AIRCRAFT CONTROL AND SIMULATION BRIAN L. STEVENS Georgia Tech Research Institute FRANK L. LEWIS The University of Texas at Arlington ~ SET 2003 OOH A Wiley-Interscience Publication JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC. New York / Chichester / Brisbane / Toronto / Singapore‘The cover graphic of the YF-22 was drawn from a photograph provided courtesy of Lockheed Aeronautical Systems Company. In recognition of the importance of preserving what has been written, it is a policy of John Wiley & Sons, Inc., to have books of enduring value published in the United States printed on acid-free paper, and we exert our best efforts to that end. Copyright © 1992 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Published simultaneously in Canada. Reproduction or translation of any part of this work beyond that permitted by Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act without the permission of the copyright owner is unlawful. Requests for permission or further information should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data: Stevens, Brian L., 1939- Aircraft control and simulation /Brian L. Stevens, Frank L. Lewis. p. cm, Includes bibliographical references. ISBN 0-471-61397-5 1. Airplanes—Control systems. I. Lewis, Frank L. Il. Title. TL678.S74 1992 629/35—de20 91-13413 cP Printed in the United States of America 1098765432AIRCRAFT CONTROL AND SIMULATIONi | | | t I i To Richard and Bill —B.LS. To Christopher — who has brought everything together —F.L.L.CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES xi LIST OF EXAMPLES xiti PREFACE xvii 1 EQUATIONS OF MOTION 1 11 Introduction / 1 12 13 1.4 15 1.6 Mathematical Preliminaries / 4 Dynamic Analysis / 18 Kinematic Analysis / 33 Assembling the State Equations / 44 Summary / 47 References / 48 Problems / 49 BUILDING THE AIRCRAFT MODEL 51 21 2.2 23 24 2.5 2.6 Introduction / 51 Basic Aerodynamics / 52 Aircraft Forces and Moments / 61 The Nonlinear Aircraft Model / 80 Linear Models and the Stability Derivatives / 89 Summary / 109 References / 110 Problems / 111 viiviii CONTENTS 3 BASIC ANALYTICAL AND COMPUTATIONAL TOOLS 13 3.1. Introduction / 113 3.2 Models of Subsystems / 115 3.3. Aircraft Models for Simulation / 123 3.4 Steady-State Trimmed Flight / 129 3.5 Numerical Solution of the State Equations / 139 3.6 Linearization / 152 3.7 Computations for Linear Time-Invariant State Equations / 158 3.8 Feedback Control / 179 3.9 Summary / 191 References / 191 Problems / 193 4 AIRCRAFT DYNAMICS AND CLASSICAL DESIGN TECHNIQUES 196 4.1 Introduction / 196 4.2 The Effect of Flight Conditions on the Modes / 204 43 The Flying-Qualities Requirements / 222 4.4 Stability Augmentation / 236 4.5 Control Augmentation Systems / 254 4.6 Autopilots / 285 4.7. Nonlinear Simulation of Limiters / 325 4.8 Summary / 332 References / 333 Problems / 334 5 MODERN DESIGN TECHNIQUES 337 5.1 Introduction / 337 5.2 Assignment of Closed-Loop Dynamics / 342 5.3 Linear Quadratic Regulator with Output Feedback / 359 5.4 Tracking a Command / 376 5.5 Modifying the Performance Index / 391 5.6 Model-Following Design / 421 5.7 Linear Quadratic Design with Full State Feedback / 437 5.8 Summary / 444 References / 445 Problems / 447CONTENTS 6 ROBUSTNESS AND MULTIVARIABLE FREQUENCY-DOMAIN TECHNIQUES, 6.1 Introduction / 452 6.2. Multivariable Frequency-Domain Analysis / 454 6.3 Robust Output-Feedback Design / 479 6.4 Observers and the Kalman Filter / 483 65 LOQG/Loop-Transfer Recovery / 510 6.6 Summary / 535 References / 535 Problems / 537 7 DIGITAL CONTROL 7.1 Introduction / 542 7.2. Simulation of Digital Controllers / 543 7.3 Discretization of Continuous Controllers / 545 7.4 Modified Continuous Design / 558 7.5 Implementation Considerations / 572 7.6 Summary / 581 References / 581 Problems / 582 APPENDIX A F-16 MODEL APPENDIX B SOFTWARE INDEX 452 542 584 593 609LIST OF TABLES CHAPTER 1 13-1 Variables Used in the Equations of Motion / 21 CHAPTER 2 2.2-1 Important Wing-Planform Parameters / 59 23-1 Force, Moment, and Velocity Definitions / 64 23-2 Typical Aerodynamic Component Buildup Equations / 68 24-1 The Flat-Earth, Body-Axes 6-DOF Equations / 81 25-1 The Force Dimensional Derivatives (Wind Axes) / 94 25-2 The Moment Dimensional Derivatives (Wind Axes) / 98 2.5-3 Longitudinal Dimensional Versus Dimensionless Derivatives / 105 2.5-4 Lateral~Directional Dimensional Versus Dimensionless Derivatives / 106 CHAPTER 3 3.2-1 Network Transfer Functions and State Equations / 116 33-1 Aircraft Control-Surface Sign Conventions / 128 3,3-2 F-16 Model Test Case / 128 3.4-1 Trim Data for the Transport Aircraft Model / 135 3.4-2 Trim Data for the F-16 Model / 136 3.4-3 Trimmed Flight Conditions for the F-16 Model / 139 3,7-1 F-16 Model, Elevator-to-Pitch-Rate Transfer Function / 172 xixii. UIST OF TABLES CHAPTER 4 42-1 Accuracy of Short-Period and Phugoid Formulae / 211 Effect of Flight-Path Angle on the F-16 Modes / 221 Effect of Speed and Altitude on the F-16 Modes / 221 Pilot Opinion Rating and Flying-Qualities Level / 223 Definitions: Flying-Qualities Specifications / 233 Short-Period Damping Ratio Limits / 234 Limits on w2, /(n/a) / 234 Maximum Roll Mode Time Constant / 235 Spiral Mode, Minimum Doubling Time / 235 Dutch Roll Mode Specifications / 236 Transfer Function Zeros Versus Accelerometer Position / 264 Trim Conditions for Determining ARI Gain / 275 CHAPTER 5 5.3-1 LOR with Output Feedback / 364 5.3-2 Optimal Output Feedback Solution Algorithm / 366 5.4-1 LQ Tracker with Output Feedback / 385 5.5-1 LQ Tracker with Time-Weighted PI / 398 5.7-1 LOR with State Feedback / 440 CHAPTER 6 6.4-1 The Kalman Filter / 502 CHAPTER 7 74-1 Padé Approximants to e~** for Approximation of Computation Delay / 566 74-2 Approximants to (1 - e~")/sT for Approximation of Hold Delay / 567 Elements of Second-Order Modules / 580 Difference Equation Implementation of Second-Order Modules / 580LIST OF EXAMPLES CHAPTER 3 32-1 A Nonlinear Model of a Hydraulic Actuator / 120 3.4-1 Longitudinal Trim for the Transport Aircraft Model / 134 3.4-2 The F-16 Trimmed Power Curve / 136 3.4-3 Trim Conditions for a Coordinated Turn / 137 3.5-1 Simulation of a Coordinated Turn / 149 3.5-2 Simulated Response to an Elevator Pulse / 150 3.5-3 Simulated Response to a Throttle Pulse / 151 3.6-1 Linearization of the F-16 Model / 155 3.6-2. Comparison of Algebraic and Numerical Linearization / 157 3.7-1 Discrete-Time Quaternion Propagation / 159 3.7-2. Discrete-Time Inertial Navigation Calculations / 160 3.7-3. F-16 Longitudinal Modes / 164 3.7-4 F-16 Lateral-Directional Modes / 165 3.7-5 _ F-16 Elevator-to-Pitch-Rate Transfer Function / 172 3.7-6 Transport Aircraft Throttle Response / 173 3.7-1 F-16 Elevator-to-Pitch-Rate Frequency Response / 177 3.8-1 MIMO System with Successive Loop Closures / 187 3.8-2 Root-Locus Design Using the State-Space Formulation / 189 CHAPTER 4 4.2-1 Lateral Modes of a Business Jet / 218 4.2-2 Mode Dependence from the Nonlinear Model / 220 xiiixiv LIST OF EXAMPLES 44-1 The Effects of Pitch-Rate and Alpha Feedback / 239 44-2 A Pitch SAS with Washed-out Alpha Feedback / 243 44-3. A Roll Damper/Yaw Damper Design / 248 45-1 A Pitch-Rate CAS Design / 256 45-2 Pitch-CAS Nonlinear Simulation / 260 45-3 A Normal Acceleration CAS Design / 265 45-4 A Lateral—Directional CAS Design / 276 46-1 A Simple Pitch-Attitude-Hold Autopilot / 286 46-2 A Pitch-Attitude Hold with Dynamic Compensation / 288 46-3 An Altitude-Hold Autopilot Design / 293 4.6-4 Longitudinal Control for Automatic Landing / 300 4,6-5 Automatic Flare Control / 309 4.6-6 A Bank-Angle-Hold Autopilot / 317 46-7 A Bank-Angle-Steering Control System / 319 47-1 Simulation of a Controller with Limiters / 326 CHAPTER 5 5.2-1 Selecting Eigenvectors for Decoupling / 345 52-2 Eigenstructure Assignment Using Dynamic Regulator / 353 52-3 Eigenstructure Design of Longitudinal Pitch Pointing Control / 354 53-1 LOR Design for F-16 Lateral Regulator / 370 5.41 Normal Acceleration CAS / 386 55-1 Constrained Feedback Control for F-16 Lateral Dynamics / 399 55-2 Time-Dependent Weighting Design of Normal Acceleration CAS / 401 Pitch-Rate Control System Using LQ Design / 402 Multivariable Wing Leveler / 406 Glide-Slope Coupler / 410 5.6-1 Automatic Flare Control by Model-Following Design / 429 57-1 LOR with State Feedback for Systems Obeying Newton’s Laws / 442 CHAPTER 6 6.2-1 MIMO Bode Magnitude Plots / 461 62-2 Singular Value Plots for F-16 Lateral Dynamics / 462 62-3. Precompensator for Balancing and Zero Steady-State Error / 468