William Stallings Computer Organization and Architecture 8th Edition Chapter 9 Computer Arithmetic

Arithmetic & Logic Unit

Does the calculations Everything else in the computer is there to service this unit Handles integers May handle floating point (real) numbers May be separate FPU (maths coprocessor) May be on chip separate FPU (486DX +)

ALU Inputs and Outputs

Integer Representation
Only have 0 & 1 to represent everything Positive numbers stored in binary
e.g. 41=00101001

No minus sign No period Sign-Magnitude Twos compliment

Sign-Magnitude
Left most bit is sign bit 0 means positive 1 means negative +18 = 00010010 -18 = 10010010 Problems
Need to consider both sign and magnitude in arithmetic Two representations of zero (+0 and -0)

Twos Compliment
+3 +2 +1 +0 -1 -2 -3 = = = = = = = 00000011 00000010 00000001 00000000 11111111 11111110 11111101

Benefits
One representation of zero Arithmetic works easily (see later) Negating is fairly easy
3 = 00000011 Boolean complement gives Add 1 to LSB 11111100 11111101

Geometric Depiction of Twos Complement Integers

Negation Special Case 1

0= 00000000 Bitwise not 11111111 Add 1 to LSB +1 Result 1 00000000 Overflow is ignored, so: -0=0

Negation Special Case 2

-128 = 10000000 bitwise not 01111111 Add 1 to LSB +1 Result 10000000 So: -(-128) = -128 X Monitor MSB (sign bit) It should change during negation

Range of Numbers
8 bit 2s compliment
+127 = 01111111 = 27 -1 -128 = 10000000 = -27

16 bit 2s compliment
+32767 = 011111111 11111111 = 215 - 1 -32768 = 100000000 00000000 = -215

Conversion Between Lengths

Positive number pack with leading zeros +18 = 00010010 +18 = 00000000 00010010 Negative numbers pack with leading ones -18 = 10010010 -18 = 11111111 10010010 i.e. pack with MSB (sign bit)

Addition and Subtraction

Normal binary addition Monitor sign bit for overflow Take twos compliment of substahend and add to minuend
i.e. a - b = a + (-b)

So we only need addition and complement circuits

Hardware for Addition and Subtraction

Multiplication
Complex Work out partial product for each digit Take care with place value (column) Add partial products

Multiplication Example
1011 Multiplicand (11 dec) x 1101 Multiplier (13 dec) 1011 Partial products 0000 Note: if multiplier bit is 1 copy 1011 multiplicand (place value) 1011 otherwise zero 10001111 Product (143 dec) Note: need double length result

Unsigned Binary Multiplication

Execution of Example

Flowchart for Unsigned Binary Multiplication

Multiplying Negative Numbers

This does not work! Solution 1
Convert to positive if required Multiply as above If signs were different, negate answer

Solution 2
Booths algorithm

Booths Algorithm

Example of Booths Algorithm

Division
More complex than multiplication Negative numbers are really bad! Based on long division

Division of Unsigned Binary Integers

00001101 1011 10010011 1011 001110 Partial 1011 Remainders 001111 1011 100 Divisor

Quotient Dividend

Remainder

Flowchart for Unsigned Binary Division

Real Numbers
Numbers with fractions Could be done in pure binary
1001.1010 = 24 + 20 +2-1 + 2-3 =9.625

Where is the binary point? Fixed?

Very limited

Moving?
How do you show where it is?

Floating Point

+/- .significand x 2exponent Misnomer Point is actually fixed between sign bit and body of mantissa Exponent indicates place value (point position)

Floating Point Examples

Signs for Floating Point

Mantissa is stored in 2s compliment Exponent is in excess or biased notation
e.g. Excess (bias) 128 means 8 bit exponent field Pure value range 0-255 Subtract 128 to get correct value Range -128 to +127

Normalization
FP numbers are usually normalized i.e. exponent is adjusted so that leading bit (MSB) of mantissa is 1 Since it is always 1 there is no need to store it (c.f. Scientific notation where numbers are normalized to give a single digit before the decimal point e.g. 3.123 x 103)

FP Ranges
For a 32 bit number
8 bit exponent +/- 2256 1.5 x 1077

Accuracy
The effect of changing lsb of mantissa 23 bit mantissa 2-23 1.2 x 10-7 About 6 decimal places

Expressible Numbers

Density of Floating Point Numbers

IEEE 754
Standard for floating point storage 32 and 64 bit standards 8 and 11 bit exponent respectively Extended formats (both mantissa and exponent) for intermediate results

IEEE 754 Formats

FP Arithmetic +/ Check for zeros Align significands (adjusting exponents) Add or subtract significands Normalize result

FP Addition & Subtraction Flowchart

FP Arithmetic x/
Check for zero Add/subtract exponents Multiply/divide significands (watch sign) Normalize Round All intermediate results should be in double length storage

Floating Point Multiplication

Floating Point Division

Required Reading
Stallings Chapter 9 IEEE 754 on IEEE Web site