Chapter 11 Filters

Section 11.1 The Basic Principles of Filters

A filter allows only some signals to go through. A low pass filter only allows signals with low frequencies to go through and a high pass filter only allows high frequency signals to go through. A band pass filter is a circuit which allows signals whose frequencies are within a certain range to go through. Fig. 11.1-1 shows a low-pass filter.

Fig. 11.1-1 An RC low-pass filter In this circuit, suppose that the frequency of the input signal is high. The capacitor will be almost short-circuited. Thus vout 0 . This means that no high frequency signals can go through. On the other hand, if the frequency of the input is low, the capacitor is almost open-circuited. Thus, vout vin and the circuit is a low pass filter. Fig. 11.1-2 shows a high pass filter.

Fig. 11.1-2 An RC high-pass filter In this circuit, when the frequency of the input signal is low, the capacitor is almost

11-1

open-circuited and thus a very small current will flow. Thus, vout = iR 0 . On the other hand, if the frequency is high, the capacitor will be almost short-circuited and vout vin . Thus, this is a high pass filter. Fig. 11.1-3 shows a band pass filter. It is a combination of a high pass filer and a low pass filter. Since neither low nor high frequency signals can pass through, this is a band pass filter.

vin

vout

Fig. 11.1-3 An RC band-pass filter Filters can also be designed by using inductors, capacitors and resistors. An

inductor is short-circuited when the frequency is low and open-circuited when the frequency is high. The reader can thus easily see that the circuit in Fig. 11.1-4 is a low pass filter, that in Fig. 11.1-4 is a high pass filter and that in Fig. 11.1-5 is a band pass filter.

11-2

vout

vin

Fig. 11.1-4 An LCR low-pass filter

C vout

vin

Fig. 11.1-5 An LCR high-pass filter

11-3

vin

vout

Fig. 11.1-6 An LCR band-pass filter

Section 11.2 The Transfer Functions of Some Filters

In the above section, we briefly introduced the basic concept of filters. We now discuss the transfer functions of filters which describe the relationships between v out and vin in terms of frequency. Let us redraw the low pass filter in Fig. 11.1-1 again here as in Fig. 11.2-1.

Fig. 11.2-1 The redrawing of an RC low-pass filter We shall denote j = 2 f by S. The transfer function of the filer is as follows:
11-4

A( S ) =

vout vin

1 = SC 1 R+ SC

(11.1-1)

1 1 + SRC

A( j) = =

1 1 + jRC 1 1 + 2 R 2C 2

(11.2-2)

From Equation (11.2-2), we can see why this is a low pass filter.
, A( j ) =0 ,

As

which means that high frequency signals cannot go through. It is

1 1 and f 0 = . f c is called the critical frequency in RC 2RC

customary to denote 0 = this circuit. Note that

A max = A( = 0) = 1

and

A( = 0 ) =

1 A max 2 1 of its maximum value. We 2

That is, when = 0 , the gain of the filter is reduced to also say that it is reduced to its 3DB value.

Fig. 11.1-2 shows the transfer function of a low-pass filter.

11-5

Fig. 11.2-2 Let us redraw the high-pass filter in Fig. 11.1-2 as in Fig. 11.2-3.

Fig. 11.2-3 The redrawing of an RC high-pass filter It is easy to derive the transfer function of this high pass filter to be as follows:
SRC 1 + SRC

A( S ) =

(11.2-3)
= 1+ 1 1 R 2C 2
2

and

A( j) =

RC
1+ R C
2 2 2

(11.2-4)

From

Equation

(11.2-4),

we

can

see

that

as

= 0, A( j = 0 ,

and

A( = ) =1 = A( j) max .

Thus, this circuit is a high pass filter. We may again let

11-6

0 =

1 1 and f 0 = . When = 0 , the gain of the filter is reduced to RC 2RC

1 of 2

its maximum value. The transfer function of this high-pass filter is now illustrated as in Fig. 11.2-4.

Fig. 11.2-4 The transfer of the RC low-pass filter (Equation 11.2-4) Let us now consider the band pass filter in Fig. 11.1-3. We redraw Fig. 11.1-3 as in Fig. 11.2-5.

vin

Z2

11-7

Z1

vout

Fig. 11.2-5 Z 1 and Z 2 in the RC band-pass filter

vout Z1 = vin Z1 + Z 2 1 R SC = Z1 = 1 1 + SRC R+ SC 1 1 + SRC Z2 = R + = SC SC R

Thus,

R 1 + SRC A( S ) = 1 + SRC R + SC 1 + SRC SRC = 2 2 2 S R C + 3SRC + 1 S RC = 3 S 1 S2 + + 2 2 RC R C

1 . Then RC

(11.2-5)

Let 0 =

A( S ) =

0S 2 S 2 + 3 0 S + 0
0
( 0 2 ) 2 + 9 2 0
2 2

(11.2-6)

and

A( j ) =

(11.2-7)

It can be easily shown that in this case, the gain is maximized when = 0 , as shown in Fig. 11.2-6. Perhaps it should be noted that the term 0 has different meanings for different filters. For both low pass and high pass filters, when = 0 , the gain is

11-8

reduced to

1 of its maximum value while in the band pass case, when = 0 , the 2

gain is maximized.

0
In summary, we have the following three transfer functions:
1 A( S ) = RC 1 S+ RC
A( S ) = S S+ 1 RC

Fig. 11.2-6 The transfer of the RC band-pass filter (SHOULD BE A(JW))

1. Low Pass:

(11.2-8)

2. High Pass:

(11.2-9)

3. Band Pass:

S RC A( S ) = 3 S 1 S2 + + 2 2 RC R C
1 , we have: RC

(11.2-10)

By letting 0 =

11-9

1. Low Pass: 2. High Pass: 3. Band Pass:

A( S ) =
A( S ) =

0 S + 0
S S + 0

(11.2-11) (11.2-12) (11.2-13)

A( S ) =

0S 2 S 2 + 3 0 S + 0

Finally, we have: 1 1+

1. Low Pass:

A( j) =

2 0 2

(11.2-14)

2. High Pass:

A( j ) =

1 1+

0 2 2

(11.2-15)

3. Band Pass:

A( j ) =

0
( 0 2 ) 2 + 9 2 0
2 2

(11.2-16)

Section 11.3 An RLC Filter

In the above section, we introduced low pass, high and band pass filters. shown in Fig. 11.3-1. In the following, we shall introduce a circuit containing resistor, capacitor and inductance, as

11-10

vin

Fig. 11.3-1 An RLC circuit By choosing the output terminals in different ways, this circuit can be used as low pass, high pass and band pass filter as shown in Fig. 11.3-2.

Fig. 11.3-2 Three filters out of the RLC circuit Let us see why the circuit will behave differently when different output terminals are
11-11

chosen. Case 1: The capacitor is chosen as the output. Then the output voltage will be almost 0 when the frequency is large and will be equal to the input voltage as the frequency is low. Thus this is a low pass filter. Case 2: The inductor is chosen as the output. Since the behavior of an inductor is just opposite to a capacitor, the circuit becomes a high pass filter. Case 3: The resistor is chosen as the output. We can imagine that neither low frequency signals, nor high frequency signals, can pass the filter. Thus this is a band pass filter. In the following, we shall derive transfer functions for these filters. Case 1. The Low Pass Filter.

vout

vin

11-12

vout vin

1 1 1 SC LC = = 2 = 1 R 1 SL + + R S LC + 1 + SRC S 2 + S + SC L LC

Case 2: The High Pass Filter

C vout

vin

Case 3: The Band Pass Filter

vin

vout

11-13

vout = vin

R S R SRC L = 2 = 1 R 1 S LC + 1 + SRC SL + +R S2 + S + SC L LC

In Summary, we have the following three transfer functions:

1 vout LC = R 1 vin 2 S +S + L LC vout S2 = R 1 vin S2 + S + L LC

1. Low Pass:

(11.3-1)

2. High Pass:

(11.3-2)

3. Band Pass:

vout vin

R L = R 1 S2 + S + L LC S

(11.3-3)

Let 0 =

1 1 and Q = LC R

R 0 L = . Then . Thus, we have the following three L Q C

transfer functions:

1. Low Pass:

A( S ) =

vout 0 = 2 vin S 2 + S 0 + 0 Q
2

(11.3-4)

2. High Pass:

A( S ) =

vout S2 = 2 vin S 2 + S 0 + 0 Q

(11.3-5)

11-14

3. Band Pass:

A( S ) =

vout vin

0 Q = 2 S 2 + S 0 + 0 Q
S

(11.3-6)

Finally, we have the following:

1. Low Pass:

A( j =

0
2

2 2

2 0 ( 0 ) + Q2
2 2

(11.3-7)

2. High Pass:

A( j =

2 20 (0 ) + Q2
2 2 2 2

(11.3-8)

3. Band Pass:

A( j = ( 0
2

0 Q 2 0 2 ) + Q2
2 2

(11.3-9)

The physical meaning of Q is now given: Q is defined as follows:

Q = 2 maximum energy stored in an LCR circuit A = energy lost per cycle B

(11.3-10)

A=

1 2 LI m 2 1 1 2 2 2 RI m T = RI m 2 2

(11.3-11) (11.3-12)

B=

Thus, we have
1 2 LI m L 2 Q = 2 = 1 2 2 R RI m 2

(11.3-13)

Section 11.4 The Significance of the Second

11-15

Order Transfer Functions:

In Section 11.2, we have three transfer functions, expressed in Equations (11.2-11), (11.2-12) and (11.2-13). Both (11.2-11) and (11.2-12) are first order transfer functions while (11.2-13) is a second order transfer functions. The transfer functions we obtained in Section 11.3 are all second order transfer functions, as shown in Equations (11.3-4) to (11.4-6). In this section, we shall explain why we need second order transfer functions. Let us consider the low pass filter as an example. Equation (11.2-11) is a first order transfer function for low pass filters. We rewrite its magnitude expressed in Equation (11.2-14) as follows: 1

A( j) =

2 1+ 2 0

(11.4-1)

Fig. 11.4-1 is a plot of the above function.

11-16

|A(j? )|

1 0.707

Fig. 11.4-1 The transfer function of an RC low-pass filter (Equation 11.4-1) Equation (11.3-4) expresses a second order transfer function of a low pass filter. Its magnitude function, expressed in Equation (11.3-7), is now rewritten as follows:

A( j ) =

0
2

2 2

2 0 ( 0 ) + Q2
2 2

(11.4-2)

From (11.4-2), we can prove the following:

1 . There is only one maximum: 2

Case 1: 0 < Q <

max = 0

(11.4-3)

Amax = 1

(11.4-4)

11-17

Case 2: Q

1 . In this case, there are two cases: 2

(1)

max = 0

Amax = 1

(2)

max = 0 1

1 2Q 2

(11.4-5)

and

Amax =

Q 1 1 4Q 2

(11.4-6)

We further have:
A0 = Q

(11.4-7)

The proof of the above equations can be easily obtained and will not be given in this book. In Fig. 11.4-2, we plot the second order transfer of the low pass filter expressed in Equation (11.4-2) for different Qs as follows:

11-18

Fig. 11.4-2 Equation 11.4-2 for different Qs If we compare the second order transfer function for low pass filter, as expressed in Equation (11.4-2) with the corresponding first order transfer function, we can easily see the difference between these two transfers. The second order transfer function provides an additional parameter to control the maximum magnitude and the sharpness of the transfer function of the low pass filter. For the first order low pass filter, only 0 can be used to control the bandwidth. For the second order transfer function, Q plays a critical role. As discussed above, a very small Q gives a rather narrow bandwidth and we usually assume that Q >
1 . 2

We have seen the significance of Q. It is now appropriate to explain the physical meaning of Q. For this RLC circuit,

11-19

Q=

1 R

L C

(11.4-8)

Note that the circuit is a series connection of resistor, inductance and capacitor. If the circuit only contains inductance and capacitor, it will cause resonance. The existence of the resistor will dampen the oscillation caused by the resonance. The smaller the resistance is, the more the circuit will tend to oscillate. If the resistance is very large, the circuit has a small tendency to oscillate. But, as seen in Equation (11.4-6), a small resistance corresponds to a large Q. Thus a high Q means that 0 is closer to max . This will be made clearer when we examine the band pass filter. As for the high pass filter, the situation is the same as that of the low pass filter. We shall now discuss the band pass filter. Let us rewrite the transfer function of the RLC band pass filter, expressed in Equation (11.3-6), as below:

A( S ) =

vout vin

0 Q = 2 S 2 + S 0 + 0 Q
S

(11.4-9)

Its magnitude function, as expressed in Equation (11.3-9), is as follows:

A( j ) = ( 0
2

0 Q 2 0 2 ) + Q2
2 2

(11.4-10)

In this case, we can easily prove that

max = 0

(11.4-11)

and

Amax = 1

(11.4-12)
11-20

We would like to know the frequencies where A drops to 1 value. To do this, we have to solve the following equation:

of its maximum

2 0

2 2

20 2 20 2 + =2 Q2 Q2

Thus, we have to solve two equations:

0
Q

2 +

0 = 0
2

(11.4-13) (11.4-14)

0
Q

0 = 0
2

There are four solutions for the above two equations. The following two satisfy the condition that they have to be positive:
0 1 + 0 1 + 2Q 4Q 2
0
2Q + 0 1 + 1 4Q 2

2 =

(11.4-15) (11.4-16) (11.4-17)

1 =

2 1 =

0
Q

The above discussion is illustrated in Fig. 11.4-3.

11-21

Fig. 11.4-3 Equation (11.4-10) for different Qs From the above discussion, we can see that the larger Q, the smaller the bandwidth. We may conclude that the second order transfer function gives us more flexibility to design a filter than the first order transfer function.

Section 11.5 Experiments with the LCR Filter

ALL FIGURES NEED TO BE LABELED Experiment 11.5-1 The Low Pass Filter The filter circuit is as shown in Fig. 11.5-1.

11-22

1 L=40mH 2 vin 3 C=25nF

vout

R=1k

Fig. 11.5-1 The LCR low-pass filter circuit for Experiment 11.5-1

The critical frequency f 0 =

0 1 1 = = 5 KHz. The 2 2 LC 2 40 10 3 25 10 9

program is shown in Table 11.5-1 and the gain vs frequency curve is shown in Fig. 11.52. Table 11.5-1 Program for Experiment 11.5-1 LCR

11-23

.PROTECT .OPTION POST .LIB 'c:\mm0355v.l' TT .UNPROTECT .op L 1 C R 3 2 2 0 3 40mH 25nF 1k 0 AC 1 10000k

Vin 1

.AC DEC 100 1 .PLOT AC VDB(3) .END

In the above, there is an instruction as follows: AC DEC 100 1 10000k

The meaning of the above instruction as follows: DEC means in decimal, 100 means sampling for every 100Hz and 1 means that we sample from frequencies 1 to 10000k. 10000k

11-24

Fig. 11.5-2 The LCR low-pass filter transfer function in log scale

3.87 = 5KHz which is correct. Note From the above figure, we can see that f 0 = 10

that in this experiment, Q =

1 103

40 10 3 1 1 .3 > = 0.707 and there is a maximum 9 25 10 2

point close to the critical frequency. Besides, it should be noted that both gain and frequency are in log-scale. This is so for all experiments presented in this section. Experiment 11.5-2 The Increasing of the Q-Value of the Low Pass Filter In this experiment, we reduced the value of R from 1K ohms to 100 ohms. Q was thus increased and the critical frequency remains the same, but the gain vs frequency is changed. Table 11.5-2 displays the program while Fig. 11.5-3 shows the gain vs frequency curve.

11-25

Table 11.5-2 Program for Experiment 11.5-2 LCR .PROTECT .OPTION POST .LIB 'c:\mm0355v.l' TT .UNPROTECT .op L 1 C R 3 2 2 0 3 40mH 25nF 100 0 AC 1 10000k

Vin 1

.AC DEC 100 1 .PLOT AC VDB(3) .END

11-26

Fig. 11.5-3 The LCR low-pass filter transfer function with Q enlarged As explained in the above section, the increasing of the Q-value will make the curve have a sharp maximum. Experiment 11.5-3 The Decreasing of the Q-Value for the Low Pass Filter In this experiment, we decrease the value of Q-value by increasing the value of resistor from 100 ohms to 3K ohms. In this case, it can be shown that Q is around 0.43 which is smaller than
1 . The program is in Table 11.5-3 and the gain vs frequency 2

curve is in Fig. 11.5-4. As can be seen, this Q-value creates a flat curve. In fact, this is usually called a maximally flat curve. Table 11.5-3 Program for Experiment 11.5-3 LCR

11-27

.PROTECT .OPTION POST .LIB 'c:\mm0355v.l' TT .UNPROTECT .op L 1 C R 3 2 2 0 3 40mH 25nF 3k 0 AC 1 10000k

Vin 1

.AC DEC 100 1 .PLOT AC VDB(3) .END

Fig. 11.5-4 The LCR low-pass filter transfer function with a small Q

11-28

Experiment 11.5-4 The LCR Band Pass Filter In this experiment, we tested the performance of the LCR band pass filter. The circuit is shown in Fig. 11.5-5. The program is displayed in Table 11.5-4 and the gain vs frequency curve is shown in Fig. 11.5-6.

1 L=40mH 2 C=25nF 3 R=3k

vout

vin

Fig. 11.5-5 The LCR band-pass filter for Experiment 11.5-4 Table 11.5-4 Program for Experiment 11.5-4 LCR

11-29

.PROTECT .OPTION POST .LIB 'c:\mm0355v.l' TT .UNPROTECT .op L 1 C R 2 3 2 3 0 40mH 25nF 3k 0 AC 1 10000k

Vin 1

.AC DEC 100 1 .PLOT AC VDB(3) .END

Fig. 11.5-6 The LCR band-pass filter transfer function

11-30

Experiment 11.5-5 The Increasing of the Q-Value for the Band Pass Filter In this experiment, we increased the Q-value of the circuit by reducing the value of R from 3K ohms to 100 ohms. The program is in Table 11.5-5 and the gain vs frequency curve is shown in Fig. 11.5-7. As can be seen, the bandwidth is decreased. Table 11.5-5 Program for Experiment 11.5-5 LCR .PROTECT .OPTION POST .LIB 'c:\mm0355v.l' TT .UNPROTECT .op L 1 C R 2 3 2 3 0 40mH 25nF 100 0 AC 1 10000k

Vin 1

.AC DEC 100 1

.PLOT AC VDB(3) .END

11-31

Fig. 11.5-7 The LCR band-pass filter transfer function with a larger Q NEEDS TO BE LABELED Experiment 11.5-6 The Decreasing of the Q-value for the Band Pass Filter In this experiment, we decreased the Q-value by increasing the value of R to 10K ohms. The program is in Table 11.5-6 and the gain frequency curve is shown in Fig. 11.5-8. As shown, the bandwidth is larger now. Table 11.5-6 Program for Experiment 11.5-6 LCR .PROTECT .OPTION POST .LIB 'c:\mm0355v.l' TT .UNPROTECT .op

11-32

L 1 C R 2 3

2 3 0

40mH 25nF 10k 0 AC 1 10000k

Vin 1

.AC DEC 100 1

.PLOT AC VDB(3) .END

Fig. 11.5-8 The LCR band-pass filter transfer function with a smaller Q Experiment 11.5-7 The Decreasing of the Critical Frequency for the Band Pass Filter In this experiment, we decreased the critical frequency by increasing the value of C

11-33

from 25nF to 300nF. The program is shown in Table 11.5-7 and the gain frequency curve is shown in Fig. 11.5-9. As shown, the critical frequency is decreased. Table 11.5-7 Program for Experiment 11.5-7 LCR .PROTECT .OPTION POST .LIB 'c:\mm0355v.l' TT .UNPROTECT .op L 1 C R 2 3 2 3 0 40mH 300nF 100 0 AC 1 10000k

Vin 1

.AC DEC 100 1 .PLOT AC VDB(3) .END

11-34

Fig. 11.5-9 The decreasing of the critical frequency of the LCR band-pass filter

Section 11.6 Some Active Filters

In the above sections, we only used passive components to design filters. But filters with reactive components only will have attenuation. To avoid attenuation, we will employ active filters. Fig. 11.6-1 shows a typical low pass filter which employs a non-inverting operational amplifier. It is easy to see why this is a low pass filter because the RC circuit itself is a low pass filter.

11-35

R + vin C A vout

Ra

Rb

Fig. 11.6-1 A low-pass filter built upon an operational amplifier Fig. 11.6-2 shows another low pass filter with negative feedback.

11-36

R2

R1

vin

+
A

vout

Fig. 11.6-2 A low-pass filter with a capacitor connected the terminal and the output terminal Why is this circuit a low pass filter? Note that the capacitor is open-circuited when the frequency is low and the circuit becomes that shown in Fig. 11.6-3. Thus the low frequency signals may get through.

11-37

R2

R1

vin

vout

Fig. 11.6-3 The filter in Fig. 11.6-2 in low frequency But the capacitor becomes nearly short-circuited when the frequency is high as shown in Fig. 11.6-4. The operational amplifier becomes a voltage follower and thus there is no gain. That is, the high frequency signals cannot go through and the circuit is a low pass filter.

11-38

R1

vin

+
A

vout

Fig. 11.6-4 The filter in Fig. 11.6-2 in high frequency

Two high pass filters are shown in Fig. 11.6-5 and Fig. 11.6-6.

C + vin R Ra
A

vout

Rb

11-39

Fig. 11.6-5 A high-pass filter based upon an operational amplifier

R2

R1 vin

C +
A

vout

Fig. 11.6-6 Another high-pass filter based upon an operational amplifier

Section 11.7 A General Case for Second-Order Active Filters

Fig. 11.7-1 shows a general case for second order active filters. We may obtain low pass, high pass and band pass filters by giving different components to Z i ' s.

11-40

A Z4 Z1 Vin V Z2 Z3 Z5 -

Vout

. Fig. 11.7-1 A general case of filters based upon an operational amplifier VIN and VOUT not correct Let us now find the transfer function for this general case circuit. Note that the voltage at the inverting terminal is almost 0 for small signals. Thus, for Node A, we have:
(v vin ) (v vout ) v v + + + =0 Z1 Z4 Z 2 Z3

(11.7-1)

At the inverting terminal,

v v out + =0 Z3 Z5

(11.7-2)

Based upon Equations (11.7-1) and (11.7-2), we have:

1 Z1 Z 3 1 1 1 1 1 Z + Z + Z + Z + Z Z 2 3 4 3 4 1

vout = vin 1 Z5

(11.7-3)

A Low Pass Filter Derived from the General Case Filter

11-41

Fig. 11.7-2 shows a low pass filter derived from the general case filter. If the frequency is high, C5 becomes short-circuited. The operational amplifier becomes a voltage follower. If the frequency is low, signals can go through. Thus the circuit is a low pass filter.

Vin

R4 R1 C2 R3

C5 Vout

Fig. 11.7-2 A low-pass filter derived from the general case NEEDS MODIFIED From Equation (11.7-3), we have:
1 R1 R3 C 2 C 5 1 S +S C2
2

v out = vin

1 1 1 1 R + R + R + R R C C 3 4 3 4 2 5 1

(11.7-4)

By letting
1 R3 R4C2C5

0 =

(11.7-5)

11-42

Q=

C2 C5 R3 R4 1 1 1 R + R + R 3 4 1

(11.7-6)

and

A0 =

Vout Vin

=
f =0

R4 , R1

(11.7-7)

we will have

A( S ) =

A00 2 . S 2 + 0 S + 0 Q
2

(11.7-8)

Note that Equation (11.7-8) is almost exactly the same as Equation (11.3-4) which is the transfer function of a low pass filter.. Experiment 11.7-1 The Low Pass Filter Derived from the General Case Filter The operating amplifier circuit used throughout the experiments discussed in this section is shown in Fig. 11.7-3.

11-43

VDD!

VDD!

VBIAS3= 0.75

M3

M10

M11

M8 V+ M1 M2 VM6

M9 vout M7

VBIAS67= 0V

VBIAS45= -0.737V

M4

M5

VSS!

Fig. 11.7-3 The low-pass filter with an operational amplifier for Experiment 11.7-1 In this experiment, C2 = 0.0048F , C5 = 0.0048F , R3 = R4 = 3.3K . program is in Table 11.7-1 and the gain vs frequency curve is shown in Fig. 11.7-4. Table 11.7-1 Program for Experiment 11.7-1 Experiment 11.7-1 .PROTECT .OPTION POST .LIB 'c:\flexlm\model\tsmc\MIXED035\mm0355v.l' TT .UNPROTECT .op The

11-44

VDD VSS

VDD! VSS!

0 0

1.5V -1.5V VSS! 6 6 PCH W=10U L=2U m=3 PCH W=10U L=2U m=3 VDD! VSS! VSS! VSS! 4 1 2 VDD! VDD! VSS! PCH NCH NCH NCH NCH W=100U L=2U m=7 W=10U L=2U W=10U L=2U W=10U L=2U

.GLOBAL M1 5 M2 4 M3 6 M4 5 M5 4 M6 3 M7 VO M8 3 M9 VO M10 1 M11 2 Vi+ VBIAS3 VBIAS45 VBIAS67 Vin1 .AC DEC R1 C2 R3 R4 C5 .PLOT 11 10 Vi10 Vi11 1 1 Vi+ 3 ViVi+ VB3

VDD! 6 6

VDD! VSS! VSS! 5

VB45 VB45 VB67 1 3

W=10U L=2U

VB67 2

PCH W=10U L=2U m=3 PCH W=10U L=2U m=3 PCH PCH W=10U L=2U m=3 W=10U L=2U m=3

VDD! VDD! 0 0v

VB3 VB45 VB67 0

0 0.75v 0 0 -0.737v 0v

AC 1 5000k 3.3k 0.0048u 10 3.3k 3.3k Vo 0.0048u

100 1 10 0 Vo

AC VDB(Vo)

11-45

.END

Fig. 11.7-4 The transfer function of the low-pass filter in Experiment 11.7-1 Experiment 11.7-2 The Decreasing of 0 We increased the values of capacitors and thus decreased 0 according to Equation (11.7-5).
C2 = C5 = 1F .

The program is shown in Table 11.7-2 and the gain vs As can be seen, was significantly 0

frequency curve is shown in Fig. 11.7-5. decreased.

Table 11.7-2 Program for Experiment 11.7-2 Experiment 11.7-2

11-46

.PROTECT .OPTION POST .LIB 'c:\flexlm\model\tsmc\MIXED035\mm0355v.l' TT .UNPROTECT .op VDD VSS VDD! VSS! 0 0 1.5V -1.5V VSS! 6 6 PCH W=10U L=2U m=3 PCH W=10U L=2U m=3 VDD! VSS! VSS! VSS! 4 1 2 2 VDD! VDD! VSS! PCH NCH NCH NCH NCH W=100U L=2U m=7 W=10U L=2U W=10U L=2U W=10U L=2U

.GLOBAL M1 5 M2 4 M3 6 M4 5 M5 4 M6 3 M7 VO M8 3 M9 VO M10 1 M11 2 Vi+ VBIAS3 VBIAS45 VBIAS67 Vin1 .AC DEC R1 11 11 1 1 Vi+ 3 ViVi+ VB3

VDD! 6 6

VDD! VSS! VSS! 5

VB45 VB45 VB67 1 3

W=10U L=2U

VB67

PCH W=10U L=2U m=3 PCH W=10U L=2U m=3 PCH PCH W=10U L=2U m=3 W=10U L=2U m=3

VDD! VDD! 0 0v 0

VB3

0.75v -0.737v 0v 0

VB45 0 VB67

0 AC 1 100 1 10 5000k 3.3k

11-47

C2 R3 R4 C5 .PLOT .END

10 Vi10 Vi-

0 10 Vo Vo

1u 3.3k 3.3k 1u

AC VDB(Vo)

Fig. 11.7-5 The transfer function of the low-pass filter in Fig. 11.7-3 with values of capacitors increased A High Pass Filter Derived from the General Case Filter Fig. 11.7-6 shows a high pass filter derived from the general case filter.

11-48

vin C1

C4 R2 C3

R5 vout

Fig. 11.7-6 A high-pass filter derived from the general case A needs to be added. The transfer function of the high pass filter is as follows:

C1 C4 A( S ) = 1 C1 1 1 1 S2 + S + + + R5 C3C4 C4 C3 R2 R5C3C4 S2
1 R2 R5C3C4

(11.7-9)

By letting

0 =

(11.7-10)

Q=

C3C4 R5 R2 C + C + C 3 4 1

(11.7-11)

and

A0 =

vout vin

=
=

C1 , C4

(11.7-12)

11-49

we have:
A0 S 2 2 S 2 + 0 S + 0 Q

A( S ) =

(11.7-13)

Equation (11.7-13) is almost exactly the same as Equation (11.3-5), which is the transfer function of another high pass filter. A Band Pass Filter Derived from the General Case Filter Fig. 11.7-14 shows a band pass filter derived from the general case filter.

C4 vin R1 R2 C3

R5 vout

Fig. 11.7-14 A band-pass filter derived from the general case It can be easily seen that this circuit is a band pass filter. Note that high frequency signals cannot go through because of C3 and low frequency signals cannot go through because of C4. The transfer function of this band pass filter is:

11-50

1 R1C4 A( S ) = 1 1 1 1 1 1 S2 + S + + + R5 C3 C4 R5C3C4 R1 R2 S

(11.7-14)

By letting
0 =
1 1 1 + R5C3C4 R1 R2

(11.7-15)

C3C4 1 1 Q = R5 R + R C + C 1 2 3 4

(11.7-16)

and

A0 =

vout vin

=
=0

R5 C3 R1 C3 + C4

(11.7-17)

we have:

A( S ) =

A0 S2 +

0 2 S + 0 Q

0 S Q

(11.7-18)

Experiment 11.7-3 The Band Pass Filter Derived from the General Case Filter In this experiment, we set C3 = C4 = 50 pF , R1 = R2 = R5 = 13K . The program is in Table 11.7-3 and the gain vs frequency curve is in Fig. 11.7-15. Table 11.7-3 Program for Experiment 11.7-3 Experiment 11.7-3 .PROTECT .OPTION POST .LIB 'c:\flexlm\model\tsmc\MIXED035\mm0355v.l' TT

11-51

.UNPROTECT .op VDD VSS VDD! VSS! 0 0 1.5V -1.5V VSS! 6 6 VSS! VSS! VSS! 4 1 2 2 VDD! VDD! VSS! PCH PCH VDD! W=10U L=2U m=3 W=10U L=2U m=3 PCH NCH NCH NCH NCH W=100U L=2U m=7 W=10U L=2U W=10U L=2U W=10U L=2U

.GLOBAL M1 5 M2 4 M3 6 M4 5 M5 4 M6 3 M7 VO M8 3 M9 VO M10 1 M11 2 Vi+ VBIAS3 VBIAS45 VBIAS67 Vin1 .AC DEC R1 R2 C3 C4 11 10 Vi10 11 1 1 Vi+ 3 ViVi+ VB3

VDD! 6 6

VDD! VSS! VSS! 5

VB45 VB45 VB67 1 3

W=10U L=2U

VB67

PCH W=10U L=2U m=3 PCH W=10U L=2U m=3 PCH PCH W=10U L=2U m=3 W=10U L=2U m=3

VDD! VDD! 0 0v 0

VB3

0.75v -0.737v 0v 0

VB45 0 VB67 0

AC 0.00001 1000000000k 13k 13k 10 50p 50p

100 1 10 0 Vo

11-52

R5 .PLOT .END

Vi-

Vo

13k

AC VDB(Vo)

Fig. 11.7-15 The transfer function of the band-pass filter in Fig. 11.7-3

0 and Enlarging of the Bandwidth Experiment 11.7-4 The Decreasing of

We decreased 0 by setting C3 = C4 = 5 pF . This caused a decreasing of the Qvalue and an enlargement of the bandwidth. The program is in Table 11.7-4 and the gain vs frequency is in Fig. 11.7-16. As can be seen, 0 is made smaller and the bandwidth is now larger.

11-53

Table 11.7-4 Program for Experiment 11.7-4 Experiment 11.7-4 .PROTECT .OPTION POST .LIB 'c:\flexlm\model\tsmc\MIXED035\mm0355v.l' TT .UNPROTECT .op VDD VSS .GLOBAL M1 5 M2 4 M3 6 M4 5 M5 4 M6 3 M7 VO M8 3 M9 VO M10 1 M11 2 Vi+ VBIAS3 VBIAS45 VBIAS67 Vin1 11 1 1 Vi+ VB3 VB45 VB67 0 0 AC 3 ViVi+ VB3 VB45 VB45 VB67 1 3 2 VDD! VDD! 0 0 0 VDD! 0 VSS! 0 VDD! 6 6 VDD! VSS! VSS! 5 4 1 2 VDD! VDD! 0v 0.75v -0.737v 0v 0.00001 1.5V -1.5V VSS! 6 6 PCH W=10U L=2U m=3 PCH W=10U L=2U m=3 VDD! VSS! VSS! VSS! VSS! PCH NCH NCH NCH NCH W=100U L=2U m=7 W=10U L=2U W=10U L=2U W=10U L=2U

W=10U L=2U

VB67

PCH W=10U L=2U m=3 PCH W=10U L=2U m=3 PCH PCH W=10U L=2U m=3 W=10U L=2U m=3

11-54

.AC DEC R1 R2 C3 C4 R5 .PLOT .END 11 10 Vi10 Vi-

100 1 10 0 10 Vo Vo

1000000000k 13k 13k 0.005u 0.005u 13k

AC VDB(Vo)

Fig. 11.7-16 The band-pass filter with 0 decreased

Section 11.8 The Sallen and Key Filters

11-55

There are other active filters. In this section, we shall introduce the Sallen and Key filters. The Sallen and Key filters employ positive feedback. Fig. 11.8-1 shows a Sallen and Key low pass filter.

C1

R1 vin

R2 + C2 vout

Ra

Rb

Fig. 11.8-1 A Sallen and Key low-pass filter It is obvious that this is a low pass filter because the high frequency will short-circuit the capacitor C2. Fig. 11.8-2 shows a Sallen and Key high pass filter. It is obvious that the low frequency signals cannot go through as they will be blocked by the capacitors.

11-56

R1

vin

+ C1 C2 R2 -

vout

Ra

Rb

Fig. 11.8-2 A Sallen and Key high-pass filter

11-57