter. * video card is typically an adapter, a removable e(pansion card in the PC. 'hus, it can be replaced. 'he video card can also be an integral part of the system board this is the case in certain brands of PCs and is al ays the case in lap tops. ) have a clear preference for a replaceable video card in my stationary PC. 9o ever modern motherboard may include good integrated video chip sets. Cou just have to +no hich onesR 5egardless of hether it is replaceable or integrated, the video adapter consists of three components8
0/

 * >ideo chip set of some brand !*'), ,atro(, Bvidia, S-, )ntel, to name some of the better +no n". 'he video chip creates the signals, hich the screen must receive to form an image. Some +ind of ,*M !@;O, S?5*,, or D5*,, hich are all variations of the regular 5*,". ,emory is necessary, since the video card must be able to remember a complete screen image at any time. :sing *?P, the video card may use the main memory of the motherboard. * ,*M+*2 F a chip converting digital3analog signals. :sing 4lat panel monitors, you do not need a the function of a 5*,;*C. Dideo cards al ays have a certain amount of 5*,. 'his 5*, is also called t*e frame ,uffer. 'oday video cards hold plenty of 5*,, but before it as more important8 9o much 5*,S 'hat is significant for color depth at the highest resolutions. 6hich type 5*,S 'his is significant for card speed. Dideo card 5*, is necessary to +eep the entire screen image in memory. 'he CP: sends its data to the video card. 'he video processor forms a picture of the screen image and stores it in the frame buffer. 'his picture is a large bit map. )t is used to continually update the screen image.

T*e Amount of RAM

Older video cards ere typically available ith 0, ., # or more ,B 5*,. 9o much is necessaryS 'hat depends primarily on ho fine a resolution you ant on your screen. 4or ordinary .; use, 02 bit colors are Tgood enough.T 7et us loo+ at 5*, needs for different resolutions8 Bote that the video 5*, is not utili.ed 1%%A for the bit map. 'herefore, 1 M; is not enough to sho a $%% / &%% picture ith 1& bit colors, as the above calculation could lead you to believe. 'oday video cards come ith ( M;B $ M; or more ,*M. :sing ordinary 5*,, you sa speed improvements of the graphics card using ( M; instead of 2 M;B if the resolution only as $%% / &%% or 1%2( / &$. )n this case data can be ritten to and read from the 5*, simultaneously F using different 5*, cells. 6ith only . ,B 5*,, data sometime had to ait for a free cell.

!OUND ARD!:4
Sound cards have a minimum of four tas+s. 'hey function as8 T*e synt*esiAer 'he synthesi=er delivers the sound. 'hat is, the sound card generates the sounds. 9ere e have three systems8
01

 4, synthesis, 4requency ,odulation 6ave table Physical modeling T*e ABD conversion: Cou need a *3; conversion, hen analog sound signals are recorded, i.e. from a microphone. 'he other ay around, the ;3*Fconverter is used hen the digital sounds have to be reproduced into a signal for the spea+ers amplifier.'he acoustic aves are collected by the microphone and lead to the sound card. 9ere it is converted into series of digital pulses, hich eventually are saved in a file. 'his ay a sampling is an analogFtoFdigital conversion8 !ampling *s mentioned is the basic concept of digital recording of sound is called sampling. Cou can record any sound you ant into a sample !a 6av file" if you have a sound card and a microphone. 'he sampling can be done in various qualities8 1 bit or 02 bit sampling 00, .. or ## L9= !+ilohert=" Stereo or mono 'he number of +ilohert= tells ho be recorded. many thousand times per second the sound ill

"AN ARD! :4

7*B card is used in net or+ing. )t accepts the analog signal from one pc and transfers it to another through a cable. 'his cable is generally t isted pair or category $. 7*B card or+s on the voltage of C12 volts it mount in the t o slots, in the latest configuration these are mounted in the PC) slots, on the receiving end it receive the data in the analog form and convert it into the equivalent digital form hich ill be stored in the buffer of the system. 'he connector of the cable generally in round shape female connector the data transfer speed of the 7*B card generally vary according to the models. 'he cloc+ used by the 7*B card control on its o n level.

0K

PRACTICAL NO 6

AIM: To remove; study and replace floppy dis6 drive. T*eory:

'he floppy dis+ drive !4;;" as the primary means of adding data to a computer until the C;F5O, drive became popular. )n fact, 4;;s have been a +ey component of most personal computers for more than .% years. Basically, a floppy dis+ drive reads and rites data to a small, circular piece of metalFcoated plastic similar to audio cassette tape. Dery fe PCOs are ithout a floppy drive. ;is+ettes ere developed as a lo cost alternative to hard dis+s. )n the 2%Os and /%Os, hen hard dis+ prices ere e(orbitant, it as unthin+able to use them in anything but mainframe and mini
.%

computers. 'he first dis+ettes ere introduced in 0K/0. 'hey ere 1T diameter plastic dis+s ith a magnetic coating, enclosed in a cardboard case. 'hey had a capacity of one megabyte. 'he dis+ettes are placed in a drive, hich has read and rite heads. Conversely to hard dis+s, the heads actually touch the dis+, li+e in a cassette or video player. 'his ears the media. 7ater, in 0K/2, $..$T dis+ettes ere introduced. 'hey had far less capacity !only 02% LB to begin ith". 9o ever, they ere ine(pensive and easy to or+ ith. 4or many years, they ere the standard in PCOs. 7i+e the 1T dis+ettes, the $..$T ere soft and fle(ible. 'herefore, they ere named floppy disks. )n 0K1/ )B,Os revolutionary PS3. PCOs ere introduced and ith them the -UT hard dis+ettes e +no today. 'hese dis+ettes have a thinner magnetic coating, allo ing more trac+s on a smaller surface. 'he trac+ density is measured in 'P) !trac+s per inch". 'he 'P) has been increased from #1 to K2 and no 0-$ in the -.$T dis+ettes. 9ere e see the standard PC dis+ette configurations8 ;is+ette si=e $..$T Single side $..$T ;ouble side $..$T ;ouble side 9igh ;ensity -.$T ;; -.$T 9; -.$T A; ! )B, only" Bame S;1 ;;K ;P0$ 'rac+s per side #% #% 1% Bumber of sectors per trac+s 1 K 0$ Capacity #% A 1 A $0. bytes M 02% LB . A #% A K A $0. bytes M -2% LB . A 1% A 0$ A $0. bytes M 0.. ,B . A 1% A K A $0. bytes M /.% LB . A 1% A 01 A $0. bytes M 0.## ,B . A 1% A -2 A $0. bytes M ..11 ,B

;PK ;P01 ;?-2

1% 1% 1%

K 01 -2

;is+ette drives turn at -%% 5P,. 'hat results in an average search time !U revolutions" of 0%% ms.

T*e floppy controller

*ll dis+ette drives are governed by a controller. 'he original PC controller as named B@C P;/2$. 'oday, it is included in the chip set, but functions li+e a /2$.
.0

)t is a programmable chip. )t can be programmed to handle all the various floppy drive types8 $..$T or -.$T drives, ;; or 9; etc. 'he controller has to be programmed at each start up. )t must be told hich drives to control. 'his programming is performed by the start up programs in 5O, !read module .a". So you donOt have to identify available drive types at each start up, these drive parameters are saved in C,OS 5*,. 'he floppy controller reads data from the dis+ette media in serial mode !one bit at a time li+e from hard dis+s". ;ata are delivered in parallel mode !02 bits at a time" to 5*, via a ;,* channel. 'hus, the drives should be able to operate ithout CP: supervision. 9o ever, in reality this does not al ays or+. ;ata transfer from a dis+ette drive can delay and sometimes free=e the hole PC, so no other operations can be performed simultaneously.

%arts of a 'loppy Dis6 Drive:

T*e Dis6
1. * floppy dis+ is a thin plastic base material coated ith iron o(ide. 'his o(ide is a ferromagnetic material, meaning that if it is e(posed to a magnetic field it is permanently magneti=ed by the field. 2. )t can record information instantly. 3. )t can be erased and reused many times. (. 'hese are very ine(pensive and easy to use.

T*e Drive:4 'he major parts of a 4;; include8

,ead'Drite @eads: 7ocated on both sides of a dis+ette, they move together on the same assembly. 'he heads are not directly opposite each other in an effort to prevent interaction bet een rite operations on each of the t o media surfaces. 'he same head is used for reading and riting, hile a second, ider head is used for erasing a trac+ just prior to it being ritten. 'his allo s the data to be ritten on a ider Tclean slate,T ithout interfering ith the analog data on an adjacent trac+. +ri>e Motor: * very small spindle motor engages the metal hub at the center of the dis+ette, spinning it at either -%% or -2% rotations per minute !5P,".

..

-tepper Motor: 'his motor ma+es a precise number of stepped revolutions to move the read3 rite head assembly to the proper trac+ position. 'he read3 rite head assembly is fastened to the stepper motor shaft. Mechanical #rame: * system of levers that opens the little protective indo on the dis+ette to allo the read3 rite heads to touch the dualFsided dis+ette media. *n e(ternal button allo s the dis+ette to be ejected, at hich point the springF loaded protective indo on the dis+ette closes. 2ircuit ;oard: Contains all of the electronics to handle the data read from or ritten to the dis+ette. )t also controls the stepperFmotor control circuits used to move the read3 rite heads to each trac+, as ell as the movement of the read3 rite heads to ard the dis+ette surface.

Tools &ou May Need :

;epending on the design of you computer, you may need the follo ing tools to complete the installation * 4lat blade scre driver * Phillips scre driver BeedleFnosed pliers

5andling t*e ..22C 'loppy Drive :

Cour 0.## drive must be handled ith care. *void applying undue force or abnormal strain to the spindle motor, stepping motor or printed circuit board. *void placing your fingers on the printed circuit board. )t is best to hold the 0.## drive by the diecast frame, as indicated by the arro s in 4igure *. Bever loosen the fi(ing scre of the printed circuit board, etc.

Applications:

4loppy dis+s, hile rarely used to distribute soft are !as in the past", are still used in these applications8 0. 4or soft are recovery after a system crash or a virus attac+ .. 6hen data from one computer is needed on a second computer and the t o computers are not net or+ed. -. )n bootable dis+ettes used for updating the B)OS on a personal computer #. )n highFdensity form, used in the popular Vip drive.

%rocedure:

0. S itch off the main po er supply. .. 'a+e out the data bus & the po er supply from the 4;;, gently. -. :nscre the 4;; & ta+e it out ith e(treme care.
.-

#. Bo put the 4;; bac+ in & scre up. $. Plug in the data bus & po er supply & ma+e sure that the connections are precise.

PRACTICAL NO
AIM: To remove; study and replace 5ard dis6 drive.

.#

T*eory:

9ard dis+s ere invented in the 0K$%s. 9ard dis+s have a hard platter that holds the magnetic medium, as opposed to the fle(ible plastic film found in tapes and floppies. *t the simplest level, a hard dis+ is not that different from a cassette tape. Both hard dis+s and cassette tapes use the same magnetic recording techniques. 9ard dis+s and cassette tapes also share the major benefits of magnetic storage FF the magnetic medium can be easily erased and re ritten, and it ill TrememberT the magnetic flu( patterns stored onto the medium for many years. * modern hard dis+ is able to store an ama=ing amount of information in a small space. * hard dis+ can also access any of its information in a fraction of a second. * typical des+top machine ill have a hard dis+ ith a capacity of bet een 0% and #% gigabytes. ;ata is stored onto the dis+ in the form of files. * file is simply a named collection of bytes. 'he bytes might be the *SC)) codes for the characters of a te(t file, or they could be the instructions of a soft are application for the computer to e(ecute, or they could be the records of a data base, or they could be the pi(el colors for a ?)4 image. Bo matter hat it contains, ho ever, a file is simply a string of bytes. 6hen a program running on the computer requests a file, the hard dis+ retrieves its bytes and sends them to the CP: one at a time. There are two ways to measure the performance of a hard dis!: +ata rate F 'he data rate is the number of bytes per second that the drive can deliver to the CP:. 5ates bet een $ and #% megabytes per second are common. -ee! time F 'he see+ time is the amount of time bet een hen the CP: requests a file and hen the first byte of the file is sent to the CP:. 'imes bet een 0% and .% milliseconds are common. 'he platters typically spin at -2%% or /.%% rpm hen the drive is operating. 'hese platters are manufactured to ama=ing tolerances and are mirrorFsmooth. )n order to increase the amount of information the drive can store, most hard dis+s have multiple platters. *nnotated illustration of a typical PC actuator assembly, sho ing the major components. 'he platters have been removed from the drive to provide a better vie of the actuator arms and heads. 'here are four sliders but only one of each pair is visible. 'he spindle motor is visible at the top right. 'he arm that holds the read3 rite heads is controlled by the mechanism in the upperFleft corner, and is able to move the heads from the hub to the edge of the drive. 'he arm and its movement mechanism are e(tremely light and fast. 'he arm on a typical hardFdis+ drive can move from hub to edge and bac+ up to $% times per second. ;ata is stored on the surface of a platter in sectors and trac+s. 'rac+s are concentric circles, and sectors are pieFshaped edges on a trac+. * sector contains
.$

a fi(ed number of bytes FF for e(ample, .$2 or $0.. @ither at the drive or the operating system level, sectors are often grouped together into clusters. 'he process of lo Flevel formatting a drive establishes the trac+s and sectors on the platter. 'he starting and ending points of each sector are ritten onto the platter. 'his process prepares the drive to hold bloc+s of bytes. 9ighFlevel formatting then rites the fileFstorage structures, li+e the fileFallocation table, into the sectors. 'his process prepares the drive to hold files. 'he data bus connecting hard dis+ to the motherboard is of -. bits & -K pins. 'he po er supply from the S,PS is a # pin supply that goes into the hard dis+. Eumper settings for the various configurations of the hard dis+ are sho n belo 8

Dumper setting

);@3*'* hard dis+s are fairly standard in terms of jumpers. 'here are usually only a fe and they donOt vary greatly from drive to drive. 9ere are the jumpers you ill normally find8 +ri>e -elect8 Since there can be t o drives !master and slave" on the same );@ channel, a jumpers is normally used to tell each drive if it should function as a master or slave on the );@ channel. 4or a single drive on a channel, most manufacturers instruct that the drive be jumpered as master, hile some manufacturers !notably 6estern ;igital" have a separate setting for a single drive as opposed to a master on a channel ith a slave. 'he terms TmasterT and TslaveT are misleading since the drives really have no operational relationship. -la>e Present8 Some drives have an additional jumper that is used to tell a drive configured as master that there is also a slave drive on the *'* channel. 'his is only required for some older drives that donOt support standard master3slave );@ channel signaling. 2able -elect8 Some configurations use a special cable to determine hich drive is master and hich is slave, and hen this system is used a cable select jumper is normally enabled. -i.e ,estriction Eumper8 Some larger hard dis+ drives donOt or+ properly in older PCs that donOt have a B)OS program modern enough to recogni=e them. 'o get around this, some drives have special jumpers that, hen set, ill cause them to appear as a smaller si=e than they really are to the B)OS, for compatibility. 4or e(ample, some ..$ ?B hard dis+s have a jumper that ill cause them to appear as a ..0 ?B hard dis+ to a system that onOt support anything over ..0 ?B. 'hese are also sometimes called capacity limitation jumpers and vary from manufacturer to manufacturer. 'he most common interface for PC hard dis+s is called ID#, hich in fact stands for Integrated Drive #lectronics. 'his name is something of a misnomer today. 6hen it as introduced, );@ as distinguished from the other interfaces of the day by having the integrated electronics on the drive, instead of on the controller card plugged into the system bus li+e older interfaces. 9o ever, the term really refers to here the control logic is and not the interface itself, and since all hard dis+s today use integrated electronics the name doesnOt mean anything any more, despite the fact that everyone continues to use it. 'he other popular PC hard dis+
.2

interface today, -2-4B also uses drives that have integrated controllers. 'he more correct name for the );@ interface is AT Attac*ment or ATA.

!pindle speeds
Average Spindle Latency (Half Speed (RPM) Rotation) (ms) !"## (!)## (!,## (!/## ,!)## ,!(## *!)## +#!### +)!### +,!### $. *.+ ".* ".+ ,.$ ,." (.) .# )., ).#

Typical Current Applications %ormer standard! no& o'solete Laptops -.M Microdrive! laptops Laptops 0'solete Lo&1end -234ATA! laptops Hig51end -234ATA! Lo&1end SCSHig51end SCSHig51end SCSTop1of1t5e1line SCS-

0. .. -. #. $.

%rocedure:
S itch off the main po er supply. 'a+e out the data bus & the po er supply from the hard dis+, gently. :nscre the hard dis+ & ta+e it out ith e(treme care. Bo put the hard dis+ bac+ in & scre up. Plug in the data bus & po er supply & ma+e sure that the connections are precise.

'itting t*e 5ard Dis6 Drive

:npac+ the 9;;. ,a+e sure at this stage that you have your antiFstatic measures in place, and even briefly ma+e contact ith both hands on the metal of the case to ma+e sure. 7ocate the );@ Configuration Pins on the 9;;. 'hese can usually be found ne(t to the po er and data connections, and ill be a group of si( or eight small pins ith a small plastic OjumperO attached bet een t o of the pins. )f this is to be the only 9;; in your PC, then set this to ,aster. *lternatively, if this is to be an additional 9;; then it must be set to Slave. 'he 9ard ;rive differs from the 4loppy ;rive in that it is usually inserted from ithin the PC case. On one end of the 9ard ;rive ill be the soc+ets for
./

connecting the cables. 'his end must point into the case such that the cables can be connected later on. ?ently slide the 9ard ;rive into the bay that no holds the floppy drive above. ,ove the drive around until you find the fi(ing points and use the standard scre s to secure it. Clear any obstructions to this insertion from inside the case if necessary.

PRACTICAL NO 8

AIM: To remove; study and replace D ROM drive. T*eory: T*e Optic Medias < D ROMEs and D-D>
C; 5O, and ;D; are optic readable media, contrary to hard dis+s, floppy dis+s and tapes, hich are magnetic. 'he optic storage media are read ith a very thin and very precisely aimed laser beam. 'hey supplement the magnetic media. 'hey have clear advantages in the areas of data density and stability8 ;ata can be pac+ed much more densely in an optic media than in a magnetic media. *nd they have much longer life span. )t is presumed that a magnetic media, such as a hard dis+ or ;*' !digital audio tape" can maintain their data for a ma(imum of five years. 'he magnetism simply fades a ay in time. Conversely, the life span of optic media is counted in tens of years.

T*e ompact Dis6

.1

'he compact dis+ !C;" as introduced by Philips and Sony in 0K1% to replace 7P records. )t is a small plastic dis+ ith a reflecting metal coating, usually aluminum. ,yriadOs of tiny indentations are burned into this coating. 'hese indentations contain the music in millions of bits. 'he C; is organi=ed in trac+s. @ach trac+ is assigned a number. 'he big advantage of the C; is its highFquality music reproduction and total absence of bac+ ground noise as ell as a great dynamic. ;uring operation, the soft are in the drive can correct errors caused by such things as finger mar+s on the dis+. *ll in all, the C; is an e(cellent music storage media.

T*e D4ROM

'he C;F5O, !5ead Only ,emory" came as an e(tension of the C; in 0K1#. )n principle, the media and the drives are the same. 'he difference is in the data storage organi=ation. )n a C;F5O,, the data are stored in sectors, hich can be read independently F 7i+e from a hard dis+. 'he C;F5O, has become an important media in the PC orld. )t can hold 2$% ,B of data, and it is very ine(pensive to produce. 'oday, there are three types of C; drives and ;D; drives are on their ay8 ;rive 'ype Bame Compact ;is+ 5ead Only ,emory FF3FF 'he ;rive Can 5ead C;F5O, and C;F 5 5ead C;F5O,, C;F5 *nd C;F@ Compact ;is+ 5ecordable 5ead C;F5O, and C;F 5. 6rite once on special dis+s named C;F5 Compact ;is+ @rasable or 5ead C;F5O, and C;F Compact ;is+ 5e ritable 5. 6rite once on special dis+s named C;F@ ;igital Dersatile ;is+ 5eads all C; formats. 5andom *ccess ,emory 5ead ;D; 5O,. 5ead and rite ;D; dis+s

C;F 5O,
C;F5O, ,ultithread C;F5 C;F@ or C;F56 ;D; 5*,

7et us start by loo+ at the C;F5O, construction. 'o facilitate understanding, it ill be easiest to compare it ith other dis+ types, especially the hard dis+. 'he C;F5O, is a plastic dis+ of #.2T diameter. )t is placed in a C;F5O, drive, hich is li+e a dra er in the PC cabinet 8

.K

6hen the C;F5O, dis+ is placed in the drive, it starts to spin the dis+. )t reaches operating speed in one to t o seconds. 'hen the drive is ready to read from the dis+.

A,out Optic Data !torage

'he C;F5O, can be compared to a floppy drive, because the dis+s are removable. )t can also be compared ith a hard drive, because of similar data storage capacity. *ctually, a C;F5O, dis+ can hold up to 21% ,B of data. 'his equals the capacity of #/% floppy dis+s. 9o ever, the C; 5O, is neither a floppy nor a hard dis+R 6hile floppy and hard dis+s are magnetic media, the C;F5O, is an optic media. 'he magnetic media or+ in principle li+e an audio cassette tape player. 'hey have a read3 rite head, hich reads or rites magnetic impressions on the dis+. 'he magnetic media contains myriads of microscopic magnets, hich can be polari=ed to represent a =ero or numeral one !one bit". )n the optic readable C;F5O,, the data storage consists of millions of indentations burnt into the lacquerFcoated, lightFreflecting silver surface. 'he burnt dents reflect less light than the shiny surface. * ea+ laser beam is sent to the dis+ through a t oF ay mirror and the sensor registers the difference in light reflection from the burnt and shiny areas as =eroOs and oneOs.

Rotation speed and data transmission

'here are different generations of C;F5O, drives. 9ere you see their data. C;F5O, 'ype 0A .A #A 1A 0.AF.#A ;ata 'ransfer Speed 0$%+b3sec -%% +b3sec 2%% +b3sec 0..,B3Sec 0.1 Q -.2 ,B3Sec
5P, OutmostFinnermost 'rac+

.%%F$-% #%%F0%2% 1%%F.0.% 02%%F#.#% .#%%F2-2%

'he ne drives are .#A and -.A spin. 6hen you see their rotation speeds, you onder ho much further this technology can be advanced. 'he hard dis+ can spin at high speeds, because it operates in sealed bo(. 'he C; does not.

0. .. -. #. $.

%rocedure:
S itch off the main po er supply. 'a+e out the data bus & the po er supply from the drive, gently. :nscre the C; 5O, & ta+e it out ith e(treme care. Bo put it bac+ in the cabinet from the front & scre up. Plug in the data bus & po er supply & ma+e sure that the connections are precise.

-%

PRACTICAL NO F

AIM: To study t*e monitor; its circuitry and various presets and some elementary fault detection. MONITOR A0 s
'he monitor is a hard are device hich physically connects to your CP:. 'he monitor allo s information and current status be be visually outputted similar to a 'D. 7i+e most 'Ds the computer monitor has a C5' or Cathode 5ay 'ube hich found inside the computer monitor as illustrated in the above picture. 'he C5' is the main component and most e(pensive part ithin your computer monitor. 6ithin the C5' are three electron guns, 5ed, ?reen and Blue. @ach of these guns streams a steady flo of electrons left to right for each line of your monitor. *s the electrons hit the phosphors on the C5' the phosphor ill glo certain intensities. *s a ne line begins the guns ill then begin at the left and continue right, these guns ill repeat this process sometimes thousands of time until the screen has been completely dra n line by line. Once the phosphors on the C5' have been hit ith an electron they ill only glo for a short period of time, because of this the C5'
-0

must be refreshed hich means the process ill be repeated as e(plained above. )f the video cards refresh rate is not set high enough you may encounter a flic+er or a noticeable steady line scrolling from the top to the bottom of your screen. )f you are encountering this issue, resolutions have been described on our video card page.

DOT %IT 5

'he dot pitch is a measurement> measured in millimeters hich is the amount of space bet een the phosphors on a computer monitor screen. 'he smaller the number of dot pitches the sharper the image.

$5O!T B 0URN

)f monitors especially older C?* 3 @?* monitors are left on for long durationOs of time as the electron beams cause the phosphors to glo . )f the electron guns continue to do this for thousands of hours refreshing the same images this can cause the images to be burnt into the C5' surface causing a ghost image to appear. 'his image ill become permanently displayed on your monitor for the duration of its life.* resolution to this problem is screen savers, hich is a program hich generates a random set of images, lines or other methods of allo ing the image to not remain static hile the computer is not being used.6hile ne monitors !D?* 3 SD?*" do not have this issue screen savers are still commonly used today, you can find screen savers in our screen saver do nload section.

MONITOR ONTRO"!

'he follo ing is additional information on the li+ely monitor controls on your monitor. :sing these controls you can help improve the quality and layout of the picture on your monitor for better vie ing pleasure. Please +eep in mind that not all Monitors will ha>e all of the a>ailable buttons. Power < 'urns the monitor on 3 off. ;rightness F :sing this button or heel the user can increase and decrease the brightness on the screen. 2ontrast F :sing this button or heel can increase and decrease the amount of contrast on the screen. @ori.ontal -i.e F *llo s for the picture on the screen to be stretched to the hori=ontal edge of the monitor. 1ertical -i.e F *llo s the picture on the screen to be stretched to the vertical edges of the monitor. @ori.ontal Position F *llo s the picture to move moved hori=ontally, once in the center the user can then use the 9ori=ontal si=e to stretch it to have an equal amount of blac+ border on each side. 1ertical Position F 7i+e the 9ori=ontal Position, using this button or heel the
-.

user can move the picture up or do n to center the picture more appropriately. #ull -creen F Sets monitor to full screen +egauss F 'his button ill demagneti=e the C5' restoring possible color impurities. *fter this button has been pressed the degaussing circuit ill be activated and then deactivated after a fe seconds. Pressing and holding this button for a fe seconds may cause your computer monitor to reset all data. 2orner ' Trape.oid 2orrection F :sing this button or heel the user can either round the edges of the picture or move the picture in ard li+e an hour glass or out ards. 1ertical :inearity F Sets the idth of the vertical lines. MoirG F 5emoves or reduces the effect if any. 7-+ 2ontrols F )f the monitor contains OS; controls allo s for the OS; menus to be adjusted. Power Management F *llo s the user to define the po er management settings through the monitor itself and not the soft are. Monitor -tatus F ;isplays the current monitor settings such as refresh rate and other settings. :anguage F Sets the language on the monitor.

MINIMUM R#!O"UTION

'he si=e is an important factor of the computers running resolution. 6hen pic+ing the resolution try basing it off the monitor<s si=e for best use.

0-Finch 0$Finch 0/Finch .0Finch 5esolution 2#% ( #1% 1%% ( 2%% 0%.# ( /21 00$. ( 12#

2#% ( #1% 1%% ( 2%% 0,%.# ( /21 0,.1% ( 0,%.#

Bit map si=e ith 02 bit colors Becessary 5*, on the video card 20#,#%% bytes K2%,%%% bytes 0,$/.,12# bytes 0,KK%,2$2 bytes 0 ,B 0.$ ,B . ,B ..$ ,B - ,B # ,B

0.1% ( 0%.# .,2.0,##% bytes 02%% ( 0.%% -,1#%,%%% bytes

--

PRACTICAL NO H 1%
AIM: To study printer assem,ly and elementary fault detection of "A!#R and DM%. 5o+ "aser %rinter 3or6s
Copiers and laser printers have a lot in common. 'he major difference is in ho the image is formed on a photosensitive drum8 * copier uses a bright light and lens to focus an image of the original !actually, a strip at a time hich is scanned in most modern lo to medium performance copiers" onto the drum. *djusting the lensFtoForiginal and lensFtoFdrum distance is used to vary the reduction or magnification. * laser printer uses a lo po er sharply focused laser beam to scan one line at a time on the drum. ,odern laser printers use infraFred solid state laser diodes similar to those used in C; players and optical dis+ drives hile older ones used helium neon lasers. 7@; printers use a large array of 7@;s as the image source but are other ise similar to laser printers.

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Beyond this, copiers and laser printers are nearly identical !at least in principle" e(cept that copiers use a positive process !dar+ areas in the original result in mar+s on the paper" and laser printers commonly use a negative process !a spot of light results in a dar+ mar+ on the paper". *ll of the follo ing ta+es place as a continuous process as the drum rotates. Bote that the actual photosensitive drum in most copiers and laser printers has a circumference that is much smaller than the length of the printed page. 'herefore, only a portion fits at any given time and the charging, e(posure, transfer to the paper, cleaning, and erasing is a continuous process8 'he drumOs surface is charged to a high positive voltage !typically $ to 2 +D" by a set of charging corona ires in close pro(imity to the drum. T*e e)posure process differs for copiers and laser printers: 4or laser printers, the negative image of the page stored in the printerOs buffer memory !the laser is turned on here the print is to be blac+" is read out and scanned onto the drum one line !i.e., 03-%%th or 032%%th of an inch" at a time. 6here the light hits the drumOs surface, its resistance drops dramatically and the charge in these areas is dissipated. *t this point, a s ath of the image of your ultimate copied or printed page resides as areas of electrostatic charge on the drum. 'his is a OlatentO image and must be OdevelopedO. *s the drum continues to turn, the latent image rotates past the Odeveloper unitO hich contains a mi(ture of developer and toner. 4or the most part, developer is not really used up during the printing process but some is lost and may need to be replenished from timeFtoFtime !depends on design". ;eveloper is a material hich includes po dered iron or other po der hich is attracted by a magnet. 'oner is the actual Oin+O and consists of very finely po dered thermo plastic particles. 'hese are Ofi(edO in the fuser by literally melting the image onto the paper. ;epending on design, the developer material may be separate or actually combined ith the toner. * magnet in the developer unit hich is as long as the page is ide causes the developer along ith trapped toner to stand out follo ing its lines of force off of its long BFS pole pieces. 'his forms a +ind of brush of toner and developer material hich is in contact ith the drum as it rotates ith its latent image. Bormally, the developer material brush is CFshaped, and toner particles are carried in the CFshape !the bac+ of the OCO is against the drum". @ere is where the de>eloping processes of copiers and laser printers differ 8

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 4or copiers, the relative charges of the drum and toner are set up so that toner is dra n to the une(posed !dar+ parts of the original" portions of the drum resulting in a positive image on the paper. ;epending on the manufacturer of the machine, you may or may not have a third corona, the Oseparation coronaO. 'his is needed to separate the paper from the drum, but not disturb the toner on the paper !the separation corona is usually # or $ +D *C !if it as ;C, you ould separate the paper, but have WveryW smeared toner all over the page as to ma+e it unreadable". 'he separation corona usually has guides over it to +eep the paper from OdippingO do n too far into the corona shell. Bo that all the toner has been scraped off the drum, there is still some residual charge on the drum from the previous e(posure process. Cou canOt scrape the static charge off the drum, so the cleaned drum is no fully e(posed to a bright light to discharge the drum surface and prepare it again for a ne charge, hich comes right after the discharge lamps. 'hat is the basic process. ,any variations are possible and depending upon the machine and manufacturer, some of this may be a little different. 6here a !disposable" toner cartridge is used, many of these components are replaced ith the cartridge F typically the drum, toner itself and developer !usually combined into a single po der", developer magnet !really neatR", cleaning blades, some of the corona ires.

5o+ Dot Matri) %rinters 3or6s

@ver since the ;igital era started, the ;ot ,atri( printing method is in vogue.7i+e atom being the smallest indivisible entity in an element ,a dot in the dot matri( printing is the smallest entity. )n the digital era, the printing method evolved around . typesF)mpact and BonF)mpact Printing. )n an )mpact printing a mechanical force is e(erted on the printing media to form a character hereas in the BonFimpact printing the character formation on the media is achieved through nonFmechanical means li+e light!7aser", heat!'hermal", liquid!)n+jet"etc. )n ;otF,atri( printing, each character is divided into dots of ro s and columns and stored into computer memory. By suitably placing the dots, any character can be formed. 6ith this method just by changing the program, character shapes and si=es can be changed at ill. 'his is a major advantage over the other method that has made it so popular among the printing methods. )n multiFlinguistic countries li+e us , the same printer can be used to print in any language ith only a program change. ;otFmatri( printing method is used in both )mpact and BonF)mpact form of printing. )n the mar+et orld ide popularly +no n as ;,Ps use )mpact type of ;otF,atri( printing here as thermal printers, 7aser printers and )n+jet printers use BonF)mpact type of ;otF,atri( printing. @ven though all the above printers use dot matri( method, the acronym ;,P is
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al ays synonymous ith )mpact dotFmatri( printer because of its popularity and older technology. 'his means that nobody calls 7aser or )n+jet printers as ;,POs even though they are ;,POs. 6orld ide ;,Ps evolve around K pin and .#Fpin printer heads to form characters .'he pins are activated serially through a printer ribbon to form character on the paper.

T*e Fey specification and details of a typical DM% is as follo+s :

No of %ins K or .#. K pin is used for transactional3internal document printing here Puality is not the +ey criteria. On the other hand, .#pin ;,P offers better quality printing. $%col'13&cl 5epresents the paper si=e the printer can print F*# si=e on 1%col and *si=e on 0-2col. 3%%cps speed 5epresents the printing speed of the ;,P e(pressed in no of characters per second. Bormally speed in cps is mentioned against si=e of the character in character per inch, cpi. Push'Pull tractor 9o the continuous stationary is transported for printing in the ;,P.Push tractor is the normal one here in the tractor pushes the paper in to the printer. )n a Pull tractor printer, the tractor is situated after the print head and pulls the printer paper out of the printer. * convertible pushFpull tractor is a tractor hich can function both as push as ell as pull tractor by changing its position. ;ual tractor printers are those hich have t o tractors. ;ual tractors are usually found in multiple paper path printers, ie. front, top3rear & bottom paper paths. 4nterface Printer interfaces are Centronics parallel or 5S.-.3#.. serial or both. )t is the port through hich PC and Printer are connected thru a cable. Some printers are also have the option of :SB interface. *uto-hare Some printers ith both serial & parallel interfaces can be connected to . PCs simultaneously, one through parallel port and the other through serial port. 'he printer senses hich PC is sending data and s itches to the corresponding port. 'his feature is called *utoShare and is idely used to share 0 printer across . PCs. *utoShare is a special feature and not all printers ith both serial & parallel port come ith it. Paper Path

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'here are various ays by hich you can load3eject paper and par+ your different types of stationary on the printer for s itching bet een them. One is friction mode for cut sheets, another is tractor more for continuous sheets. 'hese can be from the rear, front, top or even bottom. ,ore the no of paths, better is the fle(ibility of the printerOs paper handling. :anguage Printing capability Bormal ;,POs understands only *SC)) and indian language standard is in )SC)).*ny non ascii character is printer as graphics in ;,P and due to this the speed of printing drops dramatically.)n language ;,P,the font of the language is built in to the printer and hence even )SC)) is printer in character mode and not in graphic mode.7anguage printers are either bilingual or multilingual.)n bilingual ;,P,one language other than english can be printed in te(t mode.)n bilingual ;,P,more than one language can be printer in te(t mode along ith english.

Fey Application areas for DM% :

Bill,)nvoice,PO printing 'ransactional document printing 7abel and Barcode printing Correspondence,Presentation and 5eport Printing ;es+top publishing :tility bills printing Fenglish and language

0. .. -. #. $. 2.

Advantages of a DM% over ot*er %rint tec*nologies :

7o est cost per pageFless than $ paisa3page ,ultiFpart printing capability in one goFtypically from . to 1 copies 7o est cost of o nership 5ugged and reliable *cceptable print quality in te(t

0. .. -. #. $.

0. .. -. #. $.

Disadvantages of DM% over ot*er %rint tec*nologies:

Bo multi color print capability Poor print quality in graphics Boisy since it is impact printer compared to laser and in+jet 5equires higher shelf space Slo er print speeds in 7etter quality printer.

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PRACTICAL NO - 11
AIM: To o,serve and study various ca,les; connections used in computer communication. 3*at is Net+or6 a,lingG

Cable is the medium through hich information usually moves from one net or+ device to another. 'here are several types of cable hich are commonly used ith 7*Bs. )n some cases, a net or+ ill utili=e only one type of cable, other net or+s ill use a variety of cable types. 'he type of cable chosen for a net or+ is related to the net or+Os topology, protocol, and si=e. :nderstanding the characteristics of different types of cable and ho they relate to other aspects of a net or+ is necessary for the development of a successful net or+.

Uns*ielded T+isted %air <UT%> a,le

' isted pair cabling comes in t o varieties8 shielded and unshielded. :nshielded t isted pair !:'P" is the most popular and is generally the best option for school net or+s .'he quality of :'P may vary from telephoneFgrade ire to e(tremely highFspeed cable. 'he cable has four pairs of ires inside the jac+et. @ach pair is t isted ith a different number of t ists per inch to help eliminate interference
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from adjacent pairs and other electrical devices. 'he tighter the t isting, the higher the supported transmission rate and the greater the cost per foot. 'he @)*3')* !@lectronic )ndustry *ssociation3'elecommunication )ndustry *ssociation" has established standards of :'P and rated five categories of ire. Buy the best cable you can afford> most schools purchase Category - or Category $. )f you are designing a 0% ,bps @thernet net or+ and are considering the cost savings of buying Category - ire instead of Category $, remember that the Category $ cable ill provide more Troom to gro T as transmission technologies increase. Both Category - and Category $ :'P have a ma(imum segment length of 0%% meters. )n 4lorida, Category $ cable is required for retrofit grants. 0%Base' refers to the specifications for unshielded t isted pair cable !Category -, #, or $" carrying @thernet signals. Category 2 is relatively ne and is used for gigabit connections.

Uns*ielded T+isted %air onnector

'he standard connector for unshielded t isted pair cabling is an 5EF#$ connector. 'his is a plastic connector that loo+s li+e a large telephoneFstyle connector !See fig. .". * slot allo s the 5EF#$ to be inserted only one ay. 5E stands for 5egistered Eac+, implying that the connector follo s a standard borro ed from the telephone industry. 'his standard designates hich ire goes ith each pin inside the connector.

ategories of Uns*ielded T+isted %air

Type Category 0 Category . Category Category # Category $ 5se Doice Only !'elephone 6ire" ;ata to # ,bps !7ocal 'al+" ;ata to 0% ,bps !@thernet" ;ata to .% ,bps !02 ,bps 'o+en 5ing" ;ata to 0%% ,bps !4ast @thernet"

!*ielded T+isted %air <!T%> a,le

* disadvantage of :'P is that it may be susceptible to radio and electrical frequency interference. Shielded t isted pair !S'P" is suitable for environments ith electrical interference> ho ever, the e(tra shielding can ma+e the cables quite bul+y. Shielded t isted pair is often used on net or+s using 'o+en 5ing topology.

oa)ial a,le
#%

Coa(ial cabling has a single copper conductor at its center. * plastic layer provides insulation bet een the center conductor and a braided metal shield !See fig. -". 'he metal shield helps to bloc+ any outside interference from fluorescent lights, motors, and other computers. *lthough coa(ial cabling is difficult to install, it is highly resistant to signal interference. )n addition, it can support greater cable lengths bet een net or+ devices than t isted pair cable. 'he t o types of coa(ial cabling are thic+ coa(ial and thin coa(ial.'hin coa(ial cable is also referred to as thinnet. 0%Base. refers to the specifications for thin coa(ial cable carrying @thernet signals. 'he . refers to the appro(imate ma(imum segment length being .%% meters. )n actual fact the ma(imum segment length is 01$ meters. 'hin coa(ial cable is popular in school net or+s, especially linear bus net or+s.'hic+ coa(ial cable is also referred to as thic+net. 0%Base$ refers to the specifications for thic+ coa(ial cable carrying @thernet signals. 'he $ refers to the ma(imum segment length being $%% meters. 'hic+ coa(ial cable has an e(tra protective plastic cover that helps +eep moisture a ay from the center conductor. 'his ma+es thic+ coa(ial a great choice hen running longer lengths in a linear bus net or+. One disadvantage of thic+ coa(ial is that it does not bend easily and is difficult to install.

oa)ial a,le onnectors

'he most common type of connector used ith coa(ial cables is the BayoneFBeillF Concelman !BBC" connector !See fig. #". ;ifferent types of adapters are available for BBC connectors, including a 'Fconnector, barrel connector, and terminator. Connectors on the cable are the ea+est points in any net or+. 'o help avoid problems ith your net or+, al ays use the BBC connectors that crimp, rather than scre , onto the cable.

'i,er Optic a,le

fiber optic cabling consists of a center glass core surrounded by several layers of protective materials !See fig. $". )t transmits light rather than electronic signals eliminating the problem of electrical interference. 'his ma+es it ideal for certain environments that contain a large amount of electrical interference4acts about fiber optic cables8 Outer insulating jac+et is made of 'eflon or PDC. Levlar fiber helps to strengthen the cable and prevent brea+age. * plastic coating is used to cushion the fiber center. Center !core" is made of glass or plastic fibers.

'i,er Optic onnector

'he most common connector used ith fiber optic cable is an S' connector. )t is barrel shaped, similar to a BBC connector. * ne er connector, the SC, is becoming more popular. )t has a squared face and is easier to connect in a confined space.

Installing a,le 4 !ome $uidelines

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6hen running cable, it is best to follo a fe simple rules8

*l ays use more cable than you need. 7eave plenty of slac+. 'est every part of a net or+ as you install it. @ven if it is brand ne , it may have problems that ill be difficult to isolate later. Stay at least - feet a ay from fluorescent light bo(es and other sources of electrical interference. )f it is necessary to run cable across the floor, cover the cable ith cable protectors. 7abel both ends of each cable. :se cable ties !not tape" to +eep cables in the same location together.

Net+or6 ommunication devices

* 7*B comprises of different communication devices across the net or+ such as the follo ing 8 ,epeater : * ;evice that amplifies and regenerates signals , so that they can travel for longer distance on the cable. ,outer : 'he basic function of the router is to route the traffic from one net or+ to another net or+ efficiently. )t provide intelligent redundancy and security required to select the optimum path. :sually routers are used for connecting remote net or+s. @ub : * typical hub is a multiFport repeater. 'he signals received at the bac+bone is regenerated and transmitted to all other ports. -witch : 'his is a device ith multiple ports hich for ards pac+ets from one port to another. )n case of 0%,bps @thernet s itch, each port supports dedicated 0%,bps band idth. @thernet s itch is fast emerging as a replacement of the traditional thic+ bac+bone and best ay to improve performance of the net or+ 3thernet 2able -ummary -pecification 1%;aseT 1%;ase2 1%;ase? 2able Type :nshielded ' isted Pair 'hin Coa(ial 'hic+ Coa(ial Ma/imum length 0%% meters 01$ meters $%% meters

#.

1%;ase# 1%%;aseT 1%%;aseT9

4iber Optic :nshielded ' isted Pair :nshielded ' isted Pair

.%%% meters 0%% meters ..% meters

PRACTICAL NO H 12
AIM: To study parts of t*e 6ey,oard and mouse.
'he part of the computer that e come into most contact ith is probably the piece that e thin+ about the least. But the !eyboard is an ama=ing piece of technology. 4or instance, did you +no that the +eyboard on a typical computer system is actually a computer itselfS *t its essence, a +eyboard is a series of s itches connected to a +eyboard matri( that monitors the state of each s itch and initiates a specific response to a change in that state

Inside t*e Fey,oard

'he processor in a +eyboard has to understand several things that are important to the utility of the +eyboard, such as8

Position of the +ey in the !ey matri/. 'he amount of bounce and ho to filter it. 'he speed at hich to transmit the typematics. 'he !ey matri/ is the grid of circuits underneath the +eys. )n all +eyboards e(cept for capaciti>e ones, each circuit is bro+en at the point belo a specific +ey. Pressing the +ey bridges the gap in the circuit, allo ing a tiny amount of current to
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flo through. 'he processor monitors the +ey matri( for signs of continuity at any point on the grid. 6hen it finds a circuit that is closed, it compares the location of that circuit on the +ey matri( to the character map. 'he character map is basically a comparison chart for the processor that tells it hat the +ey at (, y coordinates in the +ey matri( represents. )f more than one +ey is pressed at the same time, the processor chec+s to see if that combination of +eys has a designation in the character map. 4or e(ample, pressing the a +ey by itself ould result in a small letter TaT being sent to the computer. )f you press and hold do n the -hift +ey hile pressing the a +ey, the processor compares that combination ith the character map and produces a capital letter T*.T 'he character map in the +eyboard can be superseded by a different character map provided by the computer. 'his is done quite often in languages hose characters do not have @nglish equivalents. *lso, there are utilities for changing the character map from the traditional P6@5'C to ;DO5*L or another custom version. Leyboards rely on switches that cause a change in the current flo ing through the circuits in the +eyboard. 6hen the +ey presses the !ey switch against the circuit, there is usually a small amount of vibration bet een the surfaces, +no n as bounce. 'he processor in a +eyboard recogni=es that this very rapid s itching on and off is not caused by you pressing the +ey repeatedly. 'herefore, it filters all of the tiny fluctuations out of the signal and treats it as a single +ey press. )f you continue to hold do n a +ey, the processor determines that you ish to send that character repeatedly to the computer. 'his is +no n as typematics. )n this process, the delay bet een each instance of a character can normally be set in soft are, typically ranging from -% characters per second !cps" to as fe as t o cps.

Fey,oard Tec*nologies

Leyboards use a variety of s itch technologies. )t is interesting to note that e generally li+e to have some audible and tactile response to our typing on a 6ey'oard. 7e &ant to 5ear t5e 6eys 8clic68 as &e type! and &e &ant t5e 6eys to feel firm and spring 'ac6 9uic6ly as &e press t5em. Let:s ta6e a loo6 at t5ese different tec5nologies;

5ubber dome mechanical Capacitive nonFmechanical ,etal contact mechanical ,embrane mechanical 4oam element mechanical

Probably the most popular s itch technology in use today is rubber dome. )n these +eyboards, each +ey sits over a small, fle(ible rubber dome ith a hard carbon center. 6hen the +ey is pressed, a plunger on the bottom of the +ey pushes do n against the dome. 'his causes the carbon center to push do n also, until it presses against a hard flat surface beneath the +ey matri(. *s long as the +ey is held, the carbon center completes the circuit for that portion of the matri(. 6hen the +ey is released, the rubber dome springs bac+ to its original shape, forcing the +ey bac+ up to its atFrest position.
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5ubber dome s itch +eyboards are ine(pensive, have pretty good tactile response and are fairly resistant to spills and corrosion because of the rubber layer covering the +ey matri(. Membrane s itches are very similar in operation to rubber dome +eyboards. * membrane +eyboard does not have separate +eys though. )nstead, it has a single rubber sheet ith bulges for each +ey. Cou have seen membrane s itches on many devices designed for heavy industrial use or e(treme conditions. Because they offer almost no tactile response and can be some hat difficult to manipulate, these +eyboards are seldom found on normal computer systems.

'rom t*e Fey,oard to t*e omputer

*s you type, the processor in the +eyboard is analy=ing the +ey matri( and determining hat characters to send to the computer. )t maintains these characters in a buffer of t5at is usually a'out +" large. -t t5en sends t5e data in a stream to t5e computer via some type of connection.

T*e most common 6ey,oard connectors are:

$Fpin +46 (+eustche 4ndustry 6orm" connector 2Fpin )B, PS3. mini<+46 connector #Fpin connector
)nternal connector !for laptops"

MOU!#

* mouse is a hard are device hich allo s the user to control a cursor to manipulate data ithout complicated commands. 'he mouse or mice as invented by ;ouglas @nglebert in the 0K2%s, ho at the time as or+ing at the Stanford 5esearch )nstitute, hich as a thin+ tan+ sponsored by Stanford :niversity. 'he ,ouse as originally referred to as an GAFC Position )ndicator for a ;isplay SystemH. 7ater applied the mouse to its revolutionary *lto computer system in 0K/-. 9o ever because of *ltos unfortunate success as first idely used in the *pple 7isa computer. 'oday the mouse are no found on every *pple and PC computer and used ith various different ?:)s.

MOU!# T# 5NO"O$I#!

Mechanical Mice < ,echanical ,ice requires that the mouse be set on a flat surface. 'he distance and the speed of the rollers inside the mouse determines ho far the mouse cursor moves on the screen depending on the soft are configuration. 7ptical Mice < Optical ,ice require a special mouse pad hich has a grid pattern. * sensor inside the mouse determines the movement by reading the grid as the mouse passes over it hile emitting a light from an 7@; or sometimes a laser. 'his type of mouse is much more accurate than the ordinary optical mechanical mouse hich relies on the traction bet een the mouse ball and the rollers. One dra bac+ to an optical mouse is they can have problems in bright lights.

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Be Optical ,ice no longer have the disadvantages of earlier mice and are capable of being utili=ed on any surface. )n comparison to the traditional OpticalF ,echanical mouse the Optical is a much better solution for a computer mouse. 7ptical<Mechanical < 'he opticalFmechanical hybrid consists of a ball hich rolls a heel inside the mouse. 'his heel contains a circle of holes and or notches to read the 7@; by a sensor as it spins around hen the mouse is moved. 'his mouse is much more accurate than the mechanical mouse. 'his mouse is no the most commonly used mouse ith PC and ,acintosh computers.

PRACTICAL NO - 13
AIM: To Assem,le A % . .>
1.1 1.2

T*eory: 'or assem,ling t*e system follo+ t*e steps given ,elo+: Unpac6.
Open the cover the cabinet. :nscre the metal sheet on the right side of cabinet ! on to hich motherboard is to be mounted ". :npac+ all the spates from their bo(es. Collect all manuals and C;<s34loppies and other accessories provided ith the spares.

1.3 1.(

/>

Mot*er,oard.
#2

2.1 2.2 2.3 3> 3.1 3.2 3.3

Place the motherboard on the metal sheet properly and mar+ the holes hich match ith motherboard holes. 4i( the risers on the metal sheet and push the spacers in the holes o motherboard. 4i( the scre s at the proper places here you have placed risers on the motherboard.

%U Installation.
)f the CP: is of S@C type. 4i( the CP: supporting stands on either ends of the slot. Push the CP: in the slit and loc+ the CP: to the supporting stands. Connect one end of po er cable !a pair of t isted thin ire ith t o pin connectors at the both ends " to CP: fan and other end to the CP: fan connector on the motherboard . )f the CP: is of PI* !Pin grid *rray" type. :nloc+ the soc+et by lifting the loc+ing lever. Place the CP: in soc+et !match the pins ith the holes".?ently press the CP: 7oc+ the CP: in the soc+et by pushing do n the lever. *pply a thin layer if 9eat Sin+ Compound in the central portion of CP:. ! Optional but recommended". Place the coding over the CP: end lic+ it ith metal clips in the either side. Connect the po er cord to the fan.

3.1 3.2 3.3 3.( 3.? 3.&

2>
(.1 (.2

Memory Module Installation.

*l ays prefer lo er number if slit for installing memory module. 4f the ,*M is -+,*M. Eust tilt the plastic loc+ing levers out ards in the both ends of slots. Push the memory module and press firmly so that the plastic levers stand straight and lic+ the module.

If t*e RAM is #DO.

(.1 Place the module in a tilted manner in the slit and push it for ard, so that the loc+ing clips ma+e a clic+ sound. 'hen fi( the metal place in the cabinet along ith motherboard, CP:, and 5*,.

?"

'i)ing t*e connectors.

Before pushing any card or fitting an other device such as hard dis+ or floppy drive, connect the 27M1! K pin ;Ftype male " and 27M2! .$ pin ;Ftype male " connectors in their proper place. *lso connect :PT! .$ pin ;Ftype female " port connector in its proper place. *lso connect the e(tra connectors if any such as display connector !0$ pin ;Ftype female " or sound connector !line out or spea+er, line in, microphone and game port " etc. if all things are on board. 4it these connectors at the bac+ panel in such a ay that it ill not preferably come in front of the slots provided for cards i.e. in the top.
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&"

"

4it floppy dri>e in its proper place and connect the data cable and supply to the drive. )f the cabinet has a fashionable slot for floppy ensure that the drive e(actly matches the slot, chec+ this inserting and removing several times. )f you find any problem align it properly. 4it 2+<,7M in its proper place ! preferably in bottom most slab provided this ma+es it easy for operating the C;F5O, " connect data cable, po er supply and analog audio cable before tightening the scre s. 4it @ard +is! ensure that it is not too close to the S,PS ! the electrostatic field produced from the S,PS may prove fatal to 9ardF;is+ " or even do not +eep the spea+er near the 9ardF;is+! magnetic field of spea+er may damage the 9ardF;is+ ".6hile fitting the 9ardF;is+ do not tighten the scre too much. *t last push all t*e cards in proper slots. Connect all the connectors such as 9;; led, 5eset s itch, Po er led, Po er OB s itch !in case of *T9 po er supply".

$"

F"

1%" 11"

NOT#:
Dhile fitting the motherboard :< 6hile fitting the motherboard on the metal plate do not place the paper sheet belo it because the paper sheet gets heated also sheet holds electrostatic charges thus reducing the life of motherboard. Dhile fitting 2P5:< )n case of S@C type of CP: generally the CP: id placed on the motherboard in such a ay that the fan blo s air over the motherboard.

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PRACTICAL NO 1(
AIM: Trou,les*ooting of t*e printers; memories; monitors and dis6. 5ARD DRI-#! *ard

,odern );@ hard drives are among the more reliable system components, they should run for years, then fail ith a himper or a bang. ,ost of the problems that creep up ith a hard drive are actually operating system problems. Physical errors should be easy to spot ith any decent diagnostic program that runs a variety of hard drive tests !including butterfly read". 4actory lo level or TrescueT formatters ill scrub a drive and prepare it for 4;)SL no matter ho bad the soft are problems get. 'he most common reasons for returning hard drives at burnFin are> e(cessive noise, failure to allo partitioning ith 4;)SL, failure to remain 4;)SLed, and various incarnations of dead !doesnOt spin up, doesnOt see+, system reports 9;; controller failure, etc.". 'he most important thing to remember about or+ing ith );@ hard drives is to 5@CO5; '9@ B)OS '5*BS7*')OB P*5*,@'@5S *' B:)7; '),@. 'hese parameters are sometimes incorporated in the drive label. SCS) drives are set up as not present in the C,OS setup and are operated through the controller B)OS. 5ead the manual. 'he only jumpers to orry about on );@ hard drives are
#K

the ,aster3Slave jumpers, manufacturer.

hich arenOt al ays consistent even from the same

Be systems come ith an T*uto detect 9ard ;riveT option in the C,OS setup, hich ill restore the drive parameters automatically, and can be used to rediscover parameters for drives from older machines. Older hard drives are not orth repairing, due to the availability of faster, larger drives costing the same as the repair. 'he challenge ith old hard drives is trying to recover data that as never bac+ed up before recycling them as boo+ends. Old drives that spin up but donOt see+ are often stuc+ in par+. 'apping on the drive cover ith a scre driver handle may unstuc+ the heads and get the drive going long enough to get the data off. ;rives that hum or display a lit 7@; and that donOt spin up may be suffering from failure of the permanent lubrication. Often moving the machine to a arm place or even putting it in direct sunlight may get the drive going temporarily. Sometimes a drive appears to be functioning mechanically, but has had its master boot record so corrupted that dis+ utilities cannot access it. )f an identical );@ drive is available, try booting that drive and then moving the ribbon connector to the bad drive ithout po ering do n the machine. 'his may give the dis+ utility access to the data on the dis+. *s ith all Tlive po erT procedures, employ e(treme caution and atch for falling scre sR 6hen attempting any of these last ditch recovery attempts, have your bac+up media !floppy, tape, or direct computer lin+" connected and ready, because it may not or+ a second time.

MONITOR!

'he most common monitor problem is total failure, po er status 7@; fails to come on. 'his can be due to something as simple as a blo n fuse, or something serious as a popped C5'. ,ost out of arranty repairs of 0#T and under monitors, cost more than half of the holesale cost of the monitor ne , and are bac+ed by only a -% or K% day arranty. * ne SD?* B) 0#T monitor is currently about X.%% in the mail order mar+et. ,onitors over 0#T may ell be orth repairing, but this must be decided on a case by case basis. 5adical changes in screen si=e or brightness may be compensated for by hidden pots, but this ill normally require or+ing on the monitor live ith the cover off around lethal voltages. 7arger monitors may also come ith a deFgaussing s itch, hich may clear up some slo developing display problems.
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7oss of a primary color that can be attributed to the monitor electronics is one of the problems out of arranty repair may be sensible for. *bout half the problems ith ne monitors or systems that have been moved prove to be connections or electrical environment. * partially mated connector on either end of the cable can result in loss of colors or sync. * bent pin inside the connector shell can cause any problem ranging from no display to a scrolling screen. 7ong cable e(tensions can result in diminished brightness and loss of focus on the monitor. 6avy images are usually due to monitors being located near transformers, airFconditioning units, and hidden po er lines. 'roubleshooting these problems involves moving the system to another location, or sho ing that the failures coincide ith the operation of the other equipment. ,onitors that are placed close together ill often produce scan line interference on one another. )ncreasing monitor separation by a fe feet or changing their orientation ith one another ill usually clear up the problem.

TROU0"#!5OOTIN$ IN M#MOR&
M#MOR& NOT D#T# T#D:4

6hen a computer system fails to detect memory on boot up, one of t o things ill happen. @ither the spee+er ill emit a series of beeps and the system ill fail to boot, or the system ill fail to boot, or the system ill boot fine, but report an incorrect amount of memory. There may be following reasons of this type of problem !0" 'he module is not fi(ed properly into the system. !." @(pansion slots are not supporting the memory. !-" Compatibility bet een the system and the memory is not found.

DI!%"A&#D M#MOR& I! "#!!:4 )f the displayed memory is less then there may be the reason that the video memory of the system is not or+ing properly and the memory is using some part of 5*, as video memory. 'his not a major problem. )f programs are not running or running too slo ly due to insufficient 5*,, )t might be necessary to allocate a smaller amount of memory for video. Some boards allo as much as 02,B !or more" of system memory to be used for video. 'his can be a problem if the computer only has a small amount of memory to begin ith.
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