Data Link Layer

CS 3516 Computer Networks

Chapter 5: The Data Link Layer

Goals:

Understand principles behind data link layer services:

Error detection, correction Sharing a broadcast channel: multiple access Link layer addressing Reliable data transfer, flow control (done! in Ch3)

Instantiation and implementation of various link layer technologies

Link Layer
5.1 Introduction and services 5.2 Error detection and correction 5.3Multiple access protocols 5.4 Link-layer Addressing 5.5 Ethernet

5.6 Link-layer switches 5.7 PPP 5.8 Link virtualization: MPLS 5.9 A day in the life of a web request

Link Layer: Introduction

Some terminology:

Hosts and routers are nodes Communication channels that connect adjacent nodes along communication path are links
Wired links Wireless links LANs

Layer-2 packet is a frame, encapsulates datagram

data-link layer has responsibility of transferring datagram from one node to adjacent node over link

Link Layer: Context

Datagram transferred by different link protocols over different links:
e.g., Ethernet on first link, frame relay on intermediate links, 802.11 on last link

Transportation analogy

Each link protocol provides different services

e.g., may or may not provide rdt over link

Trip from Princeton to Lausanne limo: Princeton to JFK plane: JFK to Geneva train: Geneva to Lausanne

Tourist = datagram Transport hop = communication link Transportation mode = link layer protocol Travel agent = routing algorithm

 Framing, link access

Link Layer Services

Encapsulate datagram into frame, adding header, trailer Channel access if shared medium Medium Access Control (MAC) addresses used in frame headers to identify source and dest

Reliable delivery between adjacent nodes

We learned how to do this already! (in ch3) Seldom used on low bit-error link (fiber, some twisted pair) Used for wireless links with high error rates

Different from IP address!

Link Layer Services (more)

Flow control
Pacing between adjacent sending and receiving nodes

Error detection
Errors caused by signal attenuation, noise. Receiver detects presence of errors

Error correction

Signals sender for retransmission or drops frame

Receiver identifies and corrects bit error(s) without resorting to retransmission With half duplex, nodes at both ends of link can transmit, but not at same time

Half-duplex and full-duplex

Where is Link Layer Implemented?

In each and every host Link layer implemented in adaptor (aka network interface card NIC)
Ethernet card, PCMCI card, 802.11 card Implements link, physical layer

host schematic application transport network link

cpu

memory

controller link physical physical transmission

host bus (e.g., PCI)

Attaches into hosts system buses Combination of hardware, software, and firmware

network adapter card

Adaptors Communicating
datagram controller datagram controller

sending host
datagram

receiving host

frame

Sending side:
Encapsulates datagram in frame Adds error checking bits, rdt, flow control, etc.

Receiving side
Looks for errors, rdt, flow control, etc. Extracts datagram, passes to upper layer

Data Link Layer

5.1 Introduction and services 5.2 Error detection and correction 5.3 Multiple access protocols 5.4 Link-layer Addressing 5.5 Ethernet

5.6 Link-layer switches 5.7 PPP 5.8 Link virtualization: MPLS 5.9 A day in the life of a web request

Error Detection
EDC= Error Detection and Correction bits (redundancy) D = Data protected by error checking, may include header fields

Error detection not 100% reliable!

Protocol may miss some errors, but rarely Larger EDC field yields better detection and correction

otherwise

Simple - Parity Checking

Single Bit Parity:
Detect single bit errors

Two Dimensional Bit Parity:

Detect and correct single bit errors

Internet Checksum (review)

Goal: detect errors (e.g. flipped bits) in transmitted packet Sender:

Receiver:

Treat segment contents as sequence of 16-bit integers Checksum: addition (1s complement sum) of segment contents Sender puts checksum value into UDP checksum field

Compute checksum of received segment Check if computed checksum equals checksum field value: NO - error detected YES - no error detected.

But maybe errors nonetheless?

Checksumming: Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)

View data bits, D, as a binary number Choose r+1 bit pattern (generator), G Goal: choose r CRC bits, R, such that
<D,R> exactly divisible by G (modulo 2) Receiver knows G, divides <D,R> by G.

Can detect all burst errors less than r+1 bits

If non-zero remainder error detected!

Widely used in practice (Ethernet, 802.11 WiFi)

Want:

CRC Example Choosing R

D.2r XOR R = nG Equivalently: D.2r = nG XOR R Equivalently:

If we divide D.2r by G, want remainder R

.2r D R = remainder[ ] G

CRC Standards

Defined for 8, 12, 16 and 32 bit genrators (G) CRC-32 adopted by many IEEE link-layer
protocols uses generator:

Detects all errors burst less than 33 bits Detects all odd number bit errors Burst errors greater than 33 bits with
probability 1-0.5r

Gcrc-32 = 100000100110000010001110110110111

Data Link Layer

5.1 Introduction and services 5.2 Error detection and correction 5.3 Multiple access protocols 5.4 Link-layer Addressing 5.5 Ethernet

5.6 Link-layer switches 5.7 PPP 5.8 Link virtualization: MPLS 5.9 A day in the life of a web request

Multiple Access Links and Protocols

Two types of links:

point-to-point (not shared)

PPP for dial-up access point-to-point link between Ethernet switch and host

broadcast (shared wire or medium)

old-fashioned Ethernet upstream HFC 802.11 wireless LAN

shared wire (e.g., cabled Ethernet)

shared RF (e.g., 802.11 WiFi)

shared RF (satellite)

humans at a cocktail party (shared air, acoustical)

Multiple Access Protocols

Single shared broadcast channel Two or more simultaneous transmissions by nodes interference
collision if node receives two or more signals at the same time

Multiple access protocol

Distributed algorithm determines how nodes share channel (i.e. determine when/who node can transmit) Communication about channel sharing must use channel itself!
no out-of-band channel for coordination

Ideal Multiple Access Protocol

Broadcast channel of rate R bps 1. When one node wants to transmit, it can send at rate R 2. When M nodes want to transmit, each can send at average rate R/M (no overhead) 3. Fully decentralized
No special node to coordinate transmissions No synchronization of clocks, slots

4. Simple

MAC Protocols: a Taxonomy

Three broad classes:

Channel Partitioning
Divide channel into smaller pieces (time slots, frequency) Allocate piece to node for exclusive use

Random Access
Channel not divided, allow collisions Recover from collisions

Taking turns
Nodes take turns, but nodes with more to send can perhaps take longer turns

Channel Partitioning MAC protocols: TDMA

TDMA: time division multiple access

Access to channel in "rounds" Each station gets fixed length slot (length = pkt trans time) in each round Unused slots go idle Example: 6-station LAN, 1,3,4 have pkt, slots 2,5,6 idle
6-slot frame 1 3 4

Channel Partitioning MAC protocols: FDMA

FDMA: frequency division multiple access

Channel spectrum divided into frequency bands Each station assigned fixed frequency band Unused transmission time in frequency bands go idle Example: 6-station LAN, 1,3,4 have pkt, frequency bands 2,5,6 idle frequency bands

FDM cable

Random Access Protocols

When node has packet to send
Transmit at full channel data rate R No a priori coordination among nodes

Two or more transmitting nodes collision Random access MAC protocol specifies:
How to detect collisions How to recover from collisions (e.g. via delayed retransmissions)

Examples of random access MAC protocols

slotted ALOHA ALOHA CSMA, CSMA/CD, CSMA/CA

Slotted ALOHA
Assumptions: Operation: All frames same size When node obtains fresh Time divided into equal frame, transmits in next slot size slots (time to If no collision: node can transmit 1 frame) send new frame in next Nodes start to transmit slot only slot beginning If collision: node Nodes are synchronized retransmits frame in If 2 or more nodes each subsequent slot with prob p until success transmit in slot, all nodes detect collision

Slotted ALOHA

Pros Single active node can continuously transmit at full rate of channel Highly decentralized: only slots in nodes need to be in sync Simple

Cons Collisions, wasting slots Idle slots Nodes may be able to detect collision in less than time to transmit packet Clock synchronization

Slotted Aloha Efficiency

Efficiency : long-run fraction of successful slots (many nodes, all with many frames to send)

Suppose: N nodes with many frames to send, each transmits in slot with probability p Prob that given node has success in a slot =
p(1-p)N-1

Max efficiency: find p that maximizes Np(1-p)N-1 For many nodes, take limit of Np(1-p)N-1 as N goes to infinity, gives:

Max efficiency = 1/e ~ .37

Prob that any node has a success = Np(1-p)N-1

At best: channel used for useful transmissions 37% of time!

Pure (Unslotted) ALOHA

Unslotted Aloha: simpler, no synchronization When frame first arrives
Transmit immediately

Collision probability increases:

Frame sent at t0 collides with other frames sent in [t0-1,t0+1]

Pure Aloha Efficiency

P(success by given node) = P(node transmits) . P(no other node transmits in [p0-1,p0] = p . (1-p)N-1 . (1-p)N-1 = p . (1-p)2(N-1)
choosing optimum p and then letting n -> infty ... = 1/(2e) = .18

P(no other node transmits in [p0-1,p0] .

Even worse than slotted Aloha!

CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access)

CSMA: listen before transmit If channel sensed idle transmit entire frame If channel sensed busy defer transmission

Human analogy: someone else talking? Dont interrupt!

CSMA Collisions
spatial layout of nodes

Collisions can still occur:

Propagation delay means two nodes may not hear each others transmission

Collision:

Entire packet transmission time wasted

Note:

Role of distance & propagation delay in determining collision probability

CSMA/CD (Collision Detection)

CSMA/CD: carrier sensing, deferral as in CSMA
Collisions detected within short time Colliding transmissions aborted, reducing channel wastage

Collision detection:
Easy in wired LANs
received signals

Measure signal strengths, compare transmitted, Received signal strength overwhelmed by local
transmission strength

Difficult in wireless LANs

Human analogy: the polite conversationalist

CSMA/CD (Collision Detection)

Taking Turns MAC protocols

Channel partitioning MAC protocols Share channel efficiently and fairly at high load Inefficient at low load: delay in channel access, 1/N bandwidth allocated even if only 1 active node! Random access MAC protocols Efficient at low load: single node can fully utilize channel High load: collision overhead Taking turns protocols

Look for best of both worlds!

Taking Turns MAC protocols

Polling: Master node invites slave nodes to transmit in turn Typically used with dumb slave devices Concerns:
Polling overhead Latency Single point of failure (master)

data poll

master
data

slaves

Taking Turns MAC protocols

Token passing: Control token passed from one node to next sequentially. Token message Concerns:
-

(nothing to send)

token overhead latency single point of failure (token)

data

Summary of MAC protocols

Channel partitioning Random access (dynamic),
Time Division, Frequency Division
ALOHA, S-ALOHA, CSMA, CSMA/CD carrier sensing: easy in some technologies (wire), hard in others (wireless) CSMA/CD used in Ethernet CSMA/CA used in 802.11

Taking turns

polling from central site, token passing Bluetooth, FDDI, IBM Token Ring

Data Link Layer

5.1 Introduction and services 5.2 Error detection and correction 5.3 Multiple access protocols 5.4 Link-Layer Addressing 5.5 Ethernet

5.6 Link-layer switches 5.7 PPP 5.8 Link virtualization: MPLS 5.9 A day in the life of a web request

MAC Addresses

32-bit IP address:
address:

MAC (or LAN or physical or Ethernet)

48 bit MAC address (for most LANs)

Network-layer address Used to get datagram to destination IP subnet

Function: get frame from one interface to another

physically-connected interface (same network)

burned in NIC ROM, also sometimes software settable

LAN Addresses
Each adapter on LAN has unique LAN address

1A-2F-BB-76-09-AD

Broadcast address = FF-FF-FF-FF-FF-FF

71-65-F7-2B-08-53

LAN (wired or wireless)

= adapter
58-23-D7-FA-20-B0

0C-C4-11-6F-E3-98

LAN Address (more)

MAC/LAN address allocation administered by IEEE Manufacturer buys portion of MAC address space (to assure uniqueness) Analogy: (a) MAC address: like Social Security Number (b) IP address: like postal address MAC flat address portability
Can move LAN card from one LAN to another

IP hierarchical address NOT portable

Address depends on IP subnet to which node is attached

ARP: Address Resolution Protocol

Question: how to determine MAC address of B knowing Bs IP address?

137.196.7.78 1A-2F-BB-76-09-AD 137.196.7.23 137.196.7.14

Each IP node (host, router) on LAN has ARP table ARP table: IP/MAC address mappings for some LAN nodes
IP address; MAC address; TTL TTL (Time To Live): time after which address mapping will be forgotten (typically 20 min)

LAN
71-65-F7-2B-08-53 58-23-D7-FA-20-B0

0C-C4-11-6F-E3-98 137.196.7.88

ARP Protocol: Same LAN

A wants to send datagram to B, and Bs MAC address not in As ARP table. A broadcasts ARP query packet, containing B's IP address dest MAC address = FFFF-FF-FF-FF-FF all machines on LAN receive ARP query B receives ARP packet, replies to A with its (B's) MAC address
frame sent to As MAC address (unicast)

A caches (saves) IP-toMAC address pair in its ARP table until information becomes old (times out) soft state: information that times out (goes away) unless refreshed ARP is plug-and-play: nodes create their ARP tables without

intervention from net administrator

Walkthrough: send datagram from A to B via R assume A knows Bs IP address

74-29-9C-E8-FF-55

Addressing: Routing to Another LAN

88-B2-2F-54-1A-0F

A
111.111.111.111

E6-E9-00-17-BB-4B 1A-23-F9-CD-06-9B

222.222.222.221

222.222.222.220 111.111.111.110 111.111.111.112

222.222.222.222

B
49-BD-D2-C7-56-2A

CC-49-DE-D0-AB-7D

Two ARP tables in router R, one for each IP network (LAN)

A creates IP datagram with source A, destination B A uses ARP to get Rs MAC address for 111.111.111.110 A creates link-layer frame with R's MAC address as dest, frame contains A-to-B IP datagram This is a really important As NIC sends frame example make sure you Rs NIC receives frame understand! R removes IP datagram from Ethernet frame, sees its destined to B R uses ARP to get Bs MAC address R creates frame containing A-to-B IP datagram sends to B
74-29-9C-E8-FF-55 88-B2-2F-54-1A-0F

A
E6-E9-00-17-BB-4B 111.111.111.111 1A-23-F9-CD-06-9B 222.222.222.221

222.222.222.220 111.111.111.110 111.111.111.112

222.222.222.222

B
49-BD-D2-C7-56-2A

CC-49-DE-D0-AB-7D

Data Link Layer

5.1 Introduction and services 5.2 Error detection and correction 5.3 Multiple access protocols 5.4 Link-Layer Addressing 5.5 Ethernet

5.6 Link-layer switches 5.7 PPP 5.8 Link virtualization: MPLS 5.9 A day in the life of a web request

Ethernet
Dominant wired LAN technology: Cheap ($20) for NIC First widely used LAN technology Simpler, cheaper than token LANs and ATM Kept up with speed race: 10 Mbps 10 Gbps

Metcalfes Ethernet sketch

Topology (Bus and Star)

Bus topology popular through mid 90s Today: star topology prevails

All nodes in same collision domain (can collide with each other) Active switch in center (contrast with hub) Each spoke runs a (separate) Ethernet protocol (nodes do not collide with each other)

switch

bus: coaxial cable

star

Ethernet Frame Structure

Sending adapter encapsulates IP datagram (or other network layer protocol packet) in Ethernet frame

Preamble: 7 bytes with pattern 10101010 followed by one byte with pattern 10101011 Used to synchronize receiver, sender clock rates

Ethernet Frame Structure (more)

Addresses: 6 bytes
If adapter receives frame with matching destination address or with broadcast address (e.g. ARP packet), it passes data in frame to network layer protocol otherwise, adapter discards frame

Type: indicates higher layer protocol (mostly IP but others possible, e.g., Novell IPX, AppleTalk) CRC: checked at receiver, if error is detected, frame is dropped

Ethernet: Unreliable, Connectionless

Connectionless: No handshaking between sending and receiving NICs Unreliable: receiving NIC doesnt send acks or nacks to sending NIC
Stream of datagrams passed to network layer can have gaps (missing datagrams) Gaps will be filled if app is using TCP Otherwise, app will see gaps

Ethernets MAC protocol: unslotted CSMA/CD

Ethernet CSMA/CD algorithm

1. NIC receives datagram 4. If NIC detects another from network layer, transmission while creates frame transmitting, aborts and sends jam signal 2. If NIC senses channel idle, starts frame transmission 5. After aborting, NIC If NIC senses channel enters exponential busy, waits until channel backoff: after mth idle, then transmits collision, NIC chooses K at random from 3. If NIC transmits entire {0,1,2,,2m-1}. NIC waits frame without detecting K512 bit times, returns to another transmission, NIC Step 2 is done with frame!

Ethernets CSMA/CD (more)

Jam Signal: make sure all other transmitters are aware of collision; 48 bits Bit time: .1 microsec for 10 Mbps Ethernet ; for K=1023, wait time is about 50 msec Exponential Backoff: Goal: adapt retransmission attempts to estimated current load heavy load: random wait will be longer First collision: choose K from {0,1}; delay is K 512 bit transmission times After second collision: choose K from {0,1,2,3} After ten collisions, choose K from {0,1,2,3,4,,1023}

See/interact with Java applet on AWL Web site: highly recommended!

CSMA/CD Efficiency
Tprop = max prop delay between 2 nodes in LAN ttrans = time to transmit max-size frame

efficiency

1 1 5t prop /t trans

Efficiency goes to 1 Better performance than ALOHA: and simple, cheap, decentralized!
as tprop goes to 0 as ttrans goes to infinity

 Many different Ethernet standards

802.3 Ethernet Standards: Link & Physical Layers

Common MAC protocol and frame format Different speeds: 2 Mbps, 10 Mbps, 100 Mbps, 1Gbps, 10G bps Different physical layer media: fiber, cable
application transport network link physical
MAC protocol and frame format
100BASE-TX 100BASE-T4 100BASE-T2 100BASE-SX 100BASE-FX

100BASE-BX

copper (twisted pair) physical layer

fiber physical layer

Manchester Encoding

Used in 10BaseT Each bit has a transition Allows clocks in sending and receiving nodes to synchronize to each other
No need for a centralized, global clock among nodes!

Hey, this is physical-layer stuff!

Data Link Layer

5.1 Introduction and services 5.2 Error detection and correction 5.3 Multiple access protocols 5.4 Link-layer Addressing 5.5 Ethernet

5.6 Link-layer switches, LANs, VLANs 5.7 PPP 5.8 Link virtualization: MPLS 5.9 A day in the life of a web request

Hubs
physical-layer (dumb) repeaters: bits coming in one link go out all other links at same rate
all nodes connected to hub can collide with one another no frame buffering no CSMA/CD at hub: host NICs detect collisions

twisted pair

hub

Switch

Link-layer device: smarter than hubs, take

active role
store, forward Ethernet frames examine incoming frames MAC address, selectively forward frame to one-or-more outgoing links when frame is to be forwarded on segment, uses CSMA/CD to access segment hosts are unaware of presence of switches switches do not need to be configured

Transparent

Plug-and-play, self-learning

Switch: Allows Multiple Simultaneous Transmissions

Hosts have dedicated, C direct connection to switch Switches buffer packets Ethernet protocol used on each incoming link, but no collisions; full duplex

B 6
1 2 5 4 C

Switching: A-to-A and Bto-B simultaneously, without collisions

Each link is its own collision domain

Not possible with dumb hub

switch with six interfaces (1,2,3,4,5,6)

Switch Table

Q: how does switch know that

A reachable via interface 4, B reachable via interface 5? A: each switch has a switch table, each entry: looks like a routing table! Q: how are entries created, maintained in switch table?
something like a routing protocol?

A C

B 6
1 2 5 4 C

(MAC address of host, interface to reach host, time stamp)

switch with six interfaces (1,2,3,4,5,6)

Switch: Self-learning

Source: A Dest: A

Switch learns which hosts can be reached through which interfaces

When frame received, switch learns location of sender: incoming LAN segment Records sender/location pair in switch table
MAC addr

A A A

B 6
1 2 5 4 C

B
interface
TTL

A 60
Switch table (initially empty)

Switch: Frame Filtering / Forwarding

When frame received: 1. Record link associated with sending host 2. Index switch table using MAC dest address 3. if entry found for destination then { if dest on segment from which frame arrived then drop the frame else forward the frame on interface indicated } else flood

forward on all but the interface on which the frame arrived

Self-learning, Forwarding: example

Source: A Dest: A

A A A C 1 2 3 6 A A 5 4 A A C

frame destination
unknown: flood
Destination A

location known: selective send

B
MAC addr interface TTL A A

A
Switch table (initially empty)

1 4

60 60

Interconnecting Switches
Switches can be connected together S4 S1

A
B C

S2 D E

S3

F G
H

Q: sending from A to G - how does S1 know to

forward frame destined to F via S4 and S3? A: self learning! (works exactly the same as in single-switch case!)

Self-learning multi-switch example

Suppose C sends frame to I, I responds to C
1 S1 2 C S2 D E S4 S3

A
B

F G
H

Q: show switch tables and packet forwarding in S1,

S2, S3, S4

Institutional Network
to external network
mail server router web server IP subnet

Switches vs. Routers

both store-and-forward devices
routers: network layer devices (examine network layer headers) switches are link layer devices

routers maintain routing tables, implement routing algorithms switches maintain switch tables, implement filtering, learning algorithms

Data Link Layer

5.1 Introduction and services 5.2 Error detection and correction 5.3 Multiple access protocols 5.4 Link-Layer Addressing 5.5 Ethernet

5.6 Link-layer switches 5.7 PPP 5.8 Link virtualization: MPLS 5.9 A day in the life of a web request

But First! Elements of Wireless (WiFi)

Note some key characteristics of Wireless

that differ from wired 802.11 (WiFi) as contrast to 802.3 (Ethernet) (Bits of Ch 6.1 6.3)

Characteristics of Selected Wireless Link Standards

200 54 5-11 4 1
802.11n 802.11a,g 802.11b 802.16 (WiMAX) UMTS/WCDMA-HSPDA, CDMA2000-1xEVDO 802.15

Data rate (Mbps)

data 3G cellular enhanced

.384 .056
Indoor
10-30m

UMTS/WCDMA, CDMA2000 IS-95, CDMA, GSM

3G
2G

Outdoor
50-200m

Mid-range Long-range outdoor outdoor

200m 4 Km 5Km 20 Km

Wireless Link Characteristics (1)

Differences from wired link .
decreased signal strength: radio signal attenuates as it propagates through matter (path loss) interference from other sources: standardized wireless network frequencies (e.g., 2.4 GHz) shared by other devices (e.g., phone); devices (motors) interfere as well multipath propagation: radio signal reflects off objects ground, arriving ad destination at slightly different times

. make communication across (even a point to

point) wireless link much more difficult

Wireless Link Characteristics (2)

SNR: signal-to-noise ratio larger SNR easier to extract signal from noise (a good thing)
10-1 10-2 10-3

SNR versus BER tradeoffs Given physical layer:

BER

10-4 10-5 10-6 10-7

increase power increase SNR decrease BER Given SNR: choose physical layer that meets BER requirement, giving highest thruput

10

20

30

40

SNR(dB) QAM256 (8 Mbps) QAM16 (4 Mbps)

SNR may change with

mobility: dynamically adapt physical layer (modulation technique, rate)

BPSK (1 Mbps)

Wireless Network Characteristics

Multiple wireless senders and receivers create additional problems (beyond multiple access): A B
As signal strength

C A

C
Cs signal strength

Hidden terminal problem

space

B, A hear each other B, C hear each other A, C can not hear each other means A, C unaware of their interference at B

Signal attenuation:

B, A hear each other B, C hear each other A, C can not hear each other interfering at B

IEEE 802.11 Wireless LAN 802.11a 802.11b

2.4-5 GHz unlicensed spectrum up to 11 Mbps direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS) in physical layer all hosts use same chipping code

5-6 GHz range up to 54 Mbps 2.4-5 GHz range up to 54 Mbps

802.11g
802.11n: multiple antennae
2.4-5 GHz range up to 200 Mbps

All use CSMA/CA for multiple access All have base-station and ad-hoc network versions

IEEE 802.11: multiple access

Avoid collisions: 2+ nodes transmitting at same time 802.11: CSMA - sense before transmitting 802.11: no collision detection!
dont collide with ongoing transmission by other node difficult to receive (sense collisions) when transmitting due to weak received signals (fading) cant sense all collisions in any case: hidden terminal, fading goal: avoid collisions: CSMA/C(ollision)A(voidance)

C A B

A
As signal strength

C
Cs signal strength

space

IEEE 802.11 MAC Protocol: CSMA/CA

802.11 sender 1 if sense channel idle for DIFS then
transmit entire frame (no CD) 2 if sense channel busy then start random backoff time timer counts down while channel idle transmit when timer expires if no ACK, increase random backoff interval, repeat 2
sender
DIFS

receiver

data
SIFS

802.11 receiver - if frame received OK

return ACK after SIFS (ACK needed due to hidden terminal problem)

ACK

802.11: Advanced Capabilities

Rate Adaptation

10-1 10-2 10-3

Base station, mobile dynamically change transmission rate (physical layer modulation technique) as mobile moves, SNR varies
QAM256 (8 Mbps) QAM16 (4 Mbps) BPSK (1 Mbps) operating point

BER

10-4 10-5 10-6 10-7 10 20 30 40

SNR(dB)

1. SNR decreases, BER increase as node moves away from base station 2. When BER becomes too high, switch to lower transmission rate but with lower BER

More Wireless!

Power management Other protocols: Zigbee, 3G, WiMax Mobility Security

Link Layer

5.1 Introduction and services 5.2 Error detection and correction 5.3Multiple access protocols 5.4 Link-Layer Addressing 5.5 Ethernet

5.6 Link-layer switches 5.7 PPP 5.8 Link virtualization: MPLS 5.9 A day in the life of a web request

Synthesis: a day in the life of a Web request

Journey down protocol stack complete!

Putting-it-all-together: synthesis!

Application, Transport, Network, Data Link goal: identify, review, understand protocols (at all layers) involved in seemingly simple scenario: requesting www page scenario: student attaches laptop to campus network, requests/receives www.google.com

A day in the life: Scenario

browser

DNS server Comcast network 68.80.0.0/13

school network 68.80.2.0/24

web page

web server 64.233.169.105

Googles network 64.233.160.0/19

A day in the life connecting to the Internet

DHCP DHCP DHCP DHCP

DHCP UDP IP Eth Phy

DHCP

connecting laptop needs to get its own IP address, addr of first-hop router, addr of DNS server: use

DHCP

DHCP request encapsulated

DHCP DHCP DHCP

DHCP

DHCP UDP IP Eth Phy

in UDP, encapsulated in IP, encapsulated in 802.1 Ethernet

router (runs DHCP)

Ethernet frame broadcast

(dest: FFFFFFFFFFFF) on LAN, received at router running DHCP server

Ethernet demuxed to IP

demuxed, UDP demuxed to DHCP

A day in the life connecting to the Internet

DHCP DHCP DHCP DHCP

DHCP UDP IP Eth Phy

DHCP server formulates DHCP ACK containing clients IP address, IP address of first-hop router for client, name & IP address of DNS server Encapsulation at DHCP server, frame forwarded (switch learning) through LAN, demultiplexing at client DHCP client receives DHCP ACK reply

DHCP DHCP DHCP

DHCP
DHCP

DHCP UDP IP Eth Phy

router (runs DHCP)

Client now has IP address, knows name & addr of DNS server, IP address of its first-hop router

A day in the life ARP (before DNS, before HTTP)

DNS DNS DNS ARP query

DNS UDP IP ARP Eth Phy

Before sending HTTP request, need IP address of DNS query created, encapsulated in UDP, encapsulated in IP, encasulated in Eth. In order to send frame to router, need MAC address of router interface: ARP ARP query broadcast, received by router, which replies with ARP reply giving MAC address of router interface Client now knows MAC address of first hop router, so can now send frame containing DNS query
www.google.com: DNS

ARP ARP reply

Eth Phy

A day in the life using DNS

DNS DNS DNS DNS

DNS DNS

DNS UDP IP Eth Phy

DNS

DNS DNS

DNS UDP IP Eth Phy

DNS server

Comcast network 68.80.0.0/13

IP datagram containing DNS query forwarded via LAN switch from client to 1st hop router

IP datagram forwarded from campus network into comcast network, routed (tables created by RIP, OSPF, IS-IS and/or BGP routing protocols) to DNS server demuxed to DNS server DNS server replies to client with IP address of www.google.com

A day in the life TCP connection carrying HTTP

HTTP SYNACK SYN SYNACK SYN SYNACK SYN

HTTP TCP IP Eth Phy

SYNACK SYN SYNACK SYN SYNACK SYN

TCP IP Eth Phy

web server 64.233.169.105

To send HTTP request, client first opens TCP socket to web server TCP SYN segment (step 1 in 3-way handshake) interdomain routed to web server Web server responds with TCP SYNACK (step 2 in 3way handshake)

TCP connection established!

A day in the life HTTP request/reply

HTTP HTTP HTTP HTTP HTTP HTTP HTTP HTTP

HTTP TCP IP Eth Phy

Web page finally (!!!) displayed

HTTP request sent into TCP socket IP datagram containing HTTP request routed to www.google.com Web server responds with HTTP reply (containing web page) IP datgram containing HTTP reply routed back to client

HTTP HTTP HTTP HTTP

HTTP TCP IP Eth Phy

web server 64.233.169.105

Chapter 5: Summary

Principles behind data link layer services:
error detection, correction sharing a broadcast channel: multiple access link layer addressing

Synthesis: a day in the life of a web request

Instantiation and implementation of various link layer technologies Addressing Ethernet Switched LANS

 Journey down protocol stack complete

Chapter 5: Lets take a breath

(except PHY) Solid understanding of networking principles, practice .. could stop here . but lots of interesting topics!
Wireless Multimedia Security Network management