PRINCIPLES OF CONTINUUM MECHANICS

A Study of Conservation Principles with Applications

by

J. N. Reddy
Department of Mechanical Engineering Texas A&M University College Station, TX 77843-3123

Under contract to be published by

Cambridge University Press

July 2009

When even the brightest mind in our world has been trained up from childhood in a superstition of any kind, it will never be possible for that mind, in its maturity, to examine sincerely, dispassionately, and conscientiously any evidence or any circumstance which shall seem to cast a doubt upon the validity of that superstition.

Mark Twain
The fact that an opinion has been widely held is no evidence whatever that it is not utterly absurd; indeed in view of the silliness of the majority of mankind, a widespread belief is more likely to be foolish than sensible. Bertrand Russell Desire for approval and recognition is a healthy motive, but the desire to be acknowledged as better, stronger, or more intelligent than a fellow being or fellow scholar easily leads to an excessively egoistic psychological adjustment, which may become injurious for the individual and for the community.

Albert Einstein

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PREFACE

Preface
You cannot teach a man anything, you can only help him nd it within himself.

Galileo Galilei

This book is a simplied version of the authors book, An Introduction to Continuum Mechanics with Applications, published by Cambridge University Press (New York, 2008), intended for use as an undergraduate text book. As most modern technologies are no longer discipline-specic but involve multidisciplinary approaches, undergraduate engineering students should be educated to think and work in such environments. Therefore, it is necessary to introduce the subject of principles of mechanics (i.e., laws of physics applied to science and engineering systems) to undergraduate students so that they have a strong background in the basic principles common to all disciplines and be able to work at the interface of science and engineering disciplines. A rst course on principles of mechanics provides an introduction to the basic concepts of stress and strain and conservation principles, and prepares engineer-scientists for advanced courses in traditional as well as emerging elds such as biotechnology, nanotechnology, energy systems, and computational mechanics. Undergraduate students with such background may seek advanced degrees in traditional (e.g., aerospace, civil, electrical, mechanical, physics, applied mathematics) as well as interdisciplinary degrees programs (e.g., bioengineering, engineering physics, nanoscience and engineering, biomolecular engineering, and so on). There are not many books on principles of mechanics that are written keeping the undergraduate engineering or science students in mind. A vast majority of books on the subject are written for graduate students of engineering and tend to be more mathematical and too advanced to be of use for third year or senior undergraduate students. This book presents the subjects of mechanics of materials, uid mechanics, and heat transfer in unied form using the conservation principles of mechanics. It is hoped that the book, which is simple and facilitates in presenting the main concepts of the previous three courses under a unied framework. With a brief discussion of the concept of a continuum in Chapter 1, a review of vectors and tensors is presented in Chapter 2. Since the analytical language of applied sciences and engineering is mathematics, it is necessary for all students of this course to familiarize themselves with the notation and operations of vectors, matrices, and tensors that are used in the mathematical

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vii

description of physical phenomena. Readers who are familiar with the topics of this chapter may refresh or skip and go to the next chapter. The subject of kinematics, which deals with geometric changes without regard to the forces causing the deformation, is discussed in Chapter 3. Measures of engineering normal and shear strains and denitions of mathematical strains are introduced here. Both simple one-dimensional systems to as well as twodimensional continua are used to illustrate the strain and strain-rate measures introduced. In Chapter 4, the concept of stress vector and stress tensor are introduced. It is here, the readers are presented with entities that require two directions - namely, the plane on which they are measured and the direction in which they act - to specify them. Transformation equations among components of stress tensor referred to two dierent orthogonal coordinate systems are derived, and principal values and principal planes (i.e., eigenvalue problems associated with the stress tensor) are also discussed. Chapter 5 is dedicated to the derivation of the governing equations of mechanics using the conservation principles of continuum mechanics (or laws of physics). The principles of conservation of mass, linear momentum, angular momentum, and energy are presented using one-dimensional systems as well as general three-dimensional systems. The derivations are presented in invariant (i.e., independent of a coordinate system) as well as in component form. The equations resulting from these principles are those governing stress and deformation of solid bodies, stress and rate of deformation of uid elements, and transfer of heat through solid media. Thus, this chapter forms the heart of the course. Constitutive relations that connect the kinematic variables (e.g., density, temperature, deformation) to the kinetic variables (e.g., internal energy, heat ux, and stresses) are discussed in Chapter 6 for elastic materials, viscous uids, and heat transfer in solids. Chapter 7 is devoted to the application of the eld equations derived in Chapter 5 and constitutive models presented in Chapter 6 to problems of heat conduction in solids, uid mechanics (inviscid ows as well as viscous incompressible ows), diusion, and solid mechanics (e.g., bars, beams, and plane elasticity). Simple boundary-value problems are formulated and their solutions are discussed. The material presented in this chapter illustrates how physical problems are analytically formulated with the aid of the equations resulting from the conservation principles. As stated previously, the present book is an undergraduate version of the authors book An Introduction to Continuum Mechanics (Cambridge University Press, New York, 2008). The presentation herein is limited in scope when compared to the authors graduate level textbook. The major benet of a course based on this book is to present the governing equations of diverse physical phenomena from a unied point of view, namely, from the conservation principles (or laws of physics) so that students of applied science and engineering see the physical principles as well as the mathematical structure common to diverse elds. Readers interested in advanced topics may consult the authors continuum mechanics book cited above or other titles listed in references therein.

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PREFACE

The author is pleased to acknowledge the fact that the manuscript was tested with the undergraduate students in the College of Engineering at Texas A&M University as well as in the Engineering Science Programme at the National University of Singapore. The students, in general, have liked the contents and the simplicity with which the concepts are introduced and explained. They also expressed the feeling that the subject is more challenging than most at the undergraduate level but a useful prerequisite to graduate courses in engineering. The book contains so many mathematical expressions that it is hardly possible not to have typographical and other kinds of errors. The author wishes to thank in advance those who are willing to draw the authors attention to typos and errors, using the e-mail address [email protected]. J. N. Reddy College Station

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Contents

Preface 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Continuum Mechanics 1.2 Objective of the Study 1.3 Summary 2 VECTORS AND TENSORS 2.1 Motivation 2.2 Denition of a Vector 2.3 Vector Algebra 2.3.1 Unit Vector 2.3.2 Zero Vector 2.3.3 Vector Addition 2.3.4 Multiplication of a Vector by a Scalar 2.3.5 Scalar Product of Vectors 2.3.6 Vector Product 2.3.7 Triple Products of Vectors 2.3.8 Plane Area as a Vector 2.3.9 Components of a Vector 2.4 Index Notation and Summation Convention 2.4.1 Summation Convention 2.4.2 Dummy Index 2.4.3 Free Index 2.4.4 Kronecker Delta and Permutation Symbols 2.4.5 Transformation Law for Dierent Bases 2.5 Theory of Matrices 2.5.1 Denition 2.5.2 Matrix Addition and Multiplication of a Matrix by a Scalar 2.5.3 Matrix Transpose and Symmetric and Skew Symmetric Matrices 2.5.4 Matrix Multiplication 2.5.5 Inverse and Determinant of a Matrix

vi 1 1 7 7 11 11 11 12 12 12 13 14 15 16 19 21 22 25 25 25 26 26 28 31 31 32 33 33 35

2.6 Vector Calculus 2.6.1 The Del Operator 2.6.2 Divergence and Curl of a Vector 2.6.3 Cylindrical and Spherical Coordinate Systems 2.6.4 Gradient, Divergence and Curl Theorems 2.7 Tensors 2.7.1 Dyads 2.7.2 Nonion Form of a Dyad 2.7.3 Transformation of Components of a Dyad 2.7.4 Tensor Calculus 2.8 Summary Problems 3 KINEMATICS OF A CONTINUUM 3.1 Deformation and Conguration 3.2 Engineering Strains 3.2.1 Normal Strain 3.2.2 Shear Strain 3.3 General Kinematics of a Solid Continuum 3.3.1 Congurations of a Continuous Medium 3.3.2 Material and Spatial Descriptions 3.3.3 Displacement Field 3.4 Analysis of Deformation 3.4.1 Deformation Gradient Tensor 3.4.2 Various Types of Deformations 3.4.2.1 Pure dilatation 3.4.2.2 Simple extension 3.4.2.3 Simple shear 3.4.2.4 A nonhomogeneous deformation 3.4.3 Green Strain Tensor 3.4.4 Innitesimal Strain Tensor 3.4.5 Principal Values and Principal Planes of Strains 3.5 Rate of Deformation and Vorticity Tensors 3.5.1 Velocity Gradient Tensor 3.5.2 Rate of Deformation Tensor 3.5.3 Vorticity Tensor and Vorticity Vector 3.6 Compatibility Equations 3.7 Summary Problems

38 38 40 43 44 45 45 46 47 48 49 49 55 55 56 56 57 60 60 61 64 65 65 68 68 69 70 70 71 75 77 79 79 79 80 82 84 84

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4 STRESS VECTOR AND STRESS TENSOR 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Stress Vector, Stress Tensor, and Cauchys Formula 4.3 Transformation of Stress Components and Principal Stresses 4.3.1 Transformation of Stress Components 4.3.2 Principal Stresses and Principal Planes 4.4 Summary Problems 5 CONSERVATION OF MASS, MOMENTA AND ENERGY 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Conservation of Mass 5.2.1 Preliminary Discussion 5.2.2 Conservation of Mass in Spatial Description 5.2.3 Conservation of Mass in Material Description 5.2.4 Reynolds Transport Theorem 5.3 Conservation of Momenta 5.3.1 Principle of Conservation of Linear Momentum 5.3.2 Principle of Conservation of Angular Momentum 5.4 Thermodynamic Principles 5.4.1 Introduction 5.4.2 Energy Equation for One-Dimensional Flows 5.4.3 Energy Equation for a Three-Dimensional Continuum 5.5 Summary Problems 6 CONSTITUTIVE EQUATIONS 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Elastic Solids 6.2.1 Introduction 6.2.2 Generalized Hookes Law for Orthotropic Materials 6.2.3 Generalized Hookes Law for Isotropic Materials 6.3 Constitutive Equations for Fluids 6.3.1 Introduction 6.3.2 Ideal Fluids 6.3.3 Viscous Incompressible Fluids 6.4 Heat Transfer 6.4.1 General Introduction 6.4.2 Fouriers Heat Conduction Law 6.4.3 Newtons Law of Cooling 6.4.4 StefanBoltzmann Law 6.5 Summary Problems

87 91 91 100 100 102 104 105 109 109 110 110 110 115 116 117 117 132 133 133 134 137 139 140 147 147 148 148 148 151 154 154 154 154 155 155 155 156 156 157 157

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7 APPLICATIONS IN HEAT TRANSFER, FLUID MECHANICS, AND SOLID MECHANICS 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Heat Transfer 7.2.1 Governing Equation 7.2.2 Analytical Solutions of One-Dimensional Heat Transfer 7.2.2.1 Steady-State Heat Transfer in a Cooling Fin 7.2.2.2 Steady-State Heat Transfer in a Surface Insulated Rod 7.2.3 Axisymmetric Heat Conduction in a Circular Cylinder 7.2.4 Two-Dimensional Heat Transfer 7.3 Fluid Mechanics 7.3.1 Preliminary Comments 7.3.2 Summary of Equations 7.3.3 Inviscid Fluid Statics 7.3.4 Parallel Flow (Navier-Stokes Equations) 7.3.4.1 Steady ow of viscous incompressible uid between parallel plates 7.3.4.2 Steady ow of viscous incompressible uid through a pipe 7.3.5 Diusion Processes 7.4 Solid Mechanics 7.4.1 Governing Equations 7.4.2 Analysis of Bars 7.4.3 Analysis of Beams 7.4.3.1 Principle of Superposition 7.4.4 Analysis of Plane Elasticity Problems 7.4.5.1 Plane strain and plane stress problems 7.4.5.2 Plane strain problems 7.4.5.3 Plane stress problems 7.4.5.4 Solution Methods 7.4.5.5 Airy stress function 7.5 Summary Problems REFERENCES ANSWERS TO SELECTED PROBLEMS SUBJECT INDEX

159 159 159 159 162 162 164 165 166 169 169 169 170 172 172 173 175 178 178 180 184 189 192 192 192 193 194 197 200 200 211 213 225

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About the Author

J. N. Reddy is a Distinguished Professor and the Holder of Oscar S. Wyatt Endowed Chair in the Department of Mechanical Engineering at Texas A&M University (http://www.tamu.edu/acml). Professor Reddy is a renowned researcher and educator in the broad elds of mechanics, applied mathematics, and computational engineering science. Professor Reddys research areas include theory and nite element analysis of problems in structural mechanics (composite plates and shells), uid dynamics, and heat transfer; theoretical modelling of stress and deformation of biological cells and soft tissues; nanocomposites; and development of robust computational technology (including the K-version nite element models based on the least-squares method in collaboration with Professor Karan Surana of the University of Kansas). He is the author of over 375 journal papers and 16 books on these subjects. The books published by Dr. Reddy include Introduction to the Finite Element Method, 3rd ed., McGrawHill, 2006; Mechanics of Laminated Plates and Shells: Theory and Analysis, 2nd ed., CRC Press, 2004; An Introduction to Nonlinear Finite Element Analysis, Oxford University Press, 2004; and An Introduction to Continuum Mechanics, Cambridge University Press, 2008. Dr. Reddys outstanding research credentials have earned him wide international acclaim in the form of numerous professional awards, citations, fellowship in all major professional societies including AAM, AIAA, ASC, ASCE, ASME, IACM and USACM, membership on two dozen archival journals, and numerous keynote and plenary lecture invitations at international conferences. Dr. Reddy is the Editor-in-Chief of Applied Mechanics Reviews, Mechanics of Advanced Materials and Structures, International Journal of Computational Methods in Engineering Science and Mechanics, and International Journal of Structural Stability and Dynamics. The extent of Dr. Reddys original and sustained contributions to education, research, and professional service is substantial. As a result of his extensive publications of archival journal papers and books on a wide range of topics in applied sciences and engineering, Dr. Reddy is one of the selective few researchers in engineering around world who are recognized by ISI Highly Cited Researchers with over 10,000 citations with H-index of over 40. In February 2009 he was awarded a Honoris Causa (Honorary Doctorate) by the Technical University of Lisbon.