Introduction to Cinema

Module III

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Contents
Articles
Film director Auteur theory Jean-Luc Godard James Monaco Rotten Tomatoes Internet Movie Database Actor Constantin Stanislavski Method acting Presentational and representational acting Stanislavski's system Heath Ledger Makarand Deshpande Irrfan Khan Naseeruddin Shah Atul Kulkarni Academy Award 1 9 12 22 23 27 33 37 49 54 58 64 78 81 87 95 99

References
Article Sources and Contributors Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 114 120

Article Licenses
License 121

Film director

Film director
A film director is a person who directs the making of a film. Generally, a film director controls a film's artistic and dramatic aspects, and visualizes the script while guiding the technical crew and actors in the fulfillment of that vision.[]

Responsibilities
Film directors create an "overall vision" through which a film gets eventually "born".[] Realizing this vision includes to oversee "the cinematography and the technical aspects" as well as directing the shooting timetable and meeting deadlines.[] This means organizing "the array of people working under him on how to best capture his artistic vision for the film".[] [1] This requires "good leadership and motivational skills" as well as "the ability to stay calm in stressful situations".[] Moreover it is necessary to have "an artistic eye to frame shots" and to give precise feedback to cast and crew.[] Subsequently excellent communication skills are a must.[] Since he depends on a successful cooperation of a lot of different creative individuals with possibly strongly contradicting artistic ideals and visions, he also needs "to be a diplomat" in order mediate whenever necessary .[2] Thus he makes sure all assembled talent "blends into a single consciousness".[] The set of varying challenges he has to tackle have been described as The film director, on the right, gives last minute "a multi-dimensional jigsaw puzzle with egos and weather thrown in [] direction to the cast and crew, while filming a for good measure". It adds to the pressure that the success of a film costume drama on location in London. can influence when and how they will work again. [3] Always omnipresent are the boundaries of his budget.[4] He might also have to ensure an intended age rating.[5] Theoretically the director has "to answer only to executive producers". [] [] Still a "real-life brawl" between a film director and an actor can possibly cause that the film director gets fired if the actor is a major film star.[6] Even so, "from the first day of brainstorming to the final release" directors often spend more working hours on films than "any actor, technician, or editor" and consequently the profession can be "physically, mentally, and emotionally draining".[] It has been said that "20-hour days are not unusual".[]

Becoming a film director

Some film directors started as actors, film editors or screenwriters.[7] Other film directors have visited a film school to "get formal training and education in their craft". [8] Film students can study "the basic principles, techniques and procedures of film direction and production"[9] This includes for example "preparation, shot lists and storyboards, blocking, protocols of dealing with professional actors, reading scripts, the construction of film".[10] Some film schools are equipped with sound stages and "extensive post-production facilities"[11] Besides "organizational and technical skills" students also achieve "insights into social contexts and relationships"[12] Students are led to explore their own creativity and moreover they are introduced in "ways of working that foster the important exchange of ideas".[13] They are finally supposed to be fit to deal with all forms and genres.[14] A full degree course can be designed for upt to five years of studying.[15] Future directors usually complete short films during their enrolment.[] The National Film School of Denmark has the student's final projects presented on national TV. [16] Some film schools retain the rights for their students' works.[17] Many directors successfully prepared for making feature films by working in televison.[18] The German Film and Television Academy Berlin consequently cooperates with the

Film director Berlin/Brandenburg TV station RBB (Berlin-Brandenburg Broadcasting) and ARTE.[19] Director, screenwriter and film producer Luc Besson founded his own film school "Ecole de la Cit" for directing and screenwriting in 2013. On its homepage he explained that because he wasn't given the chance to attend a film school he had to go very long way and "carried tons of gear". He started at the bottom of the ladder as an unpaid intern on a short film and is still grateful to the technicians who have given him "kindly and patiently" training on the job.[20] In the USA there is also an "Assistant Directors Training Program" sponsored by the Directors Guild of America. [] The trainee gets paid and receives HMO. [21]

Characteristics of film directors

Different directors can vary immensely amongst themselves, under various characteristics. Several examples are: Outline a general plotline and let the actors improvise dialogue. Notable examples include Ingmar Bergman, Christopher Guest, Wong Kar-wai, Spike Lee, Wim Wenders, Mike Leigh, Barry Levinson, Jean-Luc Godard, Mikls Jancs, Gus Van Sant, Judd Apatow, Jay and Mark Duplass, and occasionally Robert Altman, Sergio Leone and Federico Fellini. Control every aspect, and demand that the actors and crew follow Here, director William Eubank performs multiple instructions precisely. Notable examples include David Lean, Akira roles on-set as both director and camera operator. Kurosawa, Steven Spielberg, Victor Fleming, James Cameron, George Lucas, Stanley Kubrick, Sidney Lumet, Christopher Nolan, David Fincher, Guillermo del Toro and Alfred Hitchcock. Write their own screenplays. Notable examples include Woody Allen, Werner Herzog, Alejandro Jodorowsky, John Cassavetes, Ingmar Bergman, Stanley Kubrick, Quentin Tarantino, James Cameron, George Lucas, J. F. Lawton, David Cronenberg, Charlie Chaplin, Billy Wilder, Ed Wood, David Lynch, the Coen brothers, Francis Ford Coppola, Sofia Coppola, Pedro Almodvar, John Hughes, Nick Park, Edward Burns, Kevin Smith, Todd Field, Cameron Crowe, Oren Peli, Eli Roth, Paul Thomas Anderson, Guillermo del Toro, Rainer Werner Fassbinder, Oliver Stone, Terrence Malick, John Singleton, Spike Lee, Orson Welles, Akira Kurosawa, Hayao Miyazaki, M. Night Shyamalan, Paul Haggis, Billy Bob Thornton, James Wong, Tyler Perry, Robert Rodriguez, Christopher Nolan, George A. Romero, Sergio Leone, Satyajit Ray, Joss Whedon and David O. Russell. Steven Spielberg and Sidney J. Furie have written screenplays for a small number of their films. Collaborate on screenplays with long-standing writing partners. Notable examples include Alejandro Gonzlez Irritu and Guillermo Arriaga, Elia Kazan and Tennessee Williams, Terry Gilliam and Charles McKeown/Tony Grisoni, Wes Anderson and Owen Wilson/Noah Baumbach, Edgar Wright and Simon Pegg, Martin Scorsese and Nicholas Pileggi/Paul Schrader/Jay Cocks, Yasujir Ozu and Kgo Noda, Peter Jackson and Fran Walsh, Alexander Payne and Jim Taylor, Robert Zemeckis and Bob Gale, Luis Buuel and Jean-Claude Carrire/Luis Alcoriza, Krzysztof Kielowski/Krzysztof Piesiewicz, Frank Capra/Robert Riskin, Michelangelo Antonioni/Tonino Guerra, Billy Wilder/I.A.L. Diamond, Sergio Leone and Sergio Donati, Guillermo del Toro and Matthew Robbins, and Christopher Nolan/Jonathan Nolan/David S. Goyer. Be the cinematographer and/or editor. Notable examples include Nicolas Roeg, Akira Kurosawa, Peter Hyams, Steven Soderbergh, Josef von Sternberg, David Lean, Don Coscarelli, Robert Rodriguez, James Cameron, Ed Wood, Gaspar Noe, Tony Kaye, Takeshi Kitano, Andy Warhol, Shinya Tsukamoto, Kenneth Anger, the Coen brothers. Appear in their films. Notable examples include Clint Eastwood, Orson Welles, Mel Gibson, Martin Scorsese, Peter Jackson, John Waters, John Carpenter, Spike Lee, Tyler Perry, Rainer Werner Fassbinder, Kevin Costner,

Film director Kenneth Anger, Woody Allen, Jon Favreau, Quentin Tarantino, Eli Roth, Michael Bay, Mel Brooks, Ben Stiller, Alejandro Jodorowsky, Charlie Chaplin, Terry Jones, Edward Burns, Sam Raimi, Roman Polanski, Billy Bob Thornton, Sylvester Stallone, M. Night Shyamalan, Harold Ramis, Robert De Niro, John Woo, Kevin Smith, Warren Beatty, Kenneth Branagh and Ed Wood. Alfred Hitchcock, Abel Ferrara, Shawn Levy, Edgar Wright and Spike Jonze made cameo appearances in their films. Compose a music score for their films. Notable examples include Charlie Chaplin, Clint Eastwood, David Lynch, Alejandro Jodorowsky, John Carpenter, Alejandro Amenbar, Satyajit Ray, Robert Rodriguez, Tom Tykwer and Vishal Bhardwaj.

Professional organizations
In the United States, directors usually belong to the Directors Guild of America. The Canadian equivalent is the Directors Guild of Canada. In the UK, directors usually belong to Directors UK or the Directors Guild of Great Britain. In Europe, FERA, the Federation of European Film Directors, represents 37 national directors' guilds in 30 countries.

Notable film directors

Ben Affleck Woody Allen Pedro Almodvar Robert Altman Lindsay Anderson Michael Anderson Paul Thomas Anderson Wes Anderson Theodoros Angelopoulos Jean-Jacques Annaud Sathyan Anthikad Michelangelo Antonioni Judd Apatow Andrea Arnold Dario Argento Darren Aronofsky Dorothy Arzner Richard Attenborough Kailasam Balachander Mario Bava Ingmar Bergman Bharathan Bharathiraja Kathryn Bigelow Brad Bird John Boorman Danny Boyle Robert Bresson

Mel Brooks Tod Browning

Film director Luis Buuel Tim Burton James Cameron Jane Campion Frank Capra John Carpenter John Cassavetes Liliana Cavani Nuri Bilge Ceylan Gurinder Chadha Charlie Chaplin Yash Chopra Henri-Georges Clouzot Coen brothers Chris Columbus Francis Ford Coppola Sophia Coppola Roger Corman Wes Craven David Cronenberg Alfonso Cuaron Stephen Daldry Joe Dante Frank Darabont Julie Dash Guillermo del Toro Brian De Palma Vittorio De Sica Andrew Dominik Stanley Donen Carl Theodor Dreyer Guru Dutt Clint Eastwood Sergei Eisenstein Roland Emmerich Nora Ephron Vctor Erice Rainer Werner Fassbinder Federico Fellini Todd Field David Fincher Victor Fleming John Ford Milo Forman John Frankenheimer

William Friedkin Lucio Fulci

Film director Samuel Fuller Ritwik Ghatak Lewis Gilbert Terry Gilliam Jean-Luc Godard D. W. Griffith Michael Haneke Renny Harlin Hal Hartley Howard Hawks Amy Heckerling Werner Herzog George Roy Hill Walter Hill Alfred Hitchcock Tobe Hooper Tom Hooper Ron Howard John Hughes John Huston Kon Ichikawa Mikls Jancs Peter Jackson Jean-Pierre Jeunet Rian Johnson Joe Johnston Chuck Jones Connor Osoro Elia Kazan Buster Keaton Abbas Kiarostami Krzysztof Kielowski Masaki Kobayashi Stanley Kramer Stanley Kubrick Akira Kurosawa Emir Kusturica Fritz Lang John Lasseter David Lean Ang Lee Spike Lee Sergio Leone Barry Levinson Ken Loach

Joseph Losey George Lucas

Film director Sidney Lumet Ernst Lubitsch David Lynch Maria Maggenti Samira Makhmalbaf Terrence Malick Louis Malle Joseph L. Mankiewicz Michael Mann Rob Marshall Steve McQueen Deepa Mehta Georges Mlis Sam Mendes Mrta Mszros Anthony Minghella Hayao Miyazaki Kenji Mizoguchi F. W. Murnau Mira Nair Christopher Nolan Frank Oz Yasujir Ozu Padmarajan Park Chan-Wook Sergei Parajanov Alan Parker Sam Peckinpah Arthur Penn Dadasaheb Phalke Roman Polanski Sally Potter Otto Preminger Powell and Pressburger Priyadarshan Sam Raimi Harold Ramis Ranjith Mani Ratnam Nicholas Ray Satyajit Ray Rob Reiner Ivan Reitman Jason Reitman Jean Renoir

Alain Resnais Leni Riefenstahl

Film director ric Rohmer George A. Romero Roberto Rossellini Eli Roth Bimal Roy John Sayles Franklin J. Schaffner Martin Scorsese Ridley Scott Tony Scott Shankar V. Shantaram M. Night Shyamalan Don Siegel Robert Siodmak Kevin Smith Steven Soderbergh Paolo Sorrentino Steven Spielberg George Stevens Oliver Stone John Sturges Preston Sturges Istvn Szab Quentin Tarantino Andrei Tarkovsky Bela Tarr Ji Trnka Jacques Tourneur Franois Truffaut Jon Turteltaub Agns Varda Gore Verbinski Paul Verhoeven King Vidor Luchino Visconti Lars von Trier The Wachowskis James Wan Peter Weir Orson Welles Wim Wenders James Whale Joss Whedon Billy Wilder

Robert Wise Ed Wood

Film director Edgar Wright William Wyler David Yates Peter Yates Karel Zeman Robert Zemeckis Mai Zetterling Fred Zinnemann

Bibliography
Spencer Moon: Reel Black Talk: A Sourcebook of 50 American Filmmakers, Greenwoood Press 1997 The St. James Women Filmmakers Encyclopedia: Women on the Other Side of the Camera, Visible Ink Press, 1999 International dictionary of films and filmmakers, ed. by Tom Pendergast, 4 volumes, Detroit [etc.]: St. James Press, 4th edition 2000, vol. 2: Directors Contemporary North American Film Directors: A Wallflower Critical Guide (Wallflower Critical Guides to Contemporary Directors), ed. by Yoram Allon Del Cullen and Hannah Patterson, Second Edition, Columbia Univ Press 2002 Alexander Jacoby, Donald Richie: A Critical Handbook of Japanese Film Directors: From the Silent Era to the Present Day, Stone Bridge Press, 2008, ISBN 1-933330-53-8 Rebecca Hillauer: Encyclopedia of Arab Women Filmmakers, American University in Cairo Press, 2005, ISBN 977-424-943-7 Roy Armes: Dictionary of African Filmmakers, Indiana University Press, 2008, ISBN 0-253-35116-2 Philippe Rege: Encyclopedia of French Film Directors, Scarecrow Press, 2009

Notes External links

Federation of European Film Directors (http://www.filmdirectors.eu/) Directors Guild of America (http://www.dga.org) Directors Guild of Canada (http://www.dgc.ca/page.php?id=100) Directors UK (http://www.directors.uk.com) Directors Guild of Great Britain (http://www.dggb.org) A comprehensive collection of interviews with a century's worth of European film directors (http://zakka.dk/ euroscreenwriters/interviews/interviews.htm) Films101 The best directors picked by critics and filmmakers (http://www.films101.com/direcr.htm) Senses of Cinema - Great Directors (http://archive.sensesofcinema.com/contents/directors/index.html) Getting started in film, TV and interactive digital media (http://www.screenaustralia.gov.au/documents/ SA_publications/IG/GettingStarted.pdf) How to become a film director (http://www.youth.gov.hk/en/special/innoaction/video07.htm) Assistant Directors Training Program (http://www.trainingplan.org/jobdescription.html) Film directing, the director's job (http://preproduction.4filmmaking.com/directors-job.html) Career and Salary (http://degreedirectory.org/articles/Film_Director_Career_and_Salary_FAQs.html)

Auteur theory

Auteur theory
In film criticism, auteur theory holds that a director's film reflects the director's personal creative vision, as if they were the primary "auteur" (the French word for "author"). In spite ofand sometimes even because ofthe production of the film as part of an industrial process, the auteur's creative voice is distinct enough to shine through all kinds of studio interference and through the collective process. In law, the film is treated as a work of art, and the auteur, as the creator of the film, is the original copyright holder. Under European Union law, the film director is considered the author or one of the authors of a film, largely as a result of the influence of auteur theory.[1] Auteur theory has influenced film criticism since 1954, when it was advocated by film director and critic Franois Truffaut. This method of film analysis was originally associated with the French New Wave and the film critics who wrote for the French film review periodical Cahiers du Cinma. Auteur theory was developed a few years later in the United States through the writings of The Village Voice critic Andrew Sarris. Sarris used auteur theory as a way to further the analysis of what defines serious work through the study of respected directors and their films.

Origin
Auteur theory draws on the work of a group of cinema enthusiasts who wrote for Cahiers du Cinma and argued that films should reflect a director's personal vision. The championed filmmakers such as Akira Kurosawa, Satyajit Ray, Alfred Hitchcock, Howard Hawks, and Jean Renoir are known as absolute 'auteurs' of their films. Although Andr Bazin, co-founder of the Cahiers, provided a forum for Auteurism to flourish, he explained his concern about its excesses in his article "On the Auteur Theory" (Cahier # 70, 1957). Another element of Auteur theory comes from Alexandre Astruc's notion of the camra-stylo or "camera-pen," which encourages directors to wield cameras as writers use pens and to guard against the hindrances of traditional storytelling. Truffaut and the members of the Cahiers recognized that movie-making was an industrial process. However, they proposed an ideal to strive for, encouraging the director to use the commercial apparatus as a writer uses a pen, and, through the mise en scne, imprint his or her vision on the work (minimizing the role of the screenwriter). Recognizing the difficulty of reaching this ideal, they valued the work of directors who came close. The definition of an Auteur was debated upon since the 1940s. Andre Bazin and Roger Leenhardt presented the theory that it is the director that brings the film to life and uses the film to express their thoughts and feelings about the subject matter as well as a world view as an auteur. An auteur can use lighting, camerawork, staging and editing to add to their vision.[2]

Truffaut's development
In his 1954 essay "Une certaine tendance du cinma franais" ("A certain tendency in French cinema"), Franois Truffaut coined the phrase "la politique des Auteurs", asserting that the worst of Jean Renoir's movies would always be more interesting than the best of the movies of Jean Delannoy. "Politique" might very well be translated as "policy" or "program"; it involves a conscious decision to value and look at films in a certain way. One might see it as the policy of treating any director that uses a personal style or a unique world view as an Auteur. Truffaut criticized the Cinema of Quality as "Scenarists' films", which are works that lack originality and rely on literary classics. According to Truffaut, this means that the director is only a metteur en scene, a "stager". This tradition suggests that the screenwriter hands the script to the director and the director simply adds the performers and pictures.[3] Truffaut provocatively said: "(t)here are no good and bad movies, only good and bad directors". Truffaut's article, by his own admission, dealt primarily with scenarists or screenwriters, precisely the screenwriting duo Jean Aurenche and Pierre Bost, who, Truffaut believed, simplified and compromised many of the great works of French literature in order to support the political agenda of their day. In Truffaut's article, he references the director

Auteur theory Claude Autant-Lara's characterization of his adaptation of Raymond Radiguet's Devil in the Flesh as an "anti-war" book, citing the problem that the book pre-dated the Second World War. Truffaut applied the term "auteur" to directors like Jean Renoir, Max Ophls, Jacques Becker, Jacques Tati, and Robert Bresson, who, aside from exerting their distinct style, wrote the screenplays or worked on the writing of screenplays of their films. In its embryonic form, the auteur theory dealt with the nature of literary adaptations and Truffaut's discomfort with the screenwriters Aurenche's and Bost's maxim that any film adaptation of a novel should capture the spirit of the novel and deal only with its "filmable" aspects. Truffaut believed that film directors like Robert Bresson were able to use the film narrative to approach even the so-called "unfilmable" scenes. To support this assertion, he used the film version of Georges Bernanos's Diary of a Country Priest. Much of the writing of Truffaut and his colleagues at the film criticism magazine Cahiers du cinma was designed to lambaste not only the post-war French cinema but especially the big production films of the cinma de qualit ("quality films"). Truffaut's circle referred to these films with disdain as sterile, old-fashioned cinma de papa (or "Dad's cinema"). During the Nazi occupation, the Vichy government did not allow the exhibition of U.S. films such as The Maltese Falcon and Citizen Kane. In 1946, when French film critics were finally able to see the 1940s U.S. movies, they were enamoured with these films. Truffaut's theory maintains that a good director (and many bad ones) exerts such a distinctive style or promotes such a consistent theme that his or her influence is unmistakable in the body of his or her work. Truffaut himself was appreciative of directors whose work showed a marked visual style (such as Alfred Hitchcock) as well as those whose visual style was less pronounced but whose movies reflected a consistent theme (such as Jean Renoir's humanism). Truffaut et al. made the distinction between auteurs and 'metteurs en scene', the latter not being described as inferior directors making inherently poor films, just lacking the authorial signature.

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Impact
The auteur theory was used by the directors of the nouvelle vague (New Wave) movement of French cinema in the 1960s (many of whom were also critics at the Cahiers du Cinma) as justification for their intensely personal and idiosyncratic films. One of the ironies of the Auteur theory is that, at the very moment Truffaut was writing, the break-up of the Hollywood studio system during the 1950s was ushering in a period of uncertainty and conservatism in American cinema, with the result that fewer of the sort of films Truffaut admired were actually being made. The "auteur" approach was adopted in English-language film criticism in the 1960s. In the UK, Movie adopted Auteurism, while in the U.S., Andrew Sarris introduced it in the essay, "Notes on the Auteur Theory in 1962". This essay is where the term, "Auteur theory", originated. To be classified as an "auteur", according to Sarris, a director must accomplish technical competence in their technique, personal style in terms of how the movie looks and feels, and interior meaning (although many of Sarris's auterist criteria were left vague[citation needed]). Later in the decade, Sarris published The American Cinema: Directors and Directions, 19291968, which quickly became the unofficial bible of auteurism. The auteurist criticsTruffaut, Jean-Luc Godard, Claude Chabrol, ric Rohmerwrote mostly about directors, although they also produced some shrewd appreciations of actors. However later Truffaut wrote: the auteur theory "was started by Cahiers du Cinema and is forgotten in France, but still discussed in American periodicals."

Criticism
Starting in the 1960s, some film critics began criticising auteur theory's focus on the authorial role of the director. Pauline Kael and Sarris feuded in the pages of The New Yorker and various film magazines.[4][5] One reason for the backlash is the collaborative aspect of shooting a film, and in the theory's privileging of the role of the director (whose name, at times, has become more important than the movie itself). In Kael's review of Citizen Kane, a classic film for the auteur model, she points out how the film made extensive use of the distinctive talents of co-writer

Auteur theory Herman J. Mankiewicz and cinematographer Gregg Toland.[6] But Kael's objections to the "auteur theory" were many and are best learned by reading her essay "Circles and Squares". Notable screenwriters such as Ernest Lehman,[7] Nicholas Kazan,[8] Robert Riskin[9] and William Goldman[10] have publicly balked at the idea that directors are more authorial than screenwriters, while film historian Aljean Harmetz, referring to the creative input of producers and studio executives in classical Hollywood, argues that the auteur theory "collapses against the reality of the studio system".[11] The auteur theory was also challenged by the influence of New Criticism, a school of literary criticism. The New Critics argued that critics made an "intentional fallacy" when they tried to interpret works of art by speculating about what the author meant, based on the author's personality or life experiences. New Critics argued that information or speculation about an author's intention was secondary to the words on the page as the basis of the experience of reading literature.[citation needed] In 2006, David Kipen coined the term Schreiber theory to refer to the theory of the screenwriter as the principal author of a film.[12]

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References
[1] Google Books (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=_PqJYG9ihusC& pg=PA153& lpg=PA153) [4] A Survivor of Film Criticisms Heroic Age (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2009/ 07/ 12/ movies/ 12powe. html?pagewanted=all) [5] Pauline and Me: Farewell, My Lovely (http:/ / www. observer. com/ node/ 44957) [6] Kael, Pauline, Raising Kane, The New Yorker, February 20, 1971. [7] Sight and Sound, Autumn, 190 [8] Los Angeles Times Magazine, "Lip Service," March 25, 2001 [9] Ian Scott, In Capra's Shadow: The Life and Career of Screenwriter Robert Riskin [10] William Goldman, Which Lie Did I Tell? [11] Aljean Harmetz, Round up the Usual Suspects, p. 29. [12] Kipen, David (2006). The Schreiber Theory: A Radical Rewrite of American Film History. Melville House ISBN 0-9766583-3-X.

External links
BBC guide Auteur Theory in Film Criticism (http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A22928772) Teachers guide to auteur theory pdf (http://www.mvla.net/teachers/GalenR/Film Analysis/Documents/Class Readings/AUTEUR THEORY.pdf) acu.edu course guide to auteur theory (http://dlibrary.acu.edu.au/staffhome/siryan/screen/auteur theory.htm) Film journal article on Saris and Kael (http://ardfilmjournal.wordpress.com/2009/02/11/ a-couple-of-squared-circles-sarris-and-kael--part-one-notes-on-the-auteur-theory-in-1962--andrew-sarris/) Auteur Theory History/Criticism (http://www.indianauteur.com/?p=86) 16+ source guides: Auteur Theory/Auteurs (http://www.bfi.org.uk/filmtvinfo/publications/16+/auteur. html) at the British Film Institute Authorship and The Films of David Lynch (http://www.zenbullets.com/britfilm/lynch) - a critical essay from The British Film Resource Auteur theory (http://www.imdb.com/title/tt1241707/) at the Internet Movie Database Criticisms of auteur theory at scribd (http://www.scribd.com/doc/1250735/The-Auteur-Theory)

Jean-Luc Godard

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Jean-Luc Godard
Jean-Luc Godard

Jean-Luc Godard, 1968 Born 3 December 1930 Paris, France French, Swiss University of Paris Film critic, director, actor, cinematographer, screenwriter, editor, producer 1950present Breathless, Pierrot le Fou, Band of Outsiders, Contempt, My Life to Live French New Wave [1] Roberto Rossellini, Satyajit Ray, Andr Bazin, John Ford, Jean Renoir, Karl Marx, Alfred Hitchcock, Robert Bresson, Jean Vigo, Kenji Mizoguchi, Carl Theodor Dreyer, Nicholas Ray, Orson Welles, Charlie Chaplin, Fritz Lang, Max Ophls, Howard Hawks, Henri Langlois, Marcel Carn, Jean Cocteau, F. W. Murnau, D.W. Griffith, Bertolt Brecht, existentialism Rainer Werner Fassbinder, Sofia Coppola, Martin Scorsese, Bernardo Bertolucci, Michael Mann, Abel Ferrara, Steven Soderbergh, Jim Jarmusch, Philippe Garrel, Pedro Costa, Edward Yang, Serge Daney, Gregg Araki, Apichatpong Weerasethakul, Wong Kar-wai, Abbas Kiarostami, Leos Carax, Olivier Assayas, Quentin Tarantino, Harmony Korine Anna Karina (196167) Anne Wiazemsky (196779) Anne-Marie Miville (not official) Honorary Academy Award (2010) Honorary Csar (1987, 1998) Prix Jean Vigo (1960)

Citizenship Alma mater Occupation Years active Notable work(s) Style Influencedby

Influenced

Spouse(s)

Awards

Signature

Jean-Luc Godard (French:[lyk da]; born 3 December 1930) is a French-Swiss film director, screenwriter and film critic. He is often identified with the 1960s French film movement La Nouvelle Vague, or "New Wave".[2] Like his New Wave contemporaries, Godard criticized mainstream French cinema's "Tradition of Quality",[2] which "emphasized craft over innovation, privileged established directors over new directors, and preferred the great works of the past to experimentation."[3] To challenge this tradition, he and like-minded critics started to make their own films.[2] Many of Godard's films challenge the conventions of traditional Hollywood in addition to French cinema.[citation needed] He is often considered the most radical French filmmaker of the 1960s and 1970s.[4] Several of his films express his political views.[4] His films express his knowledge of film history through their references to earlier films. In addition, Godard's films often cite existentialism, as he was an avid reader of existential and Marxist philosophy.[citation needed] His radical approach in film conventions, politics and philosophies made him an influential filmmaker of the French New Wave.

Jean-Luc Godard After the New Wave, his politics have been much less radical and his recent films are about representation and human conflict from a humanist, and a Marxist perspective.[4] In a 2002 Sight & Sound poll, Godard ranked third in the critics' top ten directors of all time (which was put together by assembling the directors of the individual films for which the critics voted).[5] He has created "one of the largest bodies of critical analysis of any filmmaker since the mid-twentieth century."[6] He and his work have been central to narrative theory and have "challenged both commercial narrative cinema norms and film criticism's vocabulary."[7] In 2010, Godard was awarded an Academy Honorary Award, but did not attend the award ceremony.[8] Godard's films have inspired diverse directors like Martin Scorsese, Quentin Tarantino, Steven Soderbergh, D. A. Pennebaker,[9] Robert Altman, Jim Jarmusch, Wong Kar-wai, Wim Wenders,[] Bernardo Bertolucci,[10] Pier Paolo Pasolini,[10] Paul Thomas Anderson, Arthur Penn, Hal Hartley, Richard Linklater, Gregg Araki, Jrgen Leth, John Woo, Abel Ferrara, Rainer Werner Fassbinder, Brian De Palma, Oliver Stone, Mamoru Oshii, Richard Ayoade, Wes Anderson and Ken Loach.

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Early life
Godard was born in Paris on 3 December 1930,[] the son of Odile (ne Monod) and Paul Godard, a Swiss physician.[11] His wealthy parents came from Protestant families of Franco-Swiss descent, and his mother was the great-granddaughter of theologian Adolphe Monod. Relatives on his mother's side include composer Jacques-Louis Monod, naturalist Thodore Monod and pastor Frdric Monod.[12][13] Godard attended school in Nyon, Switzerland and the Lyce Rohmer. In 1949, he registered for a certificate in anthropology at the University of Paris (Sorbonne), but did not attend class.[14] He got involved with the young group of film critics at the cin-clubs that started the New Wave. Godard originally only held French citizenship, when he then in 1953 became a citizen of Gland, canton of Vaud, Switzerland possibly through simplified naturalisation through his Swiss father.

Film criticism and early filmmaking

After attending school in Nyon, Godard returned to Paris in 1948. It was there, in the Latin Quarter just prior to 1950, that cin-clubs (film societies) were gaining prominence. Godard began attending these clubs, where he soon met the man who was perhaps most responsible for the birth of the New Wave, Andr Bazin, as well as those who would become his contemporaries, including Jacques Rivette, Claude Chabrol, Franois Truffaut, Jacques Rozier, and Jacques Demy. Godard was part of a generation for whom cinema took on a special importance. He has said: "In the 1950s cinema was as important as bread but it isn't the case any more. We thought cinema would assert itself as an instrument of knowledge, a microscope ... a telescope.... At the Cinmathque I discovered a world which nobody had spoken to me about. They'd told us about Goethe, but not Dreyer. ... We watched silent films in the era of talkies. We dreamed about film. We were like Christians in the catacombs." His approach to film began in the field of criticism. Along with ric Rohmer and Rivette, he founded the short-lived film journal, Gazette du cinma, which saw publication of five issues in 1950. When Bazin co-founded the influential critical magazine Cahiers du cinma in 1951, Godard, with Rivette and Rohmer, was among the first writers. They, along with several other writers for Cahiers du cinma in the 1950s, started making brief forays into film direction. Godard, while taking a job as a construction worker on a dam in 1953, shot a documentary about the building, Opration bton (1955). As he continued to work for Cahiers, he made Une femme coquette (1955), a ten-minute short; All the Boys Are Named Patrick (1957) another short fiction film; and Une histoire d'eau (1958), which was created largely out of unused footage shot by Truffaut. In 1958 Godard, with a cast that included Jean-Paul Belmondo and Anne Colette, made his last short before gaining international prominence as a filmmaker, Charlotte et son Jules, a homage to Jean Cocteau.

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Cinematic period
His most celebrated period as a filmmaker is roughly from his first feature, Breathless (1960), through to Week End (1967) focused on relatively conventional works that often refer to different aspects of film history. This cinematic period stands in contrast to the revolutionary period that immediately followed it, during which Godard ideologically denounced much of cinemas history as "bourgeois" and therefore without merit.

Films
Godard's Breathless ( bout de souffle, 1960), starring Jean-Paul Belmondo and Jean Seberg distinctly expressed the French New Wave's style, and incorporated quotations from several elements of popular culture specifically American cinema. The film employed various innovative techniques such as jump cuts, character asides and breaking the eyeline match rule in continuity editing. Truffaut co-wrote Breathless with Godard and introduced Godard to the producer who ultimately funded the film, Georges de Beauregard. Godard viewed film making as an extension of criticism and was more interested in redefining film structure and style than actually being understood by the public. Often his movies were more about the presentation of a story than anything else. The stories in his films were very simple yet unfocused and constantly digressing from the main story line (Jean-Luc Godard and Vivre Sa Vie by Tom Milne, 1962). From the beginning of his career, Godard included more film references into his movies than any of his New Wave colleagues. In Breathless, his citations include a movie poster showing Humphrey Bogart (whose expression the lead actor Jean-Paul Belmondo tries reverently to imitate); visual quotations from films of Ingmar Bergman, Samuel Fuller, Fritz Lang, and others; and an onscreen dedication to Monogram Pictures, an American B-movie studio. Most of all, the choice of Jean Seberg as the lead actress was an overarching reference to Otto Preminger, who had discovered her for his Saint Joan, and then cast her in his acidulous 1958 adaptation of Bonjour Tristesse. If, in Rohmers words, "life was the cinema", then a film filled with movie references was supremely autobiographical. The following year, Godard made Le Petit Soldat (The Little Soldier), which dealt with the Algerian War of Independence. Most notably, it was the first collaboration between Godard and Danish-born actress Anna Karina, whom he later married in 1961 (and divorced in 1967). The film, due to its political nature, was banned by the French government until January 1963. Karina appeared again, along with Belmondo, in A Woman Is a Woman (1961), intended as a homage to the American musical. Angela (Karina) desires a child, prompting her to pretend to leave her boyfriend (Jean-Claude Brialy) and make him jealous by pursuing his best friend (Belmondo) as a substitute. Godard's next film, Vivre sa vie (My Life to Live) (1962), was one of his most popular among critics. Karina starred as Nana, an errant mother and aspiring actress whose financially strained circumstances lead her to the life of a streetwalker. It is an episodic account of her rationalizations to prove she is free, even though she is tethered at the end of her pimp's short leash. In one touching scene in a cafe, she spreads her arms out and announces she is free to raise or lower them as she wishes. The film's style, much like that of Breathless, boasted the type of camera-liberated experimentation that made the French New Wave so influential. Les Carabiniers (1963) was about the horror of war and its inherent injustice. It was the influence and suggestion of Roberto Rossellini that led Godard to make the film. It follows two peasants who join the army of a king, only to find futility in the whole thing as the king reveals the deception of war-administrating leaders. His most commercially successful film was Le Mpris (Contempt) (1963), starring Michel Piccoli and one of France's biggest female stars, Brigitte Bardot. A coproduction between Italy and France, Contempt became known as a pinnacle in cinematic modernism with its profound reflexivity. The film follows Paul (Piccoli), a screenwriter who is commissioned by the arrogant American movie producer Prokosch (Jack Palance) to rewrite the script for an adaptation of Homer's Odyssey, which the Austrian director Fritz Lang has been filming. Lang's 'high culture' interpretation of the story is lost on Prokosch, whose character is a firm indictment of the commercial motion picture hierarchy. Another prominent theme is the inability to reconcile love and labor, which is illustrated by Paul's

Jean-Luc Godard crumbling marriage to Camille (Bardot) during the course of shooting. In 1964, Godard and Karina formed a production company, Anouchka Films. He directed Bande part (Band of Outsiders), another collaboration between the two and described by Godard as "Alice in Wonderland meets Franz Kafka." It follows two young men, looking to score on a heist, who both fall in love with Karina, and quotes from several gangster film conventions. Une femme marie (A Married Woman) (1964) followed Band of Outsiders. It was a slow, deliberate, toned-down black and white picture without a real story. The film was entirely produced over the period of one month and exhibited a loose quality unique to Godard. Godard made the film while he acquired funding for Pierrot le fou (1965). In 1965, Godard directed Alphaville, a futuristic blend of science fiction, film noir, and satire. Eddie Constantine starred as Lemmy Caution, a detective who is sent into a city controlled by a giant computer named Alpha 60. His mission is to make contact with Professor von Braun (Howard Vernon), a famous scientist who has fallen mysteriously silent, and is believed to be suppressed by the computer. Pierrot le fou (1965) featured a complex storyline, distinctive personalities, and a violent ending. Gilles Jacob, an author, critic, and president of the Cannes Film Festival, called it both a "retrospective" and recapitulation in the way it played on so many of Godards earlier characters and themes. With an extensive cast and variety of locations, the film was expensive enough to warrant significant problems with funding. Shot in color, it departed from Godards minimalist works (typified by Breathless, Vivre sa vie, and Une femme marie). He solicited the participation of Jean-Paul Belmondo, by then a famous actor, in order to guarantee the necessary amount of capital. Masculin, fminin (1966), based on two Guy de Maupassant stories, La Femme de Paul and Le Signe, was a study of contemporary French youth and their involvement with cultural politics. An intertitle refers to the characters as "The children of Marx and Coca-Cola." Although Godard's cinema is sometimes thought to depict a wholly masculine point of view, Phillip John Usher has demonstrated how the film, by the way it connects images and disparate events, seems to blur gender lines.[15] Godard followed with Made in U.S.A (1966), whose source material was Richard Stark's The Jugger; and Two or Three Things I Know About Her (1967), in which Marina Vlady portrays a woman leading a double life as housewife and prostitute. A Classic New Wave crime thiller, "Made in the U.S.A" is inspired by American Noir films. Anna Karina stars as the anti-hero searching for her murdered lover; includes a cameo by Marianne Faithful. La Chinoise (1967) saw Godard at his most politically forthright so far. The film focused on a group of students and engaged with the ideas coming out of the student activist groups in contemporary France. Released just before the May 1968 events, the film is thought by some to foreshadow the student rebellions that took place. That same year, Godard made a more colorful and political film, Week End. It follows a Parisian couple as they leave on a weekend trip across the French countryside to collect an inheritance. What ensues is a confrontation with the tragic flaws of the over-consuming bourgeoisie. The film contains some of the most written-about scenes in cinema's history. One of them, an eight-minute tracking shot of the couple stuck in an unremitting traffic jam as they leave the city, is cited as a new technique Godard used to deconstruct bourgeois trends.[16] Startlingly, a few shots contain extra footage from, as it were, before the beginning of the take (while the actors are preparing) and after the end of the take (while the actors are coming out of character). Week End's enigmatic and audacious end title sequence, which reads "End of Cinema", appropriately marked an end to the narrative and cinematic period in Godard's filmmaking career.

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Jean-Luc Godard

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Politics
Politics are never far from the surface in Godard's films. One of his earliest features, Le Petit Soldat, dealt with the Algerian War of Independence, and was notable for its attempt to present the complexity of the dispute rather than pursue any specific ideological agenda. Along these lines, Les Carabiniers presents a fictional war that is initially romanticized in the way its characters approach their service, but becomes a stiff anti-war metonym. In addition to the international conflicts Godard sought an artistic response to, he was also very concerned with the social problems in France. The earliest and best example of this is Karina's potent portrayal of a prostitute in Vivre sa vie. In 1960s Paris, the political milieu was not overwhelmed by one specific movement. There was, however, a distinct post-war climate shaped by various international conflicts such as the colonialism in North Africa and Southeast Asia. The side that opposed such colonization included the majority of French workers, who belonged to the French communist party, and the Parisian artists and writers who positioned themselves on the side of social reform and class equality. A large portion of this group had a particular affinity for the teachings of Karl Marx. Godard's Marxist disposition did not become abundantly explicit until La Chinoise and Week End, but is evident in several films namely Pierrot and Une femme marie. Godard has been accused by some of harboring anti-Semitic views: in 2010, in the lead-up to the presentation of Godard's honorary Oscar, a prominent article in the New York Times by Michael Cieply drew attention to the idea, which had been circulating through press in previous weeks, that Godard might be an anti-Semite, and thus undeserving of the accolade. Cieply makes reference to Richard Brody's book, "Everything is Cinema: The Working Life of Jean-Luc Godard," and alluded to a previous, longer article published by the Jewish Journal as lying near the origin of the debate.[17] The article also draws upon Brody's book, for example in the following quotation, which Godard made on television in 1981: "Moses is my principal enemy...Moses, when he received the commandments, he saw images and translated them. Then he brought the texts, he didn't show what he had seen. That's why the Jewish people are accursed."[18] Immediately after Cieply's article was published, Brody made a clear point of criticizing the "extremely selective and narrow use" of passages in his book, and noted that Godard's work has approached the Holocaust with "the greatest moral seriousness".[19] Godard himself has previously identified explicitly as an anti-Zionist but has denied the accusations of anti-Semitism.[20] Vietnam War Godard produced several pieces that directly address the Vietnam War. Furthermore, there are two scenes in Pierrot le fou that tackle the issue. The first is a scene that takes place in the initial car ride between Ferdinand (Belmondo) and Marianne (Karina). Over the car radio, the two hear the message "garrison massacred by the Viet Cong who lost 115 men". Marianne responds with an extended musing on the way the radio dehumanizes the Northern Vietnamese combatants. In the same film, the lovers accost a group of American sailors along the course of their liberating crime spree. Their immediate reaction, expressed by Marianne, is "Damn Americans!" an obvious outlet of the frustration so many French communists felt towards American hegemony. Ferdinand then reconsiders, "Thats OK, well change our politics. We can put on a play. Maybe theyll give us some dollars." Marianne is puzzled but Ferdinand suggests that something the Americans would like would be the Vietnam War. The ensuing sequence is a makeshift play where Marianne dresses up as a stereotype Vietnamese woman and Ferdinand as an American sailor. The scene ends on a brief shot revealing a chalk message left on the floor by the pair, "Long live Mao!" (Vive Mao!). Notably, he also participated in Loin du Vietnam (1967). An anti-war project, it consists of seven sketches directed by Godard (who used stock footage from La Chinoise), Claude Lelouch, Joris Ivens, William Klein, Chris Marker, Alain Resnais and Agns Varda.

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Bertolt Brecht
Godard's engagement with German poet and playwright Bertolt Brecht stems primarily from his attempt to transpose Brecht's theory of epic theatre and its prospect of alienating the viewer (Verfremdungseffekt) through a radical separation of the elements of the medium (in Brecht's case theater, but in Godard's, film). Brecht's influence is keenly felt through much of Godard's work, particularly before 1980, when Godard used filmic expression for specific political ends. For example, Breathless' elliptical editing, which denies the viewer a fluid narrative typical of mainstream cinema, forces the viewers to take on more critical roles, connecting the pieces themselves and coming away with more investment in the work's content. [citation needed] Godard also employs other devices, including asynchronous sound and alarming title frames, with perhaps his favorite being the character aside. In many of his most political pieces, specifically Week End, Pierrot le fou, and La Chinoise, characters address the audience with thoughts, feelings, and instructions.

Marxism
A Marxist reading is possible with most if not all of Godards early work. Godards direct interaction with Marxism does not become explicitly apparent, however, until Week End, where the name Karl Marx is cited in conjunction with figures such as Jesus Christ. A constant refrain throughout Godard's cinematic period is that of the bourgeoisies consumerism, the commodification of daily life and activity, and mans alienation all central features of Marxs critique of capitalism. In an essay on Godard, philosopher and aesthetics scholar Jacques Rancire states, "When in Pierrot le fou, 1965, a film without a clear political message, Belmondo played on the word 'scandal' and the 'freedom' that the Scandal girdle supposedly offered women, the context of a Marxist critique of commodification, of pop art derision at consumerism, and of a feminist denunciation of womens false 'liberation', was enough to foster a dialectical reading of the joke and the whole story." The way Godard treated politics in his cinematic period was in the context of a joke, a piece of art, or a relationship, presented to be used as tools of reference, romanticizing the Marxist rhetoric, rather than solely being tools of education. Une femme marie is also structured around Marx's concept of commodity fetishism. Godard once said that it is "a film in which individuals are considered as things, in which chases in a taxi alternate with ethological interviews, in which the spectacle of life is intermingled with its analysis". He was very conscious of the way he wished to portray the human being. His efforts are overtly characteristic of Marx, who in his Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts of 1844 [21] gives one of his most nuanced elaborations, analyzing how the worker is alienated from his product, the object of his productive activity. Georges Sadoul, in his short rumination on the film, describes it as a "sociological study of the alienation of the modern woman".

Revolutionary period
The period that spans from May 1968 indistinctly into the 1970s has been subject to an even larger volume of varying labeling. They include everything from his "militant" period, to his "radical" period, along with terms as specific as "Maoist" and vague as "political". The period saw Godard align himself with a specific revolution and employ a consistent revolutionary rhetoric.

Films
Amid the upheavals of the late 1960s Godard became interested in Maoist ideology. He formed the socialist-idealist Dziga-Vertov cinema group with Jean-Pierre Gorin and produced a number of shorts outlining his politics. In that period he travelled extensively and shot a number of films, most of which remained unfinished or were refused showings. His films became intensely politicized and experimental, a phase that lasted until 1980.

Jean-Luc Godard According to Elliott Gould, he and Godard met to discuss the possibility of Godard directing Jules Feiffer's 1971 surrealist play Little Murders. During this meeting Godard said his two favorite American writers were Feiffer and Charles M. Schulz. Godard soon declined the opportunity to direct; the job later went to Alan Arkin.[citation needed]

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Jean-Pierre Gorin
After the events of May 1968, when the city of Paris saw total upheaval in response to the "authoritarian de Gaulle republic", and Godard's professional objective was reconsidered, he began to collaborate with like-minded individuals in the filmmaking arena. The most notable of these collaborations was with a young Maoist student, Jean-Pierre Gorin, who displayed a passion for cinema that grabbed Godards attention. Between 1968 and 1973, Godard and Gorin collaborated to make a total of five films with strong Maoist messages. The most prominent film from the collaboration was Tout va bien, which starred Jane Fonda and Yves Montand, at the time very big stars. Jean-Pierre Gorin now teaches the study of film at the University of California, San Diego.

The Dziga Vertov group

The small group of Maoists that Godard had brought together, which included Gorin, adopted the name Dziga Vertov Group. Godard had a specific interest in Vertov, a Soviet filmmakerwhose adopted name is derived from the verb to spin or rotate[22] and is best remembered for Man with the Movie Camera (1929) and a contemporary of both the great Soviet montage theorists, most notably Sergei Eisenstein, and Russian constructivist and avant-garde artists such as Alexander Rodchenko and Vladimir Tatlin. Part of Godards political shift after May 1968 was toward a proactive participation in the class struggle.

Sonimage
In 1972, Godard and Swiss filmmaker Anne-Marie Miville started the alternative video production and distribution company Sonimage, based in Grenoble.[23] Under Sonimage, Godard produced both Numero Deux (1975) and "Sauve qui peut (la vie)" (1980). In 1976, Godard began collaborating with Swiss filmmaker Anne-Marie Miville, his wife,[24] on a series of innovative video works for European broadcast television called "Six fois deux/Sur et sous la communication" (1976)[25] and "France/tour/dtour/deux/enfants" (1978).

19801999
His return to somewhat more traditional fiction was marked with Sauve qui peut (la vie) (1980), the first of a series of more mainstream films marked by autobiographical currents: for example Passion (1982), Lettre Freddy Buache (1982), Prnom Carmen (1984), and Grandeur et dcadence (1986). There was, though, another flurry of controversy with Je vous salue, Marie (1985), which was condemned by the Catholic Church for alleged heresy, and also with King Lear (1987), an extraordinary but much-excoriated essay on William Shakespeare and language. Also completed in 1987 was a segment in the film ARIA which was based loosely from the plot of Armide; it is set in a gym and uses several arias by Jean-Baptiste Lully from his famous Armide. His later films have been marked by great formal beauty and frequently a sense of requiem Nouvelle Vague (New Wave, 1990), the autobiographical JLG/JLG, autoportrait de dcembre (JLG/JLG: Self-Portrait in December, 1995), and For Ever Mozart (1996). Allemagne anne 90 neuf zro (Germany Year 90 Nine Zero, 1991) was a quasi-sequel to Alphaville but done with an elegiac tone and focus on the inevitable decay of age. Between 1988 and 1998 he produced perhaps the most important work of his career in the multi-part series Histoire(s) du cinma, a monumental project which combined all the innovations of his video work with a passionate engagement in the issues of twentieth-century history and the history of film itself.

Jean-Luc Godard

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2000present
Godard has continued to work actively into his seventies. In 2001, Eloge de l'Amour (In Praise of Love) was released. This film is notable for its use of both film and video the first half captured in 35mm black and white, the latter half shot in color on DV and subsequently transferred to film for editing. The blending of film and video recalls the statement from Sauve Qui Peut, in which the tension between film and video evokes the struggle between Cain and Abel. Eloge de l'Amour is rich with themes of aging, love, separation, and rediscovery as we follow the young artist Edgar contemplating a new work on the four stages of love (should it be an opera? a film?). He meets up with a lost love who is terminally ill, and at her death we are thrust into the second half of the film where Edgar meets with her at her grandparent's house two years before. Producers for Steven Spielberg are negotiating the purchase of her grandparent's World War II story; the young woman attempts to stall the deal. In Notre musique (2004), Godard turns his focus to war, specifically, the war in Sarajevo, but with attention to all war, including the American Civil War, the war between the US and Native Americans, and the IsraeliPalestinian conflict. The film is structured into three Dantean kingdoms: Hell, Purgatory and Paradise. Godard's fascination with paradox is a constant in the film. It opens with a long, ponderous montage of war images that occasionally lapses into the comic; Paradise is shown as a lush wooded beach patrolled by US Marines. Godard's latest film, Film Socialisme, premiered in the Un Certain Regard section at the 2010 Cannes Film Festival.[26][27] It was released theatrically in France in May 2010. He is rumored to be considering directing a film adaptation of Daniel Mendelsohn's The Lost: A Search for Six of Six Million, an award-winning book about the Holocaust.[28] His next feature film is called Adieu au Language (Farewell to Language) and was shot in 3-D.[29][30] The film revolves around a couple who cannot communicate with each other until their pet dog acts as an interpreter for them. In 2013 he also contributed a short called The Three Disasters to the omnibus film 3X3D with filmmakers Peter Greenaway and Edgar Pera.[31]

Tributes
" From Hollywood to the Third World, from the mainstream to the Avant-Garde, Godard's name is perhaps the only one that occurs wherever cinema is discussed or produced." Colin Myles MacCabe " Like Picasso, Godard reveals to us throughout his work his world as source and subject; the artist's studio, the objects of his daily life, the references to and repetitions of his own works, the layering of words and images, the women he has loved, the horrors of war." Mary Lea Bandy. " Godard's is an art of plastic age, of fluent, pliable, putty characters." Raymond Durgnat " Godard's importance lies in his development of an authentic modernist cinema in opposition to (though, during the early period, at the same time within) mainstream cinema: it is with his work that film becomes central to our century's major aesthetic debate, the controversy developed through such figures as Lukacs, Brecht, Benjamin and Adorno as to whether realism or modernism is the more progressive form." Robin Wood.

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References
[2] Grant 2007, Vol. 4, p. 235. [3] Grant 2007, Vol. 2, p. 259. [4] Grant 2007, Vol. 4, p. 126. [6] Grant 2007, Vol. 4, p. 238. [7] Grant 2007, Vol. 4, p. 202. [10] Grant 2007, Vol. 3, p. 49. [11] Morrey 2005, p. 1 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Kby7RaRmTt4C& pg=PA1). [14] MacCabe 2005, p. 36 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=FwLqbp0cEp8C& pg=PA37). [15] (http:/ / muse. jhu. edu/ journals/ french_forum/ v034/ 34. 2. usher. html), Usher, Phillip John. (2009). "De sexe incertain: Masculin, Fminin de Godard". French Forum, vol. 34, no 2, p. 97-112. [21] http:/ / www. marxists. org/ archive/ marx/ works/ 1844/ manuscripts/ preface. htm

Grant, Barry Keith, ed. (2007). Schirmer Encyclopedia of Film. Detroit, MI: Schirmer Reference. ISBN0-02-865791-8. MacCabe, Colin (2005). Godard: A Portrait of the Artist at Seventy (http://books.google.com/ books?id=FwLqbp0cEp8C). New York: Faber and Faber. ISBN978-0-571-21105-0. Morrey, Douglas (2005). Jean-Luc Godard (http://books.google.com/books?id=Kby7RaRmTt4C&pg=PA1). New York: Manchester University Press. ISBN978-0-7190-6759-4. Steritt, David. (1998) Jean-Luc Godard: Interviews. Jackson, MS: University Press of Mississippi. Usher, Phillip John. (2009). "De sexe incertain: Masculin, Fminin de Godard". French Forum, vol. 34, no 2, p. 97-112.

Further reading
Godard, Jean-Luc. 2012 Introduction to a True History of Cinema and Television. Montreal: caboose. ISBN 978-0-9811914-1-6 Brody, Richard. 2008. Everything is Cinema: The Working Life of Jean-Luc Godard. ISBN 978-0-8050-6886-3 Temple, Michael. Williams, James S. Witt, Michael. (eds) 2007. For Ever Godard. London: Black Dog Publishing Dixon, Wheeler Winston. The Films of Jean-Luc Godard. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1997. Godard, Jean-Luc: The Future(s) of Film. Three Interviews 2000/01. Bern Berlin: Verlag Gachnang & Springer, 2002. ISBN 978-3-906127-62-0 Loshitzky, Yosefa. The Radical Faces of Godard and Bertolucci. Silverman, Kaja and Farocki, Harun. 1998. Speaking About Godard. New York: New York University Press. Temple, Michael and Williams, James S. (eds). 2000. The Cinema alone: Essays on the Work of Jean-Luc Godard 19852000. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press. Almeida, Jane. Dziga Vertov Group (http://www.witz.com.br/dzigavertov). So Paulo: witz, 2005. ISBN 85-98100-05-6. Nicole Brenez, David Faroult, Michael Temple, James E. Williams, Michael Witt (eds), Jean-Luc Godard:Documents, Paris: Centre Georges Pompidou, 2007 Godard Bibliography (via UC Berkeley) (http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/MRC/godardbib.html) Diane Stevenson, "Godard and Bazin" in the Andre Bazin special issue, Jeffrey Crouse (ed.), Film International, Issue 30, Vol. 5, No. 6, 2007, pp.3240.

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External links
Jean-Luc Godard (http://www.imdb.com/name/nm419/) at the Internet Movie Database Jean-Luc Godard (http://www.criterion.com/explore/12-jean-luc-godard) at the Criterion Collection Jean Luc Godard Biography (http://www.newwavefilm.com/french-new-wave-encyclopedia/jean-luc-godard. shtml) at newwavefilm.com Jean-luc Godard Timeline (http://www.carleton.edu/curricular/MEDA/classes/media110/Friesema/intro. html) Detailed filmography of Jean-Luc Godard (http://en.unifrance.org/directories/person/15597/jean-luc-godard) on unifrance.org Jean-Luc Godard (http://www.guardian.co.uk/film/jeanlucgodard) at The Guardian Film Jean-Luc Godard (http://movies.nytimes.com/person/91804/Jean-Luc-Godard) at The New York Times Movies Jean-Luc Godard (http://topics.nytimes.com/top/reference/timestopics/people/g/jeanluc_godard/index. html) collected news and commentary at The New York Times Works by or about Jean-Luc Godard (http://worldcat.org/identities/lccn-n79-55544) in libraries (WorldCat catalog) Guardian Interview (04/2005) (http://film.guardian.co.uk/interview/interviewpages/0,6737,1472494,00. html) Video dialog -in french- between Godard and the french writer Stphane Zagdanski about Literature and Cinema, November 2004 (http://parolesdesjours.free.fr/gozag.htm)

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James Monaco
James Monaco
Born 1942 Flushing, NY, U.S. Film critic, film historian, publisher

Occupation

Years active 19652011 Spouse(s) Susan Schenker (3 children) Website [1]

James Monaco (born 1942) is an American film critic, author, publisher, and educator. He has written seven books, including The New Wave : Truffaut, Godard, Chabrol, Rohmer, Rivette (1976), How To Read A Film (1977, 1981, 1999, 2009) and American Film Now (1979), and edited four others. He founded Baseline in 1982, an early online database about the entertainment industry, and a forerunner of the IMDb. It was taken over by The New York Times Company in 2006. He has taught at The New School for Social Research, Columbia University, New York University, and the City University of New York. He was a media commentator for Morning Edition on NPR in the 1980s, and has written for The New York Times, The Village Voice, and The Christian Science Monitor. Monaco is the founder and current president of UNET 2 Corporation. He runs Harbor Electronic Publishing in New York and Sag Harbor.

External links
About James Monaco - readfilm.com [1]

References
[1] http:/ / www. readfilm. com/ Monaco. htm

Rotten Tomatoes

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Rotten Tomatoes
Rotten Tomatoes
URL rottentomatoes.com [1]

Commercial? Yes Type of site Registration Owner Film review aggregator and forum Optional [] Created by Launched Senh Duong August 12, 1998 Flixster, part of Warner Bros. subsidiary of Time Warner

Rotten Tomatoes is a website devoted to reviews, information, and news of films, widely known as a film review aggregator. Its name derives from the clich of audiences throwing rotten tomatoes or vegetables at a poor stage performance. The company has been owned by Flixster, a Warner Bros. company, since May 2011. As of 2007, the website's editor-in-chief is Matt Atchity.[2]

History
Rotten Tomatoes was launched on August 12, 1998, as a spare time project by Senh Duong.[3] His goal in creating Rotten Tomatoes was "to create a site where people can get access to reviews from a variety of critics in the US".[4] His inspiration came when, as a fan of Jackie Chan, Duong started collecting all the reviews of Chan's movies as they were coming out in the United States. The first movie reviewed on Rotten Tomatoes was Your Friends & Neighbors. The website was an immediate success, receiving mentions by Yahoo!, Netscape, and USA Today within the first week of its launch; it attracted "600 1000 daily unique visitors" as a result.[citation needed] Duong teamed up with University of California, Berkeley classmates Patrick Y. Lee and Stephen Wang, his former partners at the Berkeley, California-based web design firm Design Reactor, to pursue Rotten Tomatoes on a full-time basis, officially launching on April 1, 2000.[5] In June 2004, IGN Entertainment acquired Rottentomatoes.com for an undisclosed sum.[6] In September 2005, IGN was bought by News Corp's Fox Interactive Media.[7] In January 2010, IGN sold the website to Flixster, which produces the most popular movie ratings app for the iPad and other mobile devices.[] The combined reach of both companies is 30 million unique visitors a month across all different platforms, according to the companies.[8] In May 2011, Flixster was acquired by Warner Bros.[] Rotten Tomatoes users can create and join groups that allow them to discuss different aspects of film, and one group "The Golden Oyster Awards" has its members vote for their winners of different awards, much like the Oscars or Golden Globes. However, when Flixster bought Rotten Tomatoes, they disbanded the groups, saying: "The Groups area has been discontinued to pave the way for new community features coming soon. In the meantime, please use the Forums to continue your conversations about your favorite movie topics." As of February 2011, new community features have shown up and others have been removed. For example, users are no longer able to sort out fresh ratings from rotten ratings, and vice versa.

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Description
Rotten Tomatoes staff first collect online reviews from authors that are certified members of various writing guilds or film critic associations. To become a critic at the site, a critic's original reviews must garner a specific amount of "likes". Top Critics are generally ones that write for a notable newspaper. The staff then determine for each review whether it is positive ("fresh", marked by a small icon of a red tomato) or negative ("rotten", marked by a small icon of a green splattered tomato). At the end of the year one film will receive the "Golden Tomato", meaning it is the highest rated film that year.[citation needed] The website keeps track of all of the reviews counted (which can approach 270 for major, recently released films) and the percentage of positive reviews is tabulated. If the positive reviews make up 60% or more, the film is considered "fresh" in that a supermajority of the reviewers approve of the film. If the positive reviews are less than 60%, then the film is considered "rotten". In addition, major film reviewers like Roger Ebert, Desson Thomson, Stephen Hunter, Owen Gleiberman, Lisa Schwarzbaum, Peter Travers and Michael Philips are listed in a sub-listing called "Top Critics", which tabulates their reviews separately, while still including their opinions in the general rating. When there are sufficient reviews to form a conclusion, a consensus statement is posted which is intended to articulate the general reasons for the collective opinion of the film.[citation needed] This rating in turn is marked with an equivalent icon when the film is listed, giving the reader a one glance look at the general critical opinion about the work. Movies with a "Tomatometer" of 75% or better and at least 40 reviews from Tomatometer Critics (including 5 Top Critics) receive the "Certified Fresh" seal. Furthermore, films earning this status will keep it unless the critical percentage drops below 70%.[9] As a result of the requirements for quantity of ratings, there may be films with 100% positive ratings which don't have the certificate due to insufficient reviews to be sure of the "freshness".[citation needed] In addition to reviews, Rotten Tomatoes hosts message forums, where thousands of participants take part in the discussion of movies, video games, music and other topics. In addition, users are able to rate and review films themselves. Every movie also features a "user average" that calculates the percentage of users that have rated the film positively in a manner similar to how the critics' reviews are calculated. However, this score is more specific as the users are able to rate the movie on a scale of 010 (compared to critic reviews, which usually use 4-star ratings and are often simply qualitative). Like the critic's reviews, a score of 6 or higher is considered "fresh". In January 2010, on the occasion of the 75th anniversary of the New York Film Critics Circle, Armond White, its chairman, cited Rotten Tomatoes in particular and film review aggregators in general, as examples of how "the Internet takes revenge on individual expression" by "dumping reviewers onto one website and assigning spurious percentage-enthusiasm points to the discrete reviews"; according to White, such websites "offer consensus as a substitute for assessment".[10]

International
Localized versions of the site are available in Britain, India and Australia. Readers accessing Rotten Tomatoes from France and Germany are automatically redirected to the British version of the site that provides local release dates, cinema listings, box office results and promotes reviews from British critics. The US version is available via a "US site" button on the homepage. The localized versions of the site contain all of the US editorial content, reviews and film lists and are augmented by local content maintained by an international editor based in Los Angeles.

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The Rotten Tomatoes Show

The Rotten Tomatoes Show on Current
Genre Movie Review Program Humor Current Mark Ganek Ellen Fox Joel Church-Cooper Brett Erlich Ellen Fox Daniel Higgs United States English 2 77 Production Executive producer(s) Jeffrey Plunkett Brett Erlich Producer(s) Ben Stein John Lichman Dan Stoneberg Szu-Hua Wang James Stanton 22 minutes Broadcast Original channel Original run Current TV March 5, 2009 September 16, 2010 Chronology Followed by Rotten Tomatoes on InfoMania

Created by Written by

Presented by

Country of origin Original language(s) No. of seasons No. of episodes

Editor(s)

Running time

In early 2009, Current Television launched the televised version of the web review site, The Rotten Tomatoes Show, which was hosted by Brett Erlich and Ellen Fox and written by Mark Ganek. The show aired every Thursday at 10:30 EST on the Current TV network.[11] Depending on when an episode is filmed and originally aired, ratings of movies might differ from ratings currently found on the website. The last episode aired on September 16, 2010, although it did return as a much shorter segment of InfoMania.

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References
[1] https:/ / www. rottentomatoes. com/ [2] Matt Atchity on The Young Turks Show (http:/ / www. theyoungturks. com/ story/ 2009/ 1/ 22/ 214324/ 147) [8] News Corp. Unloads Rotten Tomatoes Onto Flixster | TechCrunch (http:/ / techcrunch. com/ 2010/ 01/ 04/ rotten-tomatoes-flixster/ )

External links
Official website (https://www.rottentomatoes.com/) , including a list of approved Rotten Tomatoes Critics (https://www.rottentomatoes.com/critics/authors.php) and the Rotten Tomatoes forums (https://www. rottentomatoes.com/vine/forumdisplay.php?f=2)

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Internet Movie Database

Internet Movie Database (IMDb)

IMDb homepage on August 21, 2012 URL Commercial? Type of site Registration imdb.com Yes Online database for movies, television, and video games Registration is optional for members to participate in discussions, comments, ratings, and voting. [1]

Available language(s) English, French, German, Spanish, Italian, Portuguese Owner Created by Launched Current status Amazon.com Col Needham October 17, 1990 Active

The Internet Movie Database (IMDb) is an online database of information related to films, television programs, and video games. This includes actors, production crew personnel, and fictional characters featured in these three visual entertainment media. It is one of the most popular online entertainment destinations, with over 100 million unique users each month and a solid and rapidly growing mobile presence.[2] IMDb was launched on October 17, 1990, and in 1998 was acquired by Amazon.com. As of March 22, 2013, IMDb had 2,467,314 titles (includes episodes) and 5,132,299 personalities in its database,[3] as well as 42 million registered users. The website has an Alexa rank of 48.

History
History before website
IMDb originated with a Usenet posting by British film fan and professional computer programmer Col Needham entitled "Those Eyes", about actresses with beautiful eyes. Others with similar interests soon responded with additions or different lists of their own. Needham subsequently started a (male) "Actors List", while Dave Knight began a "Directors List", and Andy Krieg took over "THE LIST", which would later be renamed the "Actress List". Both lists had been restricted to people who were alive and working, but soon retired people were added, so Needham started what was then (but did not remain) a separate "Dead Actors/Actresses List". The goal of the participants now was to make the lists as inclusive as possible. By late 1990, the lists included almost 10,000 movies and television series correlated with actors and actresses appearing therein. On October 17, 1990, Needham developed and posted a collection of Unix shell scripts which could be used to search the four lists, and thus the database that would become the IMDb was born. At the time, it was known as the "rec.arts.movies movie database", but by 1993 had been moved out of the Usenet group as an independent website underwritten and controlled by Needham and personal followers. Other website users were invited to contribute data which they may have collected and verified, on a volunteer basis, which greatly increased the amount and types of data to be stored. Entire new sections were added. As the site grew hugely, full production crews, uncredited performers and other demographic data were added. Needham's group allowed some advertising to support ongoing operations of the site, including the hiring of full-time paid data managers. All the primary staff came (and still

Internet Movie Database come) from the burgeoning computer industry and/or training schools and did not have extensive expertise in the visual media.[citation needed] In 1998, unable to secure sufficient funding from limited advertising, contributions and unable to raise support from the visual media industries or academia, Needham sold the IMDb to Amazon.com, on condition that its operation would remain in the hands of Needham and his small cadre of managers, who soon were able to move into full-time paid staff positions.

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On the web
The database had been expanded to include additional categories of filmmakers and other demographic material, as well as trivia, biographies, and plot summaries; the movie ratings had been properly integrated with the list data; and a centralized email interface for querying the database had been created by Alan Jay. Later in the yearWikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers#Chronological items it moved onto the World Wide Web (a network in its infancy at that time) under the name of Cardiff Internet Movie Database.[4] The database resided on the servers of the computer science department of Cardiff University in Wales. Rob Hartill was the original web interface author. In 1994 the email interface was revised to accept the submission of all information, meaning that people no longer had to email the specific list maintainer with their updates. However, the structure remained that information received on a single film was divided among multiple section managers, the sections being defined and determined by categories of film personnel and the individual filmographies contained therein. Over the next few years, the database was run on a network of mirrors across the world with donated bandwidth.[citation needed] The website is Perl-based.[5] As of May 2011, the site has been filtered in China for more than one year, although many users address it through proxy server or by VPN.[6] On October 17, 2010, IMDb launched original video (www.imdb.com/20) in celebration of its 20th anniversary.[7]

As an independent company
In 1996 IMDb was incorporated in the United Kingdom, becoming the Internet Movie Database Ltd. Founder Col Needham became the primary owner as well as the identified figurehead. General revenue for site operations was generated through advertising, licensing and partnerships.

As Amazon.com subsidiary
In 1998, Jeff Bezos, founder, owner and CEO of Amazon.com, struck a deal with Col Needham and other principal shareholders to buy IMDb outright and attach it to Amazon as a subsidiary, private company.[8] This gave IMDb the ability to pay the shareholders salaries for their work, while Amazon.com would be able to use the IMDb as an advertising resource for selling DVDs and videotapes. IMDb continued to expand its functionality. On January 15, 2002, it added a subscription service known as IMDbPro, aimed at entertainment professionals. IMDbPro was announced and launched at the 2002 Sundance Film Festival. It provides a variety of services including film production and box office details, as well as a company directory. As an additional incentive for users, as of 2003, users identified as one of "the top 100 contributors" of hard data received complimentary free access to IMDbPro for the following calendar year; for 2006 this was increased to the top 150 contributors, and for 2010 to the top 250.[9] In 2008 IMDb launched their first official foreign language version with the German IMDb.de. Also in 2008, IMDb acquired two other companies, Withoutabox and Box Office Mojo. In 2011 IMDb was sued by an unknown actress for more than US$1million due to IMDb revealing her age (40). The actress claims that revealing her age could cause her to lose acting opportunities.[10] A federal judge in Seattle dismissed the lawsuit, saying the actress had no grounds to proceed with an anonymous complaint. She re-filed and so revealed that the complainant is a Huong Hoang of Texas, who uses the stage name Junie Hoang.[11]

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Television episodes
On January 26, 2006, "Full Episode Support" came online, allowing the database to support separate cast and crew listings for each episode of every television series. This was described by Col Needham as "the largest change we've ever made to our data model"[citation needed], and increased the number of titles in the database from 485,000 to nearly 755,000.[citation needed]

Characters filmography
On October 2, 2007, the characters' filmography was added. Character entries are created from character listings in the main filmography database and as such don't need any additional verification by IMDb staff. They have already been verified when they are added to the main filmography.

Instant viewing
On September 15, 2008, a feature was added that enables instant viewing of over 6,000 movies and television shows from CBS, Sony and a number of independent film makers, with direct links from their profiles.[12] Due to licensing restrictions, this feature is only available to viewers in the United States.[13]

Ancillary features
User ratings of films
As one adjunct to data, the IMDb offers a rating scale that allows users to rate films on a scale of one to ten. The rating system is recognized as being severely flawed for several reasons. [14][15] Filters and weights IMDb indicates that submitted ratings are filtered and weighted in various ways in order to produce a weighted mean that is displayed for each film, series, and so on. It states that filters are used to avoid ballot stuffing; the method is not described in detail to avoid attempts to circumvent it. In fact, it sometimes produces an extreme difference between the weighted average and the arithmetic mean. For example, Jonas Brothers: The 3D Concert Experience is considered to be the worst film with a weighted average of 1.3 as of March 2009, but has a rather ordinary arithmetic mean of 4.1.[16][17] Ranking (IMDb Top 250) The IMDb Top 250 is intended to be a listing of the top 'rated' 250 films, based on ratings by the registered users of the website using the methods described.[18] Only non-documentary theatrical releases running at least forty-five minutes with over 25,000 ratings are considered; all other products are ineligible.[19] Also, the 'top 250' rating is based on only the ratings of "regular voters". The exact number of votes a registered user would have to make to be considered to be a user who votes regularly has been kept secret. IMDb has stated that to maintain the effectiveness of the top 250 list they "deliberately do not disclose the criteria used for a person to be counted as a regular voter".[20] In addition to other weightings, the top 250 films are also based on a weighted rating formula referred to in actuarial science as a credibility formula.[21] This label arises because a statistic is taken to be more credible the greater the number of individual pieces of information; in this case from eligible users who submit ratings. IMDb uses the following formula to calculate the weighted rating:

where: = weighted rating

Internet Movie Database = average for the movie as a number from 0 to 10 (mean) = (Rating) = number of votes for the movie = (votes) = minimum votes required to be listed in the Top 250 (currently 25,000) = the mean vote across the whole report (currently 7.1) The in this formula is equivalent to a Bayesian posterior mean (See Bayesian statistics).

30

The IMDb also has a Bottom 100 feature which is assembled through a similar process although only 1500 votes must be received to qualify for the list.[22] The top 250 list comprises a wide range of films, including major releases, cult films, independent films, critically acclaimed films, silent films and non-English language films. Top 20 of the 250
Rank 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. Film The Shawshank Redemption The Godfather The Godfather: Part Two Pulp Fiction The Good, the Bad and the Ugly 12 Angry Men The Dark Knight Schindler's List The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King Fight Club Star Wars Episode V: The Empire Strikes Back Year 1994 1972 1974 1994 1966 1957 2008 1993 2003 1999 1980

The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring 2001 One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest Inception Goodfellas Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope Seven Samurai Forrest Gump The Matrix The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers 1975 2010 1990 1977 1954 1994 1999 2002

Message boards
One of the most used features of the Internet Movie Database is the message boards that coincide with every title (excepting, as of 2006, TV episodes[23]) and name entry, along with over 140 main boards. This section is one of the more recent features of IMDb, having its beginnings in 2001. In order to post on the message boards a user needs to "authenticate" their account via cell phone, credit card, or by having been a recent customer of the parent company Amazon.com. Message boards have expanded in recent years. The Soapbox started in 2001 is a general message board meant for debates on any subject. The Politics board started in 2007 is a message board to discuss politics, news events and current affairs as well as history and economics. Both these message boards have become the most

Internet Movie Database popular message boards in IMDb, more popular on a long term basis than any individual movie message board.

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Content and format

Data provided by subjects
In 2006, IMDb introduced its "Rsum subscription service", where actors and crew can post their own rsum and upload photos of themselves[24] for a yearly fee.[25] The base annual charge for including a photo with an account was $39.95 until 2010, when it was increased to $54.95. IMDb rsum pages are kept on a sub-page of the regular entry about that person, with a regular entry automatically created for each rsum subscriber who does not already have one.[26] As of 2012, Resume Services is now included as part of an IMDbPro subscription, and is no longer offered as a separate subscription service.

Copyright, vandalism, and error issues

All volunteers who contribute content to the database technically retain copyright on their contributions but the compilation of the content becomes the exclusive property of IMDb with the full right to copy, modify, and sublicense it and they are verified before posting.[27] Credit is not given on specific title or filmography pages to the contributor(s) who have provided information. Conversely, a credited text entry, such as a plot summary, may be "corrected" for content, grammar, sentence structure, perceived omission or error, by other contributors without having to add their names as co-authors. Due to the process of having the submitted data or text reviewed by a section manager, IMDb is different from database projects like Wikipedia, Discogs, or OpenStreetMap in that contributors cannot add, delete, or modify the data or text on impulse, and the manipulation of data is controlled by IMDb technology and salaried staff.[28] Nevertheless, although it is generally assumed to be reliable[29], IMDb has been subject to deliberate additions of false information, as acknowledged by a spokesperson in 2012: "We make it easy for users and professionals to update much of our content, which is why we have an 'edit page.' The data that is submitted goes through a series of consistency checks before it goes live. Given the sheer volume of the information, occasional mistakes are inevitable, and, when reported, they are promptly fixed. We always welcome corrections."[30] The Java Movie Database (JMDB)[] is reportedly creating an IMDb_Error.log file that lists all the errors found while processing the IMDb plain text files. A Wiki alternative to IMDb is omdb (Open Media Database) whose content is also contributed by users but licensed under CC-by and the GFDL. Since 2007, IMDb has been experimenting with wiki-programmed sections for complete film synopses, parental guides, and FAQs about titles as determined by (and answered by) individual contributors.

Data format and access

IMDb does not provide an API for automated queries. However most of the data can be downloaded as compressed plain text files and the information can be extracted using the command-line interface tools provided.[31] Beside that there is the Java-based graphical user interface (GUI) application available that is able to process the compressed plain text files and allow to search and display the information.[] This GUI application supports different languages but the movie related data is of course English as made available by IMDb. A Python package called IMDbPY can also be used to process the compressed plain text files into a number of different SQL databases, enabling easier access to the entire dataset for searching or data mining.[32]

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Film titles
The IMDb has sites in English as well as versions translated completely or in part into other languages (Portuguese, Finnish, French, German, Hungarian, Italian, Polish, Romanian and Spanish). The non-English language sites display film titles in the specified language. While originally the IMDb's English-language sites displayed titles according to their original country-of-origin language, in 2010 the IMDb began allowing individual users in the UK and USA to choose primary title display by either the original-language titles, or the US or UK release title (normally, in English).

Criticism
Visitors of IMDb often express concern over the excessive advertisement banners and pop-ups displayed on the webpage, which are often the cause for slowdowns. There have been numerous complaints from registered members of IMDb Message Boards, criticizing the overwhelming amount of trolls who often harass newcomers or posters with disagreeing opinions, and usually have several sockpuppet accounts, which they tend to use to file abuse reports over certain message board members who may have different or disagreeing opinions on certain subjects, such as the likability of certain popular movies or TV shows, and general disagreements over various popular subjects and topics.[citation needed] IMDb staff often suppresses all complaints over these issues[citation needed], and puts high posting-quotas on message board members who issue them, deletes their posting histories entirely as a punishment for inappropriate behavior, or even disables their accounts if users complain too often. IMDb staff argues that this is justifiable based on the fact that their Message Board registration is payment-free, even though the member registration requires credit card information, and IMDb Pro feature requires additional payment. One user have sued IMDb for violation of her privacy.[33]

Notes
[1] http:/ / www. imdb. com/ [5] What software/hardware are you using to run the site? (http:/ / www. imdb. com/ help/ show_leaf?techinfo) imdb.com [16] IMDb Charts: IMDb Bottom 100 (http:/ / www. imdb. com/ chart/ bottom?tt1229827). imdb.com [17] Jonas Brothers: The 3D Concert Experience (2009) User ratings (http:/ / www. imdb. com/ title/ tt1229827/ ratings). imdb.com [20] The user votes average on film X is 9.4, so it should appear in your top 250 films listing, yet it doesn't. Why? (http:/ / www. imdb. com/ help/ search?domain=helpdesk_faq& index=1& file=notintop250) [21] mirror (http:/ / isfaserveur. univ-lyon1. fr/ ~norberg/ links/ papers/ CRED-eas. pdf) [23] Each TV episode uses the same message board for the whole series [24] Lycos Europe and IMDb sign sales agreement for 9 European markets (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20061023141910/ http:/ / www. lycos-europe. com/ Index-Eng/ G-English-Files/ PR-20060710-IMDb. html). Lycos Europe press release, July 10, 2006. [25] IMDb Resume FAQ: Can I subscribe only for one month or one year? (http:/ / resume. imdb. com/ help/ show_leaf?resumenotrecurring). Retrieved January 22, 2008. [26] IMDb Resume FAQ: Is there any difference between a regular IMDb name page and an IMDb name page created via IMDb Resume? (http:/ / resume. imdb. com/ help/ show_leaf?resumenamepagediff). Retrieved January 22, 2008. [27] IMDb Copyright and Conditions of Use (http:/ / www. imdb. com/ help/ show_article?conditions). imdb.com [28] The Plain Text Data Files (http:/ / www. imdb. com/ interfaces#plain) IMDb Alternate Interfaces [29] It may be assumed to be generally reliable but the IMDb doesn't claim that it is 100% accurate.

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References External links

Official website (http://www.imdb.com) mobile version (http://m.imdb.com/)

Actor
An actor (alternatively actress for a female; see terminology) is a person who acts in a dramatic or comic production and works in film, television, theatre, or radio in that capacity.[1] The ancient Greek word for an "actor," (hypokrites), means literally "one who interprets";[2] in this sense, an actor is one who interprets a dramatic character.[3]

Terminology
After 1660, when women first appeared on stage, actor and actress were initially used interchangeably for female performers, but later, influenced by the French actrice, actress became the usual term. The etymology is a simple derivation from actor with ess added.[] The word actor refers to a person who acts regardless of gender, and this term "is increasingly preferred", although actress, referring specifically to a female person who acts, "remains in general use".[] Within the profession, however, the re-adoption of the neutral term dates to the 1950s60s, the post-war period when women's contribution to cultural life in general was being re-evaluated.[] Actress remains the common term used in major acting awards given to female recipients.[] The gender-neutral term "player" was common in film in the early days of the Motion Picture Production Code with regards to the cinema of the United States, but is now generally deemed archaic. However, it remains in use in the theatre, often incorporated into the name of a theatre group or company (such as the East West Players)[citation needed] .

History
The first recorded case of an actor performing took place in 534 BC (though the changes in calendar over the years make it hard to determine exactly) when the Greek performer Thespis stepped on to the stage at the Theatre Dionysus and became the first known person to speak words as a character in a play or story. Prior to Thespis' act, stories were only known to be told in song and dance and in third person narrative. In honour of Thespis, actors are commonly called Thespians. Theatrical legend to this day maintains that Thespis exists as a mischievous spirit, and disasters in the theatre are sometimes blamed on his ghostly intervention. Actors were traditionally not people of high status, and in the Early Middle Ages travelling acting troupes were often viewed with distrust. In many parts of Europe, actors could not even receive a Christian burial, and traditional beliefs of the region and time period held that this left any actor forever condemned. However, this negative perception was largely reversed in the 19th and 20th centuries as acting has become an honoured and popular profession and art.[4]

Actor

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Techniques
Method acting
Method acting is a term created by Lee Strasberg after he had left the Group Theatre and created his own Actors Studio. The techniques developed in the work of the Group Theatre were based on the acting theory of Konstantin Stanislavski created in the early 20th century in his work at the Moscow Art Theatre and its studios. The Group Theatre first became known in the 1930s; its practices were subsequently advanced and developed in new directions by Stella Adler, Sanford Meisner, Uta Hagen, Lee Strasberg (at the Actors Studio in the 1940s and 50s), and others.[5] In Stanislavski's system', the actor analyzes the character in order to play him or her with psychological realism and emotional authenticity. Using the Method, an actor may recall emotions or reactions from his or her own life and use them to identify with the character being portrayed. Method actors are often characterized as immersing themselves so totally in their characters that they continue to portray them even off-stage or off-camera for the duration of the project. However, this is a popular misconception. While some actors do employ this approach, it is generally not taught as part of the Method. Stella Adler, who was a member of the Group Theatre, along with Strasberg, emphasised a different approach of using creative imagination.[] Method acting offers a systematic form of actor training in which the actor's sensory, psychological, and emotional abilities are developed; it revolutionized theatre in the United States.[citation needed]

Presentational and representational acting

Presentational acting refers to a relationship between actor and audience, whether by direct address or indirectly by specific use of language, looks, gestures or other signs indicating that the character or actor is aware of the audience's presence.[] (Shakespeare's use of punning and wordplay, for example, often has this function of indirect contact.) In representational acting, "actors want to make us 'believe' they are the character; they pretend."[] The illusion of the fourth wall with the audience as voyeurs is striven for.[6]

As opposite gender
In the past, only men could become actors in some societies. In the ancient Greece and Rome[7] and the medieval world, it was considered disgraceful for a woman to go on the stage, and this belief persisted until the 17th century, when in Venice it was broken. In the time of William Shakespeare, women's roles were generally played by men or boys.[8] When an eighteen-year Puritan prohibition of drama was lifted after the English Restoration of 1660, women began to appear on stage in England. Margaret Hughes is credited by some as the first professional actress on the English stage.[9] This prohibition ended during the reign of Charles II in part due to the fact that he enjoyed watching actresses on stage.[10] The first occurrence of the term actress was in 1700 according to the OED and is ascribed to Dryden.[] In Japan, men (onnagata) took over the female roles in kabuki theatre when women were banned from performing on stage during the Edo period. This convention has continued to the present. However, some forms of Chinese drama have women playing all the roles. In modern times, women sometimes play the roles of prepubescent boys. The stage role of Peter Pan, for example, is traditionally played by a woman, as are most principal boys in British pantomime. Opera has several "breeches roles" traditionally sung by women, usually mezzo-sopranos. Examples are Hansel in Hnsel und Gretel, Cherubino in The Marriage of Figaro and Octavian in Der Rosenkavalier. Women in male roles are uncommon in film with the notable exceptions of the films The Year of Living Dangerously and I'm Not There. In the former film Linda Hunt played the pivotal role of Billy Kwan, for which she received the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress. In the latter film Cate Blanchett portrayed Jude Quinn, a

Actor representation of Bob Dylan in the sixties, for which she was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress. Women playing men in live theatre is particularly common in presentations of older plays, such as those of Shakespeare, that have large numbers of male characters in roles where the gender no longer matters in modern times.[citation needed] Having an actor dress as the opposite sex for comic effect is also a long-standing tradition in comic theatre and film. Most of Shakespeare's comedies include instances of overt cross-dressing, such as Francis Flute in A Midsummer Night's Dream. The movie A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum stars Jack Gilford dressing as a young bride. Tony Curtis and Jack Lemmon famously posed as women to escape gangsters in the Billy Wilder film Some Like It Hot. Cross-dressing for comic effect was a frequently used device in most of the thirty Carry On films. Dustin Hoffman and Robin Williams have each appeared in a hit comedy film (Tootsie and Mrs. Doubtfire, respectively) in which they played most scenes dressed as a woman. Occasionally, the issue is further complicated, for example, by a woman playing a woman acting as a man pretending to be a woman, like Julie Andrews in Victor/Victoria, or Gwyneth Paltrow in Shakespeare in Love. In It's Pat: The Movie, filmwatchers never learn the gender of the androgynous main characters Pat and Chris (played by Julia Sweeney and Dave Foley). A few roles in modern films, plays and musicals are played by a member of the opposite sex (rather than a character cross-dressing), such as the character Edna Turnblad in Hairsprayplayed by Divine in the original film, Harvey Fierstein in the Broadway musical, and John Travolta in the 2007 movie musical. Linda Hunt won an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress for playing Billy Kwan in The Year of Living Dangerously. Felicity Huffman was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Actress for playing Bree Osbourne (a male-to-female transsexual) in Transamerica.

35

References
[2] Hypokrites (related to our word for hypocrite) also means, less often, "to answer" the tragic chorus. See Weimann (1978, 2); see also Csapo and Slater, who offer translations of classical source material that utilises the term hypocrisis (acting) (1994, 257, 265267). [3] This is true whether the character than an actor plays is based on a real person or a fictional one, even themselves (when the actor is 'playing themselves,' as in some forms of experimental performance art, or, more commonly, as in John Malkovich's performance in the film Being John Malkovich); to act is to create a character in performance: "The dramatic world can be extended to include the 'author', the 'audience' and even the 'theatre'; but these remain 'possible' surrogates, not the 'actual' referents as such" (Elam 1980, 110). [7] Women Actors in Ancient Rome (http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ radio4/ womanshour/ 2002_52_fri_04. shtml) 27 December 2002, BBC

Sources
Csapo, Eric, and William J. Slater. 1994. The Context of Ancient Drama. Ann Arbor: The U of Michigan P. ISBN 0-472-08275-2. Elam, Keir. 1980. The Semiotics of Theatre and Drama. New Accents Ser. London and New York: Methuen. ISBN 0-416-72060-9. Weimann, Robert. 1978. Shakespeare and the Popular Tradition in the Theater: Studies in the Social Dimension of Dramatic Form and Function. Ed. Robert Schwartz. Baltimore and London: The Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-3506-2.

Actor

36

Further reading
An Actor's Work by Constantin Stanislavski A Dream of Passion: The Development of the Method by Lee Strasberg (Plume Books, ISBN 0-452-26198-8, 1990) Sanford Meisner on Acting by Sanford Meisner (Vintage, ISBN 0-394-75059-4, 1987) Letters to a Young Actor by Robert Brustein (Basic Books, ISBN 0-465-00806-2, 2005). The Empty Space by Peter Brook The Technique of Acting by Stella Adler

External links
Actors' Equity Association (AEA) (http://www.actorsequity.org/): a union representing U. S. theatre actors and stage managers. American Federation of Television and Radio Artists (AFTRA) (http://www.aftra.org/): a union representing U. S. television and radio actors and broadcasters (on-air journalists, etc.). British Actors' Equity (http://www.equity.org.uk/): a trade union representing UK artists, including actors, singers, dancers, choreographers, stage managers, theatre directors and designers, variety and circus artists, television and radio presenters, walk-on and supporting artists, stunt performers and directors and theatre fight directors. Media Entertainment & Arts Alliance (http://www.alliance.org.au): an Australian/New Zealand trade union representing everyone in the media, entertainment, sports, and arts industries. Screen Actors Guild (SAG) (http://www.sag.org/): a union representing U. S. film and TV actors.

Constantin Stanislavski

37

Constantin Stanislavski
Constantin Stanislavski

Born

[1] 17 January 1863 Moscow, Russian Empire 7 August 1938 (aged75) Moscow, Soviet Union Theatre director Actor Theatre theorist Naturalism Psychological realism Socialist realism Symbolism Founder of the Moscow Art Theatre An Actor's Work My Life in Art

Died

Occupation

Literary movement Notable work(s)

Spouse(s)

Maria Petrovna Perevostchikova (stage name: Maria Liliana)

Constantin Sergeyevich Stanislavski (Russian: ; IPA:[knstntin srgejvt stnslafskj]; 17 January[O.S. 5 January]1863 7 August 1938) was a Russian actor and theatre director.[2] His system of acting has developed an international reach. Stanislavski treated theatre-making as a serious endeavour, requiring dedication, discipline and integrity. Throughout his life, he subjected his own acting to a process of rigorous artistic self-analysis and reflection. His development of a theorized praxis in which practice is used as a mode of inquiry and theory as a catalyst for creative development identifies him as the first great theatre practitioner. Stanislavski's work was as important to the development of socialist realism in the Soviet Union as it was to that of psychological realism in the United States.[3] It draws on a wide range of influences and ideas, including his study of the modernist and avant-garde developments of his time (naturalism, symbolism and Meyerhold's constructivism), Russian formalism, Yoga, Pavlovian behavioural psychology, James-Lange (via Ribot) psychophysiology and the aesthetics of Pushkin, Gogol, and Tolstoy. He described his approach as 'spiritual Realism'. Stanislavski wrote several works, including An Actor Prepares, An Actor's Work on a Role, and his autobiography, My Life in Art.

Constantin Stanislavski

38

Biography
Family background
Stanislavski grew up in one of the richest families in Russia, the Alekseyevs.[4] He was born Constantin Sergeyevich Alexeyev "Stanislavski" was a stage name that he adopted in 1884 in order to keep his performance activities secret from his parents.[5] The prospect of becoming a professional actor was taboo for someone of his social class; actors had an even lower social status in Russia than in the rest of Europe, having only recently been serfs and the property of the nobility.[6] The Alexeyevs were a prosperous, bourgeois family, whose factories manufactured gold and silver braiding for military decorations and uniforms.[7] Until the Russian revolution in 1917, Stanislavski often used his inherited wealth to fund his theatrical experiments in acting and directing.[8] His family's discouragement meant that he appeared only as an amateur onstage and as a director until he was thirty-three.[8] As a child, Stanislavski was exposed to the rich cultural life of his family.[9] His interests included the circus, the ballet, and puppetry.[10] In 1877, his father, Sergei Vladimirovich Alekseyev, was elected head of the merchant class in Moscow (one of the most important and influential positions in the city); that year, he had a fully equipped theatre built on his estate at Liubimovka, providing a forum for Stanislavski's adolescent theatrical impulses.[11] After his debut performance there, Stanislavski started what would become a lifelong series of notebooks filled with critical observations on his acting, aphorisms, and problems.[12] It was from this habit of self-analysis and critique that Stanislavski's system later emerged.[13] The family's second theatre was added in 1881 to their mansion at Red Gates, on Sadovaya Street in Moscow (where Stanislavski lived from 1863 to 1903); their house became a focus for the artistic and cultural life of the city.[14] Stanislavski chose not to attend university, preferring to work in the family business.[15]

Early influences
Increasingly interested in "living the part," Stanislavski experimented with the ability to maintain a characterization in real life, disguising himself as a tramp or drunk and visiting the railway station, or disguising himself as a fortune-telling gypsy; he extended the experiment to the rest of the cast of a short comedy in which he performed in 1883, and as late as 1900 he amused holiday-makers in Yalta by taking a walk each morning "in character".[16] In 1884, he began vocal training under Fyodor Petrovich Komissarzhevsky, a professor at the Moscow Conservatory and leading tenor of the Bolshoi (and father of the famous actress Vera Komissarzhevskaya), with whom he also explored the co-ordination of voice and body.[17] Together they devised exercises in moving and sitting stationary "rhythmically", which anticipated Stanislavski's later use of physical rhythm when teaching his 'system' to opera singers.[18] Komissarzhevski provided one of the models (the other was Stanislavski himself) for the character of Tortsov in his actor's manual An Actor's Work (1938).[19] A year later, in 1885, Stanislavski briefly studied at the Moscow Theatre School, where students were encouraged to mimic the theatrical tricks and conventions of their tutors.[20] Disappointed by this approach, he left after little more than two weeks.[20] Instead, Stanislavski devoted particular attention to the performances of the Maly Theatre, the home of psychological realism in Russia.[21] Psychological realism had been developed here by Alexander Pushkin, Nikolai Gogol and Mikhail Shchepkin.[22] In 1823, Pushkin had concluded that what united the diverse classical authorsShakespeare, Racine, Corneille and Caldernwas their common concern for truth of character and situation, understood as credible behaviour in believable circumstances:[23]

Constantin Stanislavski

39 The truth concerning the passions, verisimilitude in the feelings experienced in the given circumstances, that is what our intelligence demands of a dramatist. Pushkin's aphorism, 1830.[24]

Gogol, meanwhile, campaigned against overblown, effect-seeking acting.[25] In an article of 1846, he advises a modest, dignified mode of comic performance in which the actor seeks to grasp "what is dominant in the role" and considers "the character's main concern, which consumes his life, the constant object of his thought, the 'bee in his bonnet.'"[26] This inner desire forms the "heart of the role," to which the "tiny quirks and tiny external details" are added as embellishment.[26] The Maly soon became Stanislavski as the Knight in The Society of Art and known as the House of Shchepkin, the father of Russian realistic Literature's 1888 production of Alexander Pushkin's acting who, in 1848, promoted the idea of an "actor of feeling."[27] The Miserly Knight. This actor would "become the character" and identify with his thoughts and feelings: he would "walk, talk, think, feel, cry, laugh as the author wants him to."[28] A copy of Shchepkin's Memoirs of a Serf-Actor, in which the actor describes his struggle to achieve a naturalness of style, was heavily annotated by Stanislavski.[28] Shchepkin's student, Glikeriya Fedotova, was Stanislavski's teacher (she was responsible for instilling the rejection of inspiration as the basis of the actor's art, along with the stress on the importance of training and discipline, and the practice of responsive interaction with other actors that Stanislavski came to call "communication").[29] Shchepkin's legacy included the emphasis on a disciplined, ensemble approach, the importance of extensive rehearsals, and the use of careful observation, self-knowledge, imagination and emotion as the cornerstones of the craft.[30] As well as the artists of the Maly company, performances given by foreign star actorswho would often come to Moscow during Lent (when Russian actors were prohibited from appearing)also influenced Stanislavski.[31] The effortless, emotive and clear playing of the Italian actor Ernesto Rossi, who performed major Shakespearean tragic protagonists in Moscow in 1877, particularly impressed Stanislavski.[31] So too did Tommaso Salvini's 1882 performance of Othello.[32] Years later, Stanislavski wrote that Salvini was the "finest representative" of the "art of experiencing" approach to acting.[33]

Constantin Stanislavski

40

The Society of Art and Literature

By the age of twenty-five, Stanislavski was well known as an amateur actor.[34] He made a proposal to Fyodor Sollogub and Alexander Fedotov (a theatre director and estranged husband of Glikeriya Fedotova) to establish a society that would unite amateur and professional actors and artists.[35] The profits from his family's factory were particularly high in 18871888; Stanislavski decided to use the surplus 25,00030,000 roubles to form the Society of Art and Literature, for which he had the Ginzburg House on Tverskaya Street converted into a luxurious clubhouse with its own large stage and exhibition rooms.[36] Fedotov became head of the dramatic section, Komissarzhevski was the head of the operatic and musical section, while Sollogub was appointed head of the graphic arts section; the drama and opera sections each had a school.[37] To research the curriculum of the society's drama school, Stanislavski spent the summer of 1888 studying the classes and performances of the Comdie-Franaise in Paris.[38] The society's school was to offer classes in dramatic art, the history of costume, make-up, drama, Russian literature, aesthetics, fencing and dancing.[39] The school opened on 8 Stanislavski with his soon-to-be wife Maria Liliana, playing Ferdinand and Louise in The October 1888 while the society itself was officially inaugurated on 3 Society of Art and Literature's production of November with a ceremony attended by Anton Chekhov.[40] Under the Schiller's Intrigue and Love in 1889. auspices of the society, Stanislavski performed in plays by Molire, Schiller, Pushkin, and Ostrovsky, as well as gaining his first experiences as a director.[41] With the guidance of Fedotov and Sollogub, Stanislavski finally abandoned the operatic conventions and theatrical clichs in his acting that he had mimicked from other actors' performances.[42] He also became interested in the aesthetic theories of Vissarion Belinsky.[43] From Belinsky he took his conception of the role of the artist, on which he based a moral justification for his desire to perform that accorded with his family's sense of social responsibility and ethics.[44] At this time Stanislavski warned in his diary:[45] Young actors, beware of your female admirers! Make love to them, if it amuses you, but do not discuss art with them! Learn in time to listen to, to understand and love the bitter truth about yourselves! And get to know those who can tell it to you. It is with them that you should discuss art. On 5 July 1889, Stanislavski married Lilina (the stage name of Maria Petrovna Perevostchikova), with whom he had just performed in Intrigue and Love.[46] Their first child, Xenia, died of pneumonia in May 1890 less than two months after she was born.[47] Their second daughter, Kira, was born on 21 July 1891.[48] In January 1893, Stanislavski's father died.[49] Their son Igor was born 14 September 1894.[50]

Constantin Stanislavski

41

'When you play a good man, 'try to find out where he is bad, 'and when you play a villain, 'try to find where he is good. Stanislavski, 1889.

In 1889 in the society's production of Aleksey Pisemsky's historical play Men Above The Law, Stanislavski discovered his "principle of opposites," as expressed in his aphoristic advice to the actor: "When you play a good man, try to find out where he is bad, and when you play a villain, try to find where he is good."[51] Stanislavski insisted that the actors learnt their parts thoroughly, almost entirely removing the prompter from the society's productions.[52] Stanislavski described his production of Leo Tolstoy's The Fruits of Enlightenment in February 1891 as his first fully independent directorial work.[53] His directorial methods at this time were closely modeled on the disciplined, autocratic approach of Ludwig Chronegk, the director of the Meiningen Ensemble, whose productions of Julius Caesar, The Merchant of Venice and Twelfth Night, as well as a number of plays by Schiller, Stanislavski had studied enthusiastically during their second visit to Moscow in 1890.[54] The Ensemble's general approach included historical accuracy in set, props and costumes and complex crowd effects achieved through a tightly drilled rehearsal process.[55] Its use of off-stage sound to produce the illusion of a reality beyond the visible stage particularly impressed Stanislavski.[56] Their productions demonstrated a model for artistic achievement with relatively unskilled actors that Stanislavski was to adopt for the early part of his career as a director.[56] By means of a rigid and detailed control of the mise-en-scne, including the strict choreography of the actors' every gesture, in Stanislavski's words "the inner kernel of the play was revealed by itself."[57] Whereas the Ensemble's effects tended toward the grandiose, however, Stanislavski introduced lyrical elaborations through the mise-en-scne that dramatised more mundane and ordinary elements of life, in keeping with Belinsky's ideas about the "poetry of the real":[58] Stanislavski uses the theatre and its technical possibilities as an instrument of expression, a language, in its own right. The dramatic meaning is in the staging itself. [...] He went through the whole play in a completely different way, not relying on the text as such, with quotes from important speeches, not providing a 'literary' explanation, but speaking in terms of the play's dynamic, its action, the thoughts and feelings of the protagonists, the world in which they lived. His account flowed uninterruptedly from moment to moment. Writing years later in his autobiography My Life in Art (1925), Stanislavski described Chronegk's approach as one in which the director is "forced to work without the help of the actor."[59] Jean Benedetti suggests that Stanislavski's task at this stage was to unite the realistic tradition of the creative actor inherited from Shchepkin and Gogol with the director-centered, organically unified naturalistic aesthetic of the Ensemble's approach.[47] It was at this time that Stanislavski first met Leo Tolstoy.[60] Tolstoy Stanislavski as Othello in 1896. re-wrote the fourth act of his The Power of Darkness along the lines of Stanislavski's suggestions in 1896.[61] Tolstoy was another important influence on the development of Stanislavski's thought; his What Is Art? (1898) promoted immediate intelligibility and transparency as an aesthetic principle.[62] On the eve of creating the Moscow Art Theatre, Stanislavski wrote of the importance of simplicity, directness and accessibility in art.[63]

Constantin Stanislavski From 1894 onwards, as part of his painstaking rehearsals for Karl Gutzkow's melodrama Uriel Acosta and Shakespeare's Othello, Stanislavski began to assemble detailed prompt-books that included a directorial commentary on the entire play and from which not even the smallest detail was allowed to deviate in rehearsals.[64] Stanislavski's Othello (1896) made a strong impression on the 22-year-old Vsevolod Meyerhold, who was later to work with him before becoming an important director and theatre practitioner in his own right.[65] "The task of our generation," Stanislavski wrote at this time, is "to liberate art from outmoded tradition, from tired clich and to give greater freedom to imagination and creative ability."[66]

42

The Moscow Art Theatre

See also: MAT production of The Seagull and MAT production of Hamlet In 1896 Stanislavski discussed with Nikolai Efros his ideas for a scheme to establish a network of touring theatre companies that would bring high-quality drama to the surrounding area of selected towns.[67] He proposed to call them "open" or "accessible" theatres, in a bid to avoid alarming the authorities with their connection to the dangerously democratizing "popular theatre" movement that was spreading across Europe, spearheaded by Romain Rolland.[68] In February 1897 Stanislavski joined Anton Chekhov, whom he had met on 15 February at a literary-musical evening, in an open public discussion on the creation of a popular theatre that was reported in the press.[69] At this time he also helped to organise the first all-Russian conference on the theatre, whose keynote speaker, Yevtikhiy Karpov, urged the creation of a "Russian people's theatre."[70] It was Stanislavski's historic meeting with Vladimir Nemirovich-Danchenko on 22 June 1897, however, that would create what was called initially the "Moscow Public-Accessible Theatre" but which came to be known as the Moscow Art Theatre (MAT).[71] Their eighteen-hour discussionlasting from lunch at 2pm in a private room in the Slavic Bazaar restaurant to 8am the following morning over breakfast at Stanislavski's family estate at Liubimovkahas acquired a legendary status in the history of theatre.[72] Nemirovich was a successful playwright (whose work was performed by the Maly and whose play The Worth of Life had beaten Chekhov's The Seagull to win the Griboyedov prize, much to the author's dismay), critic, theatre director and acting teacher at the Philharmonic school (where he taught Vsevolod Meyerhold and Olga Knipper), who was also committed to the idea of a popular theatre.[73] Their abilities complemented one another: Vladimir Nemirovich-Danchenko, co-founder with Stanislavski of the Nemirovich needed Stanislavski's directorial talent for creating vivid stage Moscow Art Theatre, photographed in images and selecting significant details, while Stanislavski needed 1922. Nemirovich's talent for dramatic and literary analysis, his professional expertise and his ability to manage a theatre.[74] Stanislavski later compared their discussions to the Treaty of Versailles, their scope was so wide-ranging; they agreed on the conventional practices they wished to abandon and, on the basis of the working method they found they had in common, they worked out the policy of their new theatre.[75] Together they would forge a professional company with an ensemble ethos that discouraged individual vanity, selecting actors from Nemirovich's class at the Philharmonic school and Stanislavski's amateur Society of Art and Literature group, along with other professional actors; they would create a realistic theatre of international renown, with popular prices for seats, whose organically unified aesthetic would bring together the techniques of the Meiningen Ensemble and those of Andr Antoine's Thtre Libre (which Stanislavski had seen during trips to Paris).[76] Responsibility was to be shared between them on the basis of their individual strengths, with Stanislavski overseeing production and Nemirovich in charge of the repertoire and literary decisions; each had a veto.[77]

Constantin Stanislavski Given that Stanislavski's family's assets amounted to some 8 million roubles at the time, Nemirovich assumed initially that Stanislavski would fund the theatre as a privately owned business, but Stanislavski insisted on a limited, joint stock company.[78] Stanislavski would only ever invest an initial 10,000 roubles in the MAT.[79] To raise the rest of the theatre's 28,000 roubles launch capital, Nemirovich persuaded some of the directors of the Philharmonic Society to contribute, members of the board of the Society of Art and Literature also invested, but the theatre's principal shareholder was to be Savva Timofeievich Morozov, who invested 10,000 roubles.[80] The company had 13 shareholders, who signed an agreement on 10 April 1898.[81] With an annual salary of 4,200 roubles each, Stanislavski and Nemirovich were to represent the interests of the acting company in the business, though with the aim of transferring control to the actors eventually.[81] The company consisted of 39 actors, 23 men and 16 women, 30% of whom came from Nemirovich's Phiharmonic class and 35% of whom came with Stanislavski from the Society of Art and Literature, with a total staff numbering 323.[82] Viktor Simov, whom Stanislavski had met in 1896, was engaged as the company's principal designer.[83] For want of suitable rehearsal space in Moscow, the company met in Pushkino, isolated 50 miles from the city.[84] In his opening speech on the first day of rehearsals, 14 June 1898, Stanislavski stressed the "social character" of their collective undertaking: "We are striving to create the first rational, moral, and public-accessible theatre," he said, "and we dedicate our lives to this high goal."[85] In an atmosphere more like a university than a theatre, as Stanislavski described it, the company was introduced to his working method of extensive reading and research and detailed rehearsals in which the action was defined at the table before being explored physically.[86] Throughout June and July the company rehearsed productions of Shakespeare's The Merchant of Venice, Sophocles' Antigone, Hauptmann's Hannele, Pisemsky's Men Above The Law, Lenz's The Tutor and Alexei Tolstoy's Tsar Fiodor Ioannovich.[87] It was at these rehearsals that Stanislavski's lifelong relationship with Vsevolod Meyerhold began; by the end of June, Meyerhold was so impressed with Stanislavski's directorial skills that he declared him a genius.[86] On his death-bed Stanislavski was to declare Meyerhold "my sole heir in the theatrehere or anywhere else."[88]

43

In 1898, Stanislavski co-directed with Nemirovich the first of his productions of the work of Anton Chekhov. The MAT production of The Seagull was a crucial milestone for the fledgling company that has been described as "one of the greatest events in the history of Russian theatre and one of the greatest new developments in the history of world drama."[89] Despite its 80 hours of rehearsala considerable length by the standards of the conventional practice of the dayStanislavski felt it was under-rehearsed and threatened to have his name removed from the posters when Nemirovich refused his demand to postpone its opening by a week.[90] Stanislavski played Trigorin, Meyerhold played Constantin, and Olga Knipper played Arkadnia. The production's success was due to the fidelity of its delicate representation of everyday life, its intimate, ensemble playing, and the resonance of its mood of despondent uncertainty with the psychological disposition of the Russian intelligentsia of the time.[91] To commemorate this historic production, which gave the MAT its sense of identity, the company to this day bears the seagull as its emblem.[92] Stanislavski went on to direct the successful premires of Chekhov's other major plays: Uncle Vanya in 1899, Three Sisters in 1901, and The Cherry Orchard in 1904.[93] Stanislavski's encounter with Chekhov's drama proved crucial to the creative development of both men. His ensemble approach

At Pushkino in 1898, Vsevolod Meyerhold prepares for his role as Constantin to Stanislavski's Trigorin in the Moscow Art Theatre production of Anton Chekhov's The Seagull.

Constantin Stanislavski and attention to the psychological realities of its characters revived Chekhov's interest in writing for the stage, while Chekhov's unwillingness to explain or expand on the text forced Stanislavski to dig beneath its surface in ways that were new in theatre.[94] By 1922, however, Stanislavski had become disenchanted with the MAT's productions of Chekhov's plays"After all we have lived through," he remarked to Nemirovich, "it is impossible to weep over the fact that an officer is going and leaving his lady behind" (referring to the conclusion of Three Sisters).[95]

44

Stanislavski's system
Stanislavski's 'system' is a systematic approach to training actors. Areas of study include concentration, voice, physical skills, emotion memory, observation, and dramatic analysis. Stanislavski's goal was to find a universally applicable approach that could be of service to all actors. Yet he said of his system: "Create your own method. Don't depend slavishly on mine. Make up something that will work for you! But keep breaking traditions, I beg you." Many actors routinely identify his system with the American Method, although the latter's exclusively psychological techniques contrast sharply with Stanislavski's multivariant, holistic and psychophysical approach, which explores character and action both from the 'inside out' and the 'outside in'.[96]

Emotion memory
Stanislavski's 'system' focused on the development of artistic truth onstage by teaching actors to "experience the part" during performance. Stanislavski hoped that the 'system' could be applied to all forms of drama, including melodrama, vaudeville, and opera. He organised a series of theatre studios in which young actors were trained in his 'system.' At the First Studio, actors were instructed to use their own memories in order to express emotion. Stanislavski soon observed that some of the actors using or abusing this technique were given to hysteria. He began to search for more reliable means to access emotion, eventually emphasizing the actor's use of imagination and belief in the given circumstances of the text rather than her/his private and often painful memories.

The Method of Physical Actions

In the beginning, Stanislavski proposed that actors study and experience subjective emotions and feelings and manifest them to audiences by physical and vocal means. While in its very earliest stages his 'system' focused on creating truthful emotions and embodying them, he later worked on the Method of Physical Actions. This was developed at the Opera Dramatic Studio from the early 1930s. Its focus was on physical actions as a means to access truthful emotion, and involved improvisation. The focus remained on reaching the subconscious through the conscious.

Constantin Stanislavski

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Legacy
Stanislavski had different pupils during each of the phases of discovering and experimenting with his 'system' of acting. Two of his former students, Richard Boleslavsky and Maria Ouspenskaya, founded the American Laboratory Theatre in 1925. One of their students, Lee Strasberg, went on to co-found the Group Theatre (19311940) with Harold Clurman and Cheryl Crawford, which was the first American acting company to put Stanislavski's initial discoveries into practice. Clurman and Strasberg had a profound influence on American acting, both on stage and film, as did Stella Adler, who was also part of the Group Theatre and who had studied briefly with Stanislavsky and quarreled with Strasberg's approach to the work. Lord Laurence Olivier wrote that Stanislavski's My Life in Art was a source of great enlightenment" when he was a young actor.[97] Sir John Gielgud said, "This director found time to explain a thousand things that have always troubled actors and fascinated students." Gielgud is also quoted as saying, "Stanislavski's now famous book is a contribution to the Theatre and its students all over the world."
A portrait of Constantin Stanislavski by Valentin Serov.

Honours and awards

This article incorporates information from the equivalent article on the Russian Wikipedia. Order of Lenin 1937 Order of the Red Banner of Labour 1938 People's Artist of the USSR, 1936

Fictional references
Mikhail Bulgakov satirized Stanislavski through the character Ivan Vasilievich in his novel Black Snow (also called "The Theatrical Novel"). (It is no coincidence that Ivan Vasilievich was the name and patronymic of the notorious 16th-century czar Ivan the Terrible.) In Bulgakov's novel, Ivan Vasilievich is portrayed as a great actor, but his famous acting "method" is held up as a farce, in fact often hindering actors' performances through ridiculous exercises. Bulgakov's cutting portrait of Ivan Vasilievich likely reflects his frustrating experiences with Stanislavski during the latter's eventually aborted production of Bulgakov's play A Cabal of Hypocrites in 19301936. While this depiction of Stanislavski is in stark contrast to most other descriptions, including those of Westerners who had met him, it should be noted that Bulgakov and Stanislavski were otherwise good friends.

Stanislavski's grave at the Novodevichy Cemetery

Constantin Stanislavski

46

Significant students
Vsevolod Meyerhold Michael Chekhov Richard Boleslavsky Maria Ouspenskaya Joshua Logan Andrius Jilinsky Leo Bulgakov Varvara Bulgakov Vera Solovyova Tamara Daykarhanova Olga Knipper Maria Knebel Yevgeny Vakhtangov

Notes
Explanatory notes
[1] Old Style date 5 January 1863 [2] The introduction to this article draws on the introductions and overviews in the following commentaries: Banham (1998), Benedetti (1989), Carnicke (1998), Counsell (1996), Innes (2000), Milling and Ley (2001). [3] Milling and Ley (2001, 2) and Carnicke (1998). [4] "If, in the United States one could be 'rich as Rockefeller, 'in Moscow the corresponding expression was, and is, 'rich as Alexeyev'" (Benedetti 1999, 3). See also Carnicke (2000, 11) and Magarshack (1950, 1). Margarshack indicates that at this time "the life of the rich Moscow merchant was indistinguishable from the life of the Moscow nobility" (1950, 3). [5] Benedetti (1999, 24) and Carnicke (2000, 11). Benedetti explains that Stanislavski "inherited" his stage name from another amateur, Dr Mako: "a friend at Luibimovka, and an admirer, as he had been as a boy, of the ballerina Stanislavskaia. It was a safe name to adopt. Of Polish origin, it suggested humble status and was unlikely to be associated with one of Moscow's most eminent bourgeois families." Magarshack gives the amateur actor's name as Markov (1950, 19). [6] Benedetti (1999, 21) and Carnicke (2000, 11). [7] Magarshack (1950, 1). [8] Carnicke (2000, 11). [9] "The children were taken to the theatre and concerts almost as soon as they could walk" (Benedetti 1999, 10). [10] Benedetti (1999, 611) and Magarshack (1950, 911, 2728). [11] Benedetti (1999, 13) and Carnicke (2000, 11). [12] Benedetti (1999, 14) and Magarshack (1950, 2122). [13] Magarshack (1950, 21). [14] Benedetti (1999, 18) and Magarshack (1950, 3132, 77). [15] Benedetti (1999, 18) and Magarshack (1950, 26). [16] Benedetti (1999, 1819) and Magarshack (1950, 25, 3334). [17] Benedetti (1999, 1920) and Magarshack (1950, 4950). [18] Magarshack (1950, 50). [19] Benedetti (2008, xxi). [20] Benedetti (1999, 21). [21] Benedetti (1999, 1417). [22] Benedetti (2005, 100). [23] Benedetti (1999, 1415) and (2005, 100). [24] Benedetti (1999, 15). Benedetti offers an alternative translation of Pushkin's aphorism in his The Art of the Actor: "Authenticity of the passions, sentiments that seem true in the proposed circumstances, that is what our intelligence requires of the writer" (2005, 100). [25] Benedetti (2005, 100101). [26] Benedetti (2005, 101). [27] Benedetti (1999, 16) and Banham (1998, 985). [28] Benedetti (1999, 16) [29] Banham (1998, 985) and Magarshack (1950, 5152). [30] Banham (1998, 985). [31] Benedetti (1999, 17). [32] Benedetti (1999, 18). [33] Stanislavski (1938, 19). [34] Magarshack (1950, 52). [35] Magarshack (1950, 5556).

Constantin Stanislavski
[36] Benedetti (1999, 27). Benedetti writes that as a result of the profitability of the family factory, Stanislavski "suddenly found himself with 25,00030,000 roubles more than he expected"; he continues: "he decided to spend it all on an ambitious scheme". Worrall, however, offers a more modest figure for Stanislavski's initial financial investment in the Society: "With his first years dividend of 1,020 roubles he established, together with Komissarzhevsky and Fedotov, the Society of Art and Literature" (1996, 24). [37] Magarshack (1950, 56). [38] Benedetti (1999, 2930) and Worrall (1996, 25). [39] Worrall (1996, 25). [40] Benedetti (1999, 30). [41] Benedetti (1999, 3040) and Worrall (1996, 24). [42] Magarshack (1950, 64). [43] Benedetti (1999, 3537). [44] Benedetti (1999, 3536). [45] Magarshack (1950, 6162). [46] Benedetti (1999, 37) and Magarshack (1950, 54). Worrall writes, apparently in error, that they married in June (1996, 26). [47] Benedetti (1999, 42). [48] Benedetti (1999, 43). [49] Magarshack (1950, 81). [50] Benedetti (1999, 47). [51] Worrall (1996, 27), Benedetti (1999, 39) and Magarshack (1950, 6768). The title of Pisemsky's play has also been translated as Despots and A Law unto Themselves. [52] Magarshack (1950, 7576). [53] Worrall (1996, 27). See also Magarshack (1950, 7880) and Benedetti (1999, 4243). [54] [55] [56] [57] [58] [59] [60] [61] [62] [63] [64] [65] [66] [67] [68] [69] [70] [71] [72] [73] [74] [75] [76] [77] [78] [79] [80] [81] [82] [83] [84] [85] [86] [87] Benedetti (1999, 4043), Magarshack (1950, 7074) and Worrall (1996, 2829). Benedetti (1999, 4041). Benedetti (1999, 41). Magarshack (1950, 80) and Benedetti (1999, 48). Benedetti (1999, 3536, 44); the following quotation is from Benedetti (1999, 44 and 5051). Magarshack (1950, 73). Magarshack (1950, 8285). They first met on 29 October 1893. See Benedetti (1999, 46). Magarshack (1950, 8485). Benedetti (1999, 46). Benedetti (1999, 54). Worrall (1996, 2829), Magarshack (1950, 8690) and Benedetti (1999, 47). Benedetti (1999, 52). Benedetti (1999, 55). Benedetti (1999, 56). Nikolai Efimovich Efros (18671923), the Moscow Art Theatre's first literary manager. Benedetti (1999, 56), Bradby and McCormick (1978, 1144), and Worrall (1996, 15). Benedetti (1999, 59). Benedetti (1999, 59) and Worrall (1996, 35). Benedetti (1999, 59) and Worrall (1996, 43). Benedetti (1999, 61) and Worrall (1996, 64). Benedetti (1989, 16) and (1999, 5960). Benedetti (1999, 6061). Benedetti (1989, 16). Benedetti (1989, 18) and (1999, 6162). Benedetti (1989, 17) and (1999, 61). Benedetti (1999, 6263) and Worrall (1996, 3738). Benedetti (1999, 63). Benedetti (1999, 64) and Worrall (1996, 3840). Worrall (1996, 40). Worrall (1996, 4344). Benedetti (1999, 67) and Braun (1982, 61). Benedetti (1999, 6869). Worrall (1996, 45) and Benedetti (1999, 68). Benedetti (1999, 70). Worrall (1996, 4647).

47

[88] Rudnitsky (1981, xv). [89] Rudnitsky (1981, 8) and Benedetti (1999a, 85). [90] Rehearsals were spread over 24 sessions: 9 with Stanislavski and 15 with Nemirovich; see Benedetti (1999a, 85).

Constantin Stanislavski
[91] Braun (1981, 64). [92] Braun (1981, 62, 64). [93] Leach (2004, 14). [94] Chekhov and the Art Theatre, in Stanislavski's words, were united in a common desire "to achieve artistic simplicity and truth on the stage"; Allen (2001, 11). [95] Quoted by Benedetti (1999a, 272). [96] Not only actors are subject to this confusion; Lee Strasberg's obituary in The New York Times credited Stanislavski with the invention of the Method: "Mr. Strasberg adapted it to the American theatre, imposing his refinements, but always crediting Stanislavsky as his source" (Quoted by Carnicke 1998, 9). Carnicke argues that this "robs Strasberg of the originality in his thinking, while simultaneously obscuring Stanislavsky's ideas" (1997, 9). [97] Lord Olivier, Confessions of an Actor, 1982 p. 64

48

Citations Bibliography
Banham, Martin, ed. 1998. The Cambridge Guide to Theatre. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-43437-8. Benedetti, Jean. 1989. Stanislavski: An Introduction. Revised edition. Original edition published in 1982. London: Methuen. ISBN 0-413-50030-6. Benedetti, Jean. 1998. Stanislavski and the Actor. London: Methuen. ISBN 0-413-71160-9. Benedetti, Jean. 1999. Stanislavski: His Life and Art. Revised edition. Original edition published in 1988. London: Methuen. ISBN 0-413-52520-1. Benedetti, Jean. 2005. The Art of the Actor: The Essential History of Acting, From Classical Times to the Present Day. London: Methuen. ISBN 0-413-77336-1. Benedetti, Jean. 2008. Foreword. In Stanislavski (1938, xvxxii). Bradby, David, and John McCormick. 1978. People's Theatre. London: Croom Helm and Totowa, NJ: Rowman and Littlefield. ISBN 0-85664-501-X. Braun, Edward. 1982. "Stanislavsky and Chekhov". The Director and the Stage: From Naturalism to Grotowski. London: Methuen. ISBN 0-413-46300-1. p.5976. Carnicke, Sharon M. 1998. Stanislavsky in Focus. Russian Theatre Archive Ser. London: Harwood Academic Publishers. ISBN 90-5755-070-9. Carnicke, Sharon M. 2000. "Stanislavsky's System: Pathways for the Actor". In Twentieth Century Actor Training. Ed. Alison Hodge. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-19452-0. p.1136. Counsell, Colin. 1996. Signs of Performance: An Introduction to Twentieth-Century Theatre. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-10643-5. Hagen, Uta. 1973. Respect for Acting. New York: Macmillan. ISBN 0-02-547390-5. Hobgood, Burnet M. 1991. "Stanislavsky's Preface to An Actor Prepares". Theatre Journal 43: 229232. Innes, Christopher, ed. 2000. A Sourcebook on Naturalist Theatre. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-15229-1. Magarshack, David. 1950. Stanislavsky: A Life. London and Boston: Faber, 1986. ISBN 0-571-13791-1. Merlin, Bella. 2007. The Complete Stanislavsky Toolkit. London: Nick Hern Books. ISBN 978-1-85459-793-9. Milling, Jane, and Graham Ley. 2001. Modern Theories of Performance: From Stanislavski to Boal. Basingstoke, Hampshire and New York: Palgrave. ISBN 0-333-77542-2. Mitter, Shomit. 1992. Systems of Rehearsal: Stanislavsky, Brecht, Grotowski and Brook. London and NY: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-06784-7. Moore, Sonia. 1968. Training an Actor: The Stanislavski System in Class. New York: Viking. ISBN 0-670-00249-6. Roach, Joseph R. 1985. The Player's Passion: Studies in the Science of Acting. Theater:Theory/Text/Performance Ser. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0-472-08244-2.

Constantin Stanislavski Stanislavski, Constantin. 1936. An Actor Prepares. London: Methuen, 1988. ISBN 0-413-46190-4. Stanislavski, Constantin. 1938. An Actors Work: A Students Diary. Trans. and ed. Jean Benedetti. London: Routledge, 2008. ISBN 978-0-415-42223-9. Stanislavski, Constantin. 1961. Creating a Role. Trans. Elizabeth Reynolds Hapgood. London: Mentor, 1968. ISBN 0-450-00166-0. Stanislavski, Constantin. 1963. An Actor's Handbook: An Alphabetical Arrangement of Concise Statements on Aspects of Acting. Ed. and trans. Elizabeth Reynolds Hapgood. London: Methuen, 1990. ISBN 0-413-63080-3. Stanislavski, Constantin. 1968. Stanislavski's Legacy: A Collection of Comments on a Variety of Aspects of an Actor's Art and Life. Ed. and trans. Elizabeth Reynolds Hapgood. Revised and expanded edition. London: Methuen, 1981. ISBN 0-413-47770-3. Toporkov, Vasily Osipovich. 2001. Stanislavski in Rehearsal: The Final Years. Trans. Jean Benedetti. London: Methuen. ISBN 0-413-75720-X. Whyman, Rose. 2008. The Stanislavsky System of Acting: Legacy and Influence in Modern Performance. Cambridge: Cambridge UP. ISBN 978-0-521-88696-3. Worrall, Nick. 1996. The Moscow Art Theatre. Theatre Production Studies ser. London and NY: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-05598-9.

49

Method acting
Method acting is any of a family of techniques used by actors to create in themselves the thoughts and feelings of their characters, so as to develop lifelike performances. Though not all method actors use the same approach, the "method" in method acting usually refers to the practice, influenced by Constantin Stanislavski and created by Lee Strasberg, in which actors draw upon their own emotions and memories in their portrayals, aided by a set of exercises and practices including sense memory and affective memory. Method acting shares similarities with Stanislavski's system. Method actors are often characterised as immersing themselves in their characters to the extent that they continue to portray them even offstage or off-camera for the duration of a project. However, this is a popular misconception. While some actors have employed this approach, it is generally not taught as part of the Method[citation needed]. Method acting has been described as having "revolutionized American theater." While Classical acting instruction "had focused on developing external talents," the Method was "the first systematized training that also developed internal abilities (sensory, psychological, emotional)."[1] Method acting continues to evolve, with many contemporary acting teachers, schools, and colleges teaching an integrated approach that draws from several different schools of thought about acting.

Origins
"The Method" was first popularized by the Group Theatre in New York City in the 1930s and subsequently advanced by Lee Strasberg and others at The Actors Studio in the 1940s and 1950s. It was derived from the 'system' created by Constantin Stanislavski, who pioneered similar ideas in his quest for "theatrical truth." This was done through his friendships with Russia's leading actors, his collaborations with playwright Anton Chekhov, and his own teaching, writing, and acting at the Moscow Art Theater (founded in 1897). Strasberg's students included many of the best known American actors of the latter half of the 20th century, including, Marlon Brando, Paul Newman, Robert De Niro, Al Pacino, James Dean, George Peppard, Dustin Hoffman, Marilyn Monroe, Jane Fonda, Jack Nicholson, Mickey Rourke, and many others.[2] Using the Method, the actor also recalls emotions or reactions from his or her own life and uses them to identify with the character being portrayed. [citation needed]

Method acting

50

Technique
"The Method" usually refers to the teachings of Lee Strasberg, but the term "method acting" is also sometimes applied to the teachings of his Group Theatre colleagues, including Stella Adler, Robert Lewis, and Sanford Meisner, and to other schools of acting derived from Stanislavski's system, each of which takes a slightly different approach. Stanislavski himself has been noted saying that certain techniques that are considered to be "method" are not true to his original system, with an undue emphasis on the exercises of affective memory. However there is no one correct way of method acting, for each different method technique is simply a different teachers' understanding of the Stanislavski System. Generally, Method acting combines the actor's careful consideration of the character's psychological motives and personal identification with the character, possibly including a reproduction of the character's emotional state by recalling emotions or sensations from the actor's own life. It is often contrasted with acting in which thoughts and emotions are indicated, or presented in a clichd, unrealistic way. Among the concepts and techniques of Method acting are substitution, "as if," sense memory, affective memory, animal work, and archetype work. Strasberg uses the question, "What would motivate me, the actor, to behave in the way the character does?" Strasberg asks the actor to replace the play's circumstances with his or her own, the substitution.[3] Sanford Meisner, another Group Theatre pioneer, championed a closely related version of the Method, which came to be called the Meisner technique. Meisner broke from Strasberg on the subjects of sense memory and affective memory, basic techniques espoused by Strasberg through which actors access their own personal experiences in order to identify with and portray the emotional lives of their characters. Meisner believed that this approach caused actors to focus on themselves and not fully tell the story. He advocated fully immersing oneself "in the moment" and concentrating on one's partner. Meisner taught actors to achieve spontaneity by understanding the given circumstances of the scene (as did Strasberg) and through interpersonal exercises he designed to help actors invest emotionally in the scene, freeing them to react "honestly" as the character. Meisner described acting as "living truthfully under imaginary circumstances."[4] Robert Lewis also broke with Strasberg. In his books Methodor Madness? and the more autobiographical Slings and Arrows, Lewis disagreed with the idea that vocal training should be separated from pure emotional training.[5] Lewis felt that more emphasis should be placed on formal voice and body training, such as teaching actors how to speak verse and enunciate clearly, rather than on pure raw emotion, which he felt was the focus of Method training.[5] Stella Adler, an actress and acting teacher whose fame was cemented by the success of her students Marlon Brando, Warren Beatty, and Robert De Niro, also broke with Strasberg after she studied with Stanislavski himself, the only Group Theatre teacher to do so, after he had modified many of his early ideas about acting. Her version of the Method is based on the idea that actors should conjure up emotion not by using their own personal memories, but by using the scene's given circumstances. Like Strasberg's, Adler's technique relies on carrying through tasks, wants, needs, and objectives. It also seeks to stimulate the actor's imagination through the use of "as ifs." Adler often taught that "drawing on personal experience alone was too limited." Therefore, she urged performers to draw on their imaginations and utilize "emotional memory" to the fullest.[6]

Method acting

51

Contemporary approaches
Contemporary Method acting teachers and schools often synthesize the work of their predecessors into an integrated approach. They reject the notion that any one of the major Method teachers of the 20th century was completely correct or incorrect, and they continue to develop new acting tools and techniques. Some modern acting theorists and teachers have noted that Lee Strasberg, Sanford Meisner, Stella Adler, and others often misunderstood each other's work, and that their criticisms were based on this misunderstanding. For example, they all taught actors to use their imagination, to connect with each other in performance, to analyze the script for wants, needs, and objectives. Meisner often said that Strasberg actors were too focused on themselves, but Strasberg trained many of the most respected actors of the 20th century. In addition to taking an integrated approach, contemporary actors sometimes seek help from psychologists[7][8] or use imaginative tools such as dream work or archetype work to remove emotional blocks. Techniques have also been developed to prevent the world of the performance from spilling over into an actor's personal life in destructive ways.

Teachers
Stanislavski described his acting system in a trilogy of books set in a fictional acting school: An Actor Prepares, Building a Character, and Creating a Role. He also wrote an autobiography, My Life in Art. Acting teachers whose work was inspired by Stanislavski include: Richard Boleslavsky, actor, film director, and founder of the American Laboratory Theatre in New York. Michael Chekhov, an actor, director, and author (and nephew of Anton Chekov) whose technique, largely an outside-in approach and somewhat more metaphysical, diverged from and returned to Stanislavski's over the course of his career. Maria Ouspenskaya, an actress who taught at the American Laboratory Theatre. Her students included John Garfield, Stella Adler, and Lee Strasberg. Lee Strasberg, a director, actor, and producer whose teachings are most closely associated with the term Method acting. Stella Adler, an actress and founder of the Stella Adler Conservatory in New York City. Herbert Berghof, founder of HB Studio in New York City. Uta Hagen, an actress and the author of Respect for Acting and A Challenge for the Actor, who emphasized the techniques of identity and substitution. Robert Lewis, an actor, director, co-founder of the Actors Studio, and author of Methodor Madness? In fact, most post-1930 acting philosophies have been strongly influenced by Method acting, and it continues to be taught at schools around the world, including the Lee Strasberg Theatre and Film Institute in New York and Los Angeles, the Actors Studio Drama School in New York, the Stella Adler Studio of Acting in New York and Los Angeles, the Edgemar Center for the Arts in Santa Monica, Calif., HB Studio in New York, Le Studio Jack Garfein in Paris and American Conservatory Theater in San Francisco.

Method acting

52

Practitioners
Tom Hanks Richard Armitage Christian Bale Marlon Brando[9] Adrien Brody Kamal Haasan Michael Caine[10] Jessica Chastain Bradley Cooper Gary Oldman Bryan Cranston Mammootty James Dean[2] Robert De Niro[2] Johnny Depp Leonardo DiCaprio Jane Fonda[11] Walton Goggins Ryan Gosling Tom Hardy Ed Harris Dustin Hoffman Matthew Mcconaughey Michael Ironside Anne Hathaway Val Kilmer Heath Ledger Mohanlal Marilyn Monroe[2] Jack Nicholson[12] Al Pacino[2] Joaquin Phoenix Suzanne Pleshette[13] Aamir Khan Gena Rowlands Peter Sellers James Stewart Meryl Streep Forest Whitaker Michelle Williams Reese Witherspoon Shelley Winters[14] John Lloyd Cruz[15]

[Bill Pendergast] (actor and writer)

Method acting

53

Controversy
British biographer Jean Benedetti, who was a scholar and translator of nearly all of Constantin Stanislavski's works, spent most of his later years trying to correct what he felt were gross misunderstandings of Stanislavski's works, including the "over-limited reliance on psychological approaches that led to the American conception of method acting."[16]

Further reading
Articles
Mel Gussow: "The Method, Still Disputed But Now Ubiquitous," [17] The New York Times (April 14, 1987)

Major books on Method acting

The Technique of Acting by Stella Adler ActingThe First Six Lessons by Richard Boleslavsky To the Actor by Michael Chekhov A Dream of Passion by Lee Strasberg Sanford Meisner on Acting by Sanford Meisner Methodor Madness? by Robert Lewis Advice to the Players by Robert Lewis Respect for Acting by Uta Hagen No Acting Please by Eric Morris and Joan Hotchkis Strasberg's Method: As Taught by Lorrie Hull by S. Loraine Hull Life and Acting: Techniques for the Actor by Jack Garfein The Power of the Actor by Ivana Chubbuck

Books on contemporary approaches to Method acting

The Intent to Live by Larry Moss Dreamwork for Actors by Janet Sonenberg O poetic a artei actorului (Poetics of the actor's art) by Ion Cojar Rosemary Malague: An Actress Prepares: Women and "the Method", London & New York: Routledge, 2011

References
[1] Stella Adler, 91, an Actress and Teacher of the Method (http:/ / query. nytimes. com/ gst/ fullpage. html?res=9E0CE0DD1E31F931A15751C1A964958260) New York Times, December 22, 1992. [2] Lee Strasberg of Actors Studio Dead (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ learning/ general/ onthisday/ bday/ 1117. html) The New York Times, February 18, 1982 [3] Carnicke, Sharon. Stanislavsky in Focus: An Acting Master for the Twenty-First Century. Routledge Theatre Classics, 2008, p. 221 [4] Meisner, Sanford. Sanford Meisner on Acting, Vintage, 1987 [5] Robert Lewis (2003), Slings and Arrows: Theater in My Life, Hal Leonard Corporation, ISBN 1-55783-244-7, p.193. [6] "Stella Adler." Encyclopdia Britannica, Inc., 2011. 27 October 2011. [7] Larina Kase (2011), Clients, Clients, and More Clients!: Create an Endless Stream of New Business with the Power of Psychology, McGraw-Hill, ISBN 0-07-177100-X, p.125. [8] S. Loraine Hull (1985), Strasberg's method as taught by Lorrie Hull: A practical guide for actors, teachers, and directors, Oxbow Books, ISBN 0-918024-38-2, p.10. [9] Marlon Brando redefined acting (http:/ / today. msnbc. msn. com/ id/ 5354214/ ns/ today-entertainment/ t/ marlon-brando-redefined-acting/ ) MSNBC [10] Michael Caine 'uses painful secret to cry on set' (http:/ / www. telegraph. co. uk/ news/ celebritynews/ 6451936/ Michael-Caine-uses-painful-secret-to-cry-on-set. html) The Telegraph

Method acting
[11] Jane Fonda Is Actress with a Character (http:/ / news. google. com/ newspapers?id=kbolAAAAIBAJ& sjid=2_IFAAAAIBAJ& pg=1054,1011277& dq=& hl=en) AP, Gettysburg Times - Jun 14, 1962 [12] What I've Learned: Jack Nicholson (http:/ / www. esquire. com/ features/ what-ive-learned/ ESQ0104-JAN_JACK) Esquire [13] Suzanne Pleshette, 70, Newhart Actress, Dies (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2008/ 01/ 21/ arts/ 21cnd-pleshette. html?_r=0) The New York Times, January 21, 2008 [14] Shelley Winters Outspoken Oscar-winning actress who had a string of famous lovers (http:/ / www. heraldscotland. com/ sport/ spl/ aberdeen/ shelley-winters-outspoken-oscar-winning-actress-who-had-a-string-of-famous-lovers-1. 31808) 16 January 2006 Herald Scotland [15] http:/ / www. philstar. com/ supreme/ 2013/ 03/ 23/ 922828/ what-makes-man [17] http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 1987/ 04/ 14/ arts/ the-method-still-disputed-but-now-ubiquitous. html

54

Presentational and representational acting

Presentational acting and the related representational acting are critical terms used within theatre aesthetics and criticism. Due to the same terms being applied to certain approaches to acting that contradict the broader theatrical definitions, however, the terms have come to acquire often overtly contradictory senses.[1] In the most common sense (that which relates the specific dynamics of theatre to the broader aesthetic category of representational art or mimesis in drama and literature), the terms describe two contrasting functional relationships between the actor and the audience that a performance can create.[2] In the other (more specialized) sense, the terms describe two contrasting methodological relationships between the actor and his or her character in performance.[3] The collision of these two senses can get quite confusing. The type of theatre that uses presentational acting in the first sense (of the actor-audience relationship) is often associated with a performer using representational acting in the second sense (of their methodology). Conversely, the type of theatre that uses representational acting in the first sense is often associated with a performer using presentational acting in the second sense. While usual, these chiastic correspondences do not match up in all cases of theatrical performance.

The actoraudience relationship

In every theatrical performance the manner in which each individual actor treats the audience establishes, sustains or varies a particular kind of actor-audience relationship between them. In some plays all of the actors may adopt the same attitude towards the audience (for example, the entire cast of a production of a Chekhovian drama will usually ignore the audience until the curtain call); in other plays the performers create a range of different relationships towards the audience (for example, most Shakespearean dramas have certain characters who frequently adopt a downstage platea playing position that is in direct contact with the audience, while other characters behave as if unaware of the audiences presence).[4]

Presentational and representational acting

55

Presentational acting
Conventionalized presentational devices include the apologetic prologue and epilogue, the induction (much used by Ben Jonson and by Shakespeare in The Taming of the Shrew), the play-within-the-play, the aside directed to the audience, and other modes of direct address. These premeditated and composed forms of actor-audience persuasion are in effect metadramatic and metatheatrical functions, since they bring attention to bear on the fictional status of the characters, on the very theatrical transaction (in soliciting the audiences indulgence, for instance), and so on. They appear to be cases of breaking frame, since the actor is required to step out of his role and acknowledge the presence of the public, but in practice they are licensed means of confirming the frame by pointing out the pure facticity of the representation. Keir Elam, The Semiotics of Theatre and Drama, p.90

Presentational acting, in this sense, refers to a relationship that acknowledges the audience, whether directly by addressing them or indirectly through a general attitude or specific use of language, looks, gestures or other signs that indicate that the character or actor is aware of the audience's presence.[2] (Shakespeare's use of punning and wordplay, for example, often has this function of indirect contact.)[4]

Representational acting
Representational acting, in this sense, refers to a relationship in which the audience is studiously ignored and treated as 'peeping tom' voyeurs by an actor who remains in-character and absorbed in the dramatic action. The actor behaves as if a fourth wall was present, which maintains an absolute autonomy of the dramatic fiction from the reality of the theatre. Robert Weimann argues that: Each of these theatrical practices draws upon a different register of imaginary appeal and "puissance" and each serves a different purpose of playing. While the former derives its primary strength from the immediacy of the physical act of histrionic delivery, the latter is vitally connected with the imaginary product and effect of rendering absent meanings, ideas, and images of artificial persons' thoughts and actions. But the distinction is more than epistemological and not simply a matter of poetics; rather it relates to the issue of function.[5]

The actorcharacter relationship

The use of these critical terms (in an almost directly opposed sense from the critical mainstream usage detailed above) to describe two different forms of the actorcharacter relationship within an actor's methodology originates from the American Method actor and teacher Uta Hagen. She developed this use from a far more ambiguous formulation offered by the seminal Russian theatre practitioner Constantin Stanislavski in chapter two of his acting manual An Actor Prepares (1936).

Presentational and representational acting

56

Stanislavski's typology
In "When Acting is an Art", having watched his students' first attempts at a performance, Stanislavski's fictional persona Tortsov offers a series of critiques, during the course of which he defines different forms and approaches to acting.[7] They are: 'forced acting', 'overacting', 'the exploitation of art', 'mechanical acting', 'art of representation', and his own 'experiencing the role'. One common misrepresentation of Stanislavski is the frequent confusion of the first five of these categories with one another; Stanislavski, however, goes to some lengths to insist that two of them deserve to be evaluated as 'art' (and only two of them): his own approach of experiencing the role and that of the art of representation.[8] The distinction between Stanislavski's 'experiencing the role' and 'representing the part' (which Stanislavski identifies with the French actor Coquelin) turns on the relationship that the actor establishes with their character during the performance. In Stanislavski's approach, by Stanislavski considered the French actor the time the actor reaches the stage, he or she no longer experiences a Coquelin (1841-1909) to be one of the best distinction between his or her self and the character; the actor has examples of "an artist of the school of created a 'third being', or a combination of the actor's personality and the [6] representation". role (in Russian, Stanislavski calls this creation artisto-rol).[9] In the art of representation approach, whilst on-stage the actor experiences the distinction between the two (the philosopher and dramatist Diderot calls this psychological duality the actor's 'paradox').[10] Both approaches use 'living the role' or identifying with the character during rehearsals; Stanislavski's approach undertakes this process at all times onstage, while the 'art of representation' incorporates the results of the rehearsal process in a "finished" form.

Confusion of terms
Stanislavski's choice of the phrase 'art of representation' to describe an artistic approach that diverges from his own has led to some confusion, given that the theatre that is often associated with his own 'experiencing the role' approach (realistic, not acknowledging the audience) is 'representational' in the wider critical sense. Uta Hagen's decision to use 'presentational' as a synonym for Stanislavski's 'experiencing the role' served to compound the confusion,[11] part of the reason she preferred to refer to them more clearly as "formalistic acting" and "realistic acting."[12]

Presentational versus representational acting

In their textbooks for actors, both Stanislavski and Hagen adhere to a mode of theatrical performance that starts with the subjective experience of the actor, who takes action under the circumstances of the character, and trusts that a form will follow. They deem it more useful for the actor to focus exclusively on the fictional, subjective reality of the character (via the actor's "emotional memory" or "transferences" from his own life), without concerning himself with the external realities of the theatre. Both teachers were fully aware of the 'outside' to the dramatic fiction, but they believed that from the actor's perspective these considerations do not help the performance, and only lead to false, mechanical acting.[12][13] Many types of drama in the history of theatre do make use of the presentational 'outside' and its many possible interactions with the representational 'inside'Shakespeare, Restoration comedy, and Brecht, to name a few significant examples. However, both Stanislavski and Hagen applied their processes of acting towards these types of

Presentational and representational acting drama as well, fully aware of their unique requirements to the audience. Hagen stated that style is a label given to the "final product" by critics, scholars, and audience members, and that the "creator" (actor) need only explore the subjective content of the playwright's world. She saw definitions of "style" as something tagged by others onto the result, having nothing to do with the actor's process. Shakespearean drama assumed a natural, direct and often renewed contact with the audience on the part of the performer. 'Fourth wall' performances foreclose the complex layerings of theatrical and dramatic realities that result from this contact and that are built into Shakespeare's dramaturgy. A good example is the line spoken by Cleopatra in act five of Antony and Cleopatra (1607), when she contemplates her humiliation in Rome at the hands of Octavius Caesar; she imagines mocking theatrical renditions of her own story: "And I shall see some squeaking Cleopatra boy my greatness in the posture of a whore" (5.2.215-217). That this was to be spoken by a boy in a dress in a theatre is an integral part of its dramatic meaning. Opponents of the Stanislavski/Hagen approach have argued that this complexity is unavailable to a purely 'naturalistic' treatment that recognizes no distinction between actor and character nor acknowledges the presence of the actual audience.[14] They may also argue that it is not only a matter of the interpretation of individual moments; the presentational dimension is a structural part of the meaning of the drama as a whole.[15] This structural dimension is most visible in Restoration comedy through its persistent use of the aside, though there are many other meta-theatrical aspects in operation in these plays. In Brecht, the interaction between the two dimensionsrepresentational and presentationalforms a major part of his 'epic' dramaturgy and receives sophisticated theoretical elaboration through his conception of the relation between mimesis and Gestus. How to play Brecht, in regard to presentational vs. representational has been a controversial subject of much critical and practical discussion. Hagen's opinion (backed up by conversations with Brecht himself and the actress who was directed by him in the original production of "Mother Courage") was that, for the actor, Brecht always intended it to be about the character's subjective realityincluding the direct audience addresses. The very structure of the play was enough to accomplish his desired "alienation."[12]

57

Notes
[1] A simple web search can reveal just how contradictory and confusing the use of these terms has become. The confusion of the terms is explained further down in this article. [2] Elam , Keir. 1980. The Semiotics of Theatre and Drama. New Accents Ser. Methuen. ISBN 0-416-72060-9 Pbk. p.90-91. [3] Stanislavski (1936, 12-32) and Hagen (1973, 11-13). [4] Weimann, Robert. 1978. Shakespeare and the Popular Tradition in the Theater: Studies in the Social Dimension of Dramatic Form and Function. The Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-3506-2 Pbk. See also Counsell, Colin. 1996. Signs of Performance: An Introduction to Twentieth-Century Theatre. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-10643-5 Pbk. p.16-23. [5] Weimann (2000, 11). [6] Stanislavski (1936, 21). [7] "When Acting is an Art" is the second chapter of An Actor Prepares (Stanislavski 1936, 12-30). [8] In addition to Stanislavski's An Actor Prepares, for his conception of 'experiencing the role' see Carnicke (1998), especially chapter five. [9] See Benedetti (1998, 9-11) and Carnicke (1998, 170). [10] For Diderot's conception, see Roach (1985), especially the chapter on Stanislavski. [11] Hagen (1973, 11-13). [12] Hagen, Uta 1991. A Challenge for the Actor. New York: Scribner's. ISBN 0-684-19040-0 [13] Stanislavski, Constantin 1936. An Actor Prepares. New York, Theatre Arts, Inc. ISBN 0-87830-983-7 [14] It is worth qualifying this non-acknowledgment of the audience as of the actual audience, since Hagen recommends treating moments of direct audience address as if speaking to an audience within the fictional world of the drama (rather than one that observes that world from the outside). See Hagen (1991, 203-210). [15] The complexity of these dimensions of Shakespeare's dramaturgical strategies is outlined in Weimann (1965) and (2000); see also Counsell (1996, 16-23).

Presentational and representational acting

58

References Works cited

Counsell, Colin. 1996. Signs of Performance: An Introduction to Twentieth-Century Theatre. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-10643-5. Elam, Keir. 1980. The Semiotics of Theatre and Drama. New Accents Ser. London and New York: Methuen. ISBN 0-416-72060-9. Hagen, Uta. 1973. Respect for Acting. New York: Macmillan. ISBN 0-02-547390-5. Hagen, Uta 1991. A Challenge for the Actor. New York: Scribner's. ISBN 0-684-19040-0 Roach, Joseph R. 1985. The Player's Passion: Studies in the Science of Acting. Theater:Theory/Text/Performance Ser. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0-472-08244-2. Stanislavski, Constantin. 1936. An Actor Prepares. London: Methuen, 1988. ISBN 0-413-46190-4. Weimann, Robert. 1978. Shakespeare and the Popular Tradition in the Theater: Studies in the Social Dimension of Dramatic Form and Function. Baltimore and London: The Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-3506-2. ---. 2000. Author's Pen and Actor's Voice: Playing and Writing in Shakespeare's Theatre. Ed. Helen Higbee and William West. Cambridge Studies in Renaissance Literature and Culture. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-78735-1.

Stanislavski's system
Stanislavski's system is a progression of techniques used to train actors to draw believable emotions to their performances. The method that was originally created and used by Constantin Stanislavski from 1911 to 1916 was based on the concept of emotional memory for which an actor focuses internally to portray a character's emotions onstage. Later, between 19341938, this technique evolved to a method of physical actions in which emotions are produced through the use of actions.The latter technique is referred to as Stanislavski's system.[] This approach was developed by Constantin Stanislavski (18631938), a Russian actor, director, and theatre administrator at the Moscow Art Theatre (founded 1897).[1] The system is the result of Stanislavski's many years of efforts to determine how someone can control in performance the most intangible and uncontrollable aspects of human behavior, such as emotions and art inspiration. The most influential acting teachers, including Richard Boleslavsky, Vsevolod Meyerhold, Michael Chekhov, Lee Strasberg, Stella Adler, Harold Clurman, Robert Lewis, Sanford Meisner, Uta Hagen, Ion Cojar and Ivana Chubbuck all traced their pedigrees to Stanislavski, his theories and/or his disciples.

Constantin Stanislavski

Stanislavski's system

59

Background
Stanislavski's initial choice to call his acting idea his System struck him as dogmatic, so he preferred to write it without the capital letter and in quotation marks to appear as his system in order to indicate the provisional nature of the results of his investigations.[2] The system arose as a result of questions that Stanislavski had in regard to great actors that he admired, such as the tragedians Maria Yermolova and Tommaso Salvini. To him, these actors seemed to operate under different rules from other actors of the time, but their performances were still susceptible on some nights to flashes of inspiration, or completely 'being a role,' while on some nights their performances were good or merely accurate. Although Stanislavski was not the first to codify a system of acting, he was the first to take questions and problems of psychological significance and directly link them to acting practices. When psychology was formalized, it influenced Stanislavski's system. Stanislavski attempted to create a system before psychology was widely understood and formalized as a discipline. As a result, Stanislavski began developing a grammar of acting in 1906. In 1909, he began creating his first draft of the system. This draft was based on his personal experiences onstage as well as his observations of other actors in the Moscow Art Theatre. By finding Stanislavski regarded Maria Yermolova's acting similarities among the talented actors and their performances, as the pinnacle of artistic success. Painting by Stanislavski began to create techniques that could be applied to the Valentin Serov. 1905 training of other actors to develop similar stage performances. By 1911, he was able to experiment with his new methods. He trained willing actors using his new techniques as he continued to work and alter his techniques as he saw fit in order to develop the most effective technique for actors.[] Though his approach changed throughout his life, he never lost sight of his ideals of truth in performance and love of art. At times, Stanislavski's methodological rigor bordered on opacity: see, for instance, the chart of the Stanislavski 'system' included as a fold-out in editions of Robert Lewis' book "Method or Madness," a series of lectures. The chart, made by Adler, lists all aspects of the actor and of performance that Stanislavski thought pertinent at the time. His dedication to completeness and accuracy often conflicted with his goal of creating a workable system that actors would actually like to use. Most of today's actors on stage, television, and film owe much to Stanislavski's system.

Stanislavski's system

60

Approach to acting
There is a story of an actress who had once been in a play directed by Stanislavski. She came to him years after the performances and informed him that she had taken very copious notes on him and his technical approach during rehearsals. She wanted to know what to do with these notes and he replied, 'Burn them all.' The anecdote, whether true or not, is illustrative of Stanislavski and his approach. Stanislavski believed throughout his life the dictum that an actor should approach a role as directly as possible and then see if it "lives." If the actor connects with the role and the role is brought to life, then a technique or a system is not necessary. In this sense, the actor does not so much become someone else as he becomes himself.[3] This achievement in acting may only happen once or twice in one's life, so the remainder of one's performances require technique. Each individual actor, however, must decide whether or not an approach or technique to their acting 'works' for them in their performance. In essence, his constant goal in life was to formulate some codified, systematic approach that might impart to any given actor with some grip on his 'instrument', that is, himself. Stanislavski, a man of institution, his own Moscow Art Theatre and its associated studios, was a great believer in formal (and rigorous) training for the actor. His interest in deeply analyzing the qualities of human behavior were meant to give the actor an awareness of such human behavior and how easily falsehoods, or aspects of behaviour that an audience can detect, are assumed by an untrained or inexperienced actor in performance. Stanislavski once insisted that all actions that a person must enact, such as walking, talking, even sitting on stage, must be broken down and re-learned. For example, his book, translated into English as "Building a Character," gives a description of the correct way of walking on stage. Such rigors of re-learning were probably constant throughout his life. He wanted actors to concentrate more.

Progression of the system

Stanislavski's system is a method for actors to produce realistic characters on stage. His original studies of techniques led to the use of 'Emotional Memory' that required actors to trigger the emotions of their characters internally. This technique was based from a French psychologist Theodule Ribot's concept of 'Affective Memory'. Later in his life, Stanislavski realized that a shift in technique was needed for actors to produce more realistic emotions before audiences but he never discredited the use of emotional memory if used cautiously. This was underscored when his talented protg Michael Chekhov experimented with emotional memory and had a nervous breakdown. A few months before his death he told his assistants that the path to glory can be found by working from the internal (the inside out) as well as the external (the outside in).[4] This led to the 'Method of Physical Action'. The shift between concepts was a result of various observations made by Stanislavski. He observed that actors' mental preparations for their roles did not coincide with their physical performances on stage. They had spent most of their time reviewing their scripts and rehearsing their characters through internal and mental stationaries, but their character performances were lacking physical and emotional believability.[]

The method of physical action

Stanislavski developed the "method of physical actions," to solve the dilemma of spontaneous emotion in a created environment. In this technique, the actor would perform a physical motion or a series of physical activities to create the desired emotional response for the character. Emotions were considered to be formed from the subconscious, so this technique allowed the actors to consciously target and control their subconscious emotions through movement.[] For instance, if an actor needed to weep, he could sigh and hold his head in his hands, a physical action that many who are crying instinctively do. On stage, if an actor experiences only internal feelings or only physical actions, then the performance is dead. The reasoning behind this goes back to the union of the psychological and physical. The two go hand-in-hand. If an actor attempts to portray a character by employing one aspect of the union without the other, then they are performing

Stanislavski's system incompletely. Internal experiences and their physical expression are unbreakably united. Whether it is through a facial expression or the tapping of a foot, everything a human experiences psychologically is displayed through physical means. This is termed a psycho-physical union. The correct physical action does not come automatically for every psychological response nor do they stimulate identical responses for every individual. Many times, actors need to experiment until they determine what best works for them and for the character they are trying to portray. The best way to experiment with this is through improvisation. The best improvisers are those who can intuitively act and behave onstage as though they are in a real situation. Through his work, Stanislavski reversed the human reaction system in which an emotion allocates an action. Method actors use actions to control their emotions. This allows actors to "live" in silences or pauses in the dialogue of the script and not only in the words. They are able to remain in character. Reacting is essentially emoting and includes allowing the body to outwardly express what the mind is inwardly experiencing.

61

Sections of the system

Stanislavski believed that if an actor completes the system, the desired emotion should be created and experienced. One earlier technique used for the system involved a "round the table analysis," a process in which the actors and director literally sit around a table and put forward their thoughts on the script and the characters until a clear understanding is formed. This technique involved breaking the script into sections. For the system to work, the structure of the script should be analyzed and sectioned based on the different characters of the play. Later, this technique was changed to instead immediately begin rehearsals after the main idea of the play had been discussed, but the sections are still evolved even through this practice.

Magic if
Stanislavski believed that the truth that occurred onstage was different than that of real life, but that a 'scenic truth' could be achieved onstage. A performance should be believable for an audience so that they may appear to the audience as truth. One of Stanislavski's methods for achieving the truthful pursuit of a character's emotion was his 'magic if.' Actors were required to ask many questions of their characters and themselves. Through the 'magic if,' actors were able to satisfy themselves and their characters' positions of the plot. One of the first questions they had to ask was, "What if I were in the same situation as my character?" Another variation on this is "What would I do if I found myself in this (the character's) circumstance?"[5] The "magic if" allowed actors to transcend the confinements of realism by asking them what would occur "if" circumstances were different, or "if" the circumstances were to happen to them. By answering these questions as the character, the theatrical actions of the actors would be believable and therefore 'truthful.'[]

Motivation
Through the use of system, an actor is required to analyze his or her character's motivations. Stanislavski believed that an actor was influenced by either their mind or their emotion to stimulate their actions and the actor's motivation was their subconscious will to perform those actions. Therefore, motivation has been described as looking to the past actions of the character to determine why they completed physical actions in a script.[]

Objectives
The objective is a goal that a character wants to achieve. This is often worded in a question form as "What do I want?" An objective should be action-oriented, as opposed to an internal goal, in order to encourage character interaction onstage. The objective does not necessarily have to be achieved by the character and can be as simple as the script permits. For example, an objective for a particular character may simply be 'to pour a mug of tea.' For each scene, the actor must discover the character's objective. Every objective is different for each actor involved because

Stanislavski's system they are based on the characters of the script. Units and bits are the division of the script into smaller objectives. For example, the entire section of a scene during which the character searches for a tea bag would be a unit. When he decides to call on a neighbour is called a bit. The purpose of units is that they are used as reference points for the actor because every individual unit should contain a specific motive for the character. A super-objective, in contrast, focuses on the entire play as a whole. A super-objective can direct and connect an actor's choice of objectives from scene to scene. The super-objective serves as the final goal that a character wishes to achieve within the script. Obstacles are the aspects that will stop or hinder a character from achieving his or her individual objective. For example, while the character searches for tea bags to make the mug of tea, they find that there are no teabags in the tin. Tools or methods are the different techniques that a character uses to surpass obstacles and achieve their objective. For example, the character searches around the kitchen, they walk to the shops, or they call on the neighbour to be able to make the tea to pour. Actions are referred to as how the character is going to say or do something. More specifically, it as an objective for each line. Actions are how a character is going to achieve their objective. For example, a line in the script may read, '(whilst on the phone) "Hello, Sally. It's Bill from next door. You wouldn't happen to have any spare tea bags, would you? I know how well-organized you are." The objective for this line may be 'to flatter' in order to collect the tea bags. Actions will be different for every single actor based on their character choices.[]

62

The system versus the Method

Often Stanislavski's system is associated with Method acting. The latter is an outgrowth of the American theatre scene, particularly in New York, in the 1930s and 40s. Method acting appeared when actors and directors like Elia Kazan, Robert Lewis, Lee Strasberg, first in the Group Theatre and later in the Actors Studio, applied the Emotional Memory technique from Stanislavski's system. This technique made its way in American theatres because it was taught to Strasberg at the American Laboratory Theatre in the 1920s to the particular psychological needs of the American actor of their time. It has been suggested that Strasberg had access at that time only to An Actor Prepares and that if he had perhaps waited until he had also read Building A Character, which was published much later, then he might not have developed such an extreme 'method'. Other American actors, however, did not follow Strasberg's Method, like Stella Adler who visited and was taught by Stanislavski himself. The 'system' and the Method are often confused because the Method is similar to and uses Stanislavski's 1911 concept of Emotional Memory in acting. The Method teaches to draw emotions for a character from past experiences and remembrances of the actor. Strasberg renamed Stanislavski's earlier technique to 'Affective Memory' and continued to teach it as a proper acting method long after Stanislavki discredited it as a useful acting method. Possibly the main difference between the Method and the system was that ideas behind the Method did not change as flaws were discovered. To illustrate the difference between the two methods, Stanislavski has the actor ask himself, "What would I do if I were in this circumstance" while Strasberg adopted a modification, "What would motivate me, the actor, to behave in the way the character does?" Strasberg asks the actor to replace the play's circumstances with his/her own, called a "substitution."[5] Stanislavski had, throughout his life, no single focused project. Instead, he thought of his system as a table of contents from which the working actor could constantly draw, depending on what problems might occur from play to play.[] Stanislavski's emphasis on life within moments, on psychological realism, and on emotional authenticity, seemed to attract these actors and thinkers. While much work was done with the works of playwrights like Clifford Odets, Arthur Miller, and Tennessee Williams, the Method was eventually applied to older works like those of William Shakespeare. Indeed, controversy remains contesting the appropriateness of a Method approach to pre-Modernist

Stanislavski's system plays, for while the system and Method share many characteristics, they differ immensely.

63

Bibliography
Stanislavski, Constantin. 1936. An Actor Prepares. London: Methuen, 1988. ISBN 0413 ---. 1999. Stanislavski: His Life and Art. Revised edition. Original edition published in 1988. London: Methuen. ISBN 0-413-52520-1. Carnicke, Sharon M. 1998. Stanislavsky in Focus. Russian Theatre Archive Ser. London: Harwood Academic Publishers. ISBN 90-5755-070-9. Meisner, Sanford. 1987. On Acting. New York: Vintage Books. ISBN 0-394-75059-4. Hagen, Uta. 1973. Respect for Acting. New York: Macmillan. ISBN 0-02-547390-5. Innes, Christopher, ed. 2000. A Sourcebook on Naturalist Theatre. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-15229-1. Merlin, Bella. 2007. The Complete Stanislavsky Toolkit. London: Nick Hern. ISBN 978-1-85459-793-9. Roach, Joseph R. 1985. The Player's Passion: Studies in the Science of Acting. Theater:Theory/Text/Performance Ser. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0-472-08244-2. Benedetti, Jean. 1998. Stanislavski and the Actor. London: Methuen. ISBN 0-413-71160-9.

References
[1] [2] [4] [5] Brockett, Oscar. History of the Theatre. [S.l.]: Allyn & Bacon, 2002. Print. See Benedetti (1999, 169). Carnicke, Sharon. Stanislavsky in Focus: An Acting Master for the Twenty-First Century. Routledge Theatre Classics, 2008, p. 153 Carnicke, Sharon. Stanislavsky in Focus: An Acting Master for the Twenty-First Century. Routle Theatre Classics, 2008, p. 221

Heath Ledger

64

Heath Ledger
Heath Ledger

Ledger at the 2006 Berlin International Film Festival Born Heath Andrew Ledger 4 April 1979 Perth, Western Australia 22 January 2008 (aged28) New York City, New York, U.S. Prescription drug intoxication Actor, music video director 19922008 Michelle Williams (20042007) Matilda Rose Ledger (b. 2005)

Died

Causeof death Occupation Years active Partner(s) Children

Heath Andrew Ledger (4 April 1979 22 January 2008) was an Australian actor and director. After performing roles in Australian television and film during the 1990s, Ledger left for the United States in 1998 to develop his film career. His work comprised nineteen films, including 10 Things I Hate About You (1999), The Patriot (2000), A Knight's Tale (2001), Monster's Ball (2001), Lords of Dogtown (2005), Brokeback Mountain (2005), Candy (2006), I'm Not There (2007), The Dark Knight (2008), and The Imaginarium of Doctor Parnassus (2009).[1] In addition to acting, he produced and directed music videos and aspired to be a film director.[] For his portrayal of Ennis Del Mar in Brokeback Mountain, Ledger won the New York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Actor and Best International Actor from the Australian Film Institute, and was nominated for the BAFTA Award[] and for the Academy Award for Best Actor.[] Posthumously he shared the 2007 Independent Spirit Robert Altman Award with the rest of the ensemble cast, the director, and the casting director for the film I'm Not There, which was inspired by the life and songs of American singer-songwriter Bob Dylan. In the film, Ledger portrayed a fictional actor named Robbie Clark, one of six characters embodying aspects of Dylan's life and persona.[] Ledger died on 22 January 2008[][] from an accidental "intoxication from prescription drugs".[][][] A few months before his death, Ledger had finished filming his performance as the Joker in The Dark Knight. His death occurred during editing of The Dark Knight and in the midst of filming his last role as Tony in The Imaginarium of Doctor Parnassus. His untimely death cast a truly sombre shadow over the subsequent promotion of the $180million

Heath Ledger Batman production.[] Ledger received numerous accolades for his critically acclaimed performance in the film, including the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor, a Best Actor International Award at the 2008 Australian Film Institute Awards, for which he became the first actor to win an award posthumously,[] the 2008 Los Angeles Film Critics Association Award for Best Supporting Actor, the 2009 Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor Motion Picture[] and the 2009 BAFTA Award for Best Supporting Actor.[]

65

Early life
Heath Ledger was born in Perth, Western Australia, the son of Sally Ledger (ne Ramshaw), a French teacher, and Kim Ledger, a race-car driver and mining engineer, whose family established and owned the Ledger Engineering Foundry.[] The Sir Frank Ledger Charitable Trust is named after his great-grandfather.[] He had English and Scottish ancestry.[2] Ledger attended Mary's Mount Primary School, in Gooseberry Hill,[] and later Guildford Grammar School, where he had his first acting experiences, starring in a school production as Peter Pan at age 10.[][] His parents separated when he was 10 and divorced when he was 11.[] Ledger's older sister Kate, an actress and later a publicist, to whom he was very close, inspired his acting on stage, and his love of Gene Kelly inspired his successful choreography, leading to Guildford Grammar's 60-member team's "first all-boy victory" at the Rock Eisteddfod Challenge.[][3] Heath's and Kate's other siblings include two half-sisters, Ashleigh Bell (b. 1990), his mother's daughter with her second husband and his stepfather Roger Bell, and Olivia Ledger (b. 1996), his father's daughter with second wife and his stepmother Emma Brown.[4]

Career
1990s
After sitting for early graduation exams at 16, Ledger left school to pursue an acting career.[] With Trevor DiCarlo, his best friend since he was three years old, Ledger drove across Australia from Perth to Sydney, returning to Perth to take a small role in Clowning Around (1992), the first part of a two-part television series, and to work on the TV series Sweat (1996), in which he played a gay cyclist.[] From 1993 to 1997, Ledger also had parts in the Perth television series Ship to Shore (1993); in the short-lived Fox Broadcasting Company fantasy-drama Roar (1997); in Home and Away (1997), one of Australia's most successful television shows; and in the Australian film Blackrock (1997), his feature film debut.[] In 1999, he starred in the teen comedy 10 Things I Hate About You and in the acclaimed Australian crime film Two Hands, directed by Gregor Jordan.[]

2000s
From 2000 to 2005, he starred in supporting roles as Gabriel Martin, the eldest son of Benjamin Martin (Mel Gibson), in The Patriot (2000), and as Sonny Grotowski, the son of Hank Grotowski (Billy Bob Thornton), in Monster's Ball (2000); and in leading or title roles in A Knight's Tale (2001), The Four Feathers (2002), The Order (2003), Ned Kelly (2003), Casanova (2005), The Brothers Grimm (2005), and Lords of Dogtown (2005).[1] In 2001, he won a ShoWest Award as "Male Star of Tomorrow".[] Ledger received "Best Actor of 2005" awards from both the New York Film Critics Circle and the San Francisco Film Critics Circle for his performance in Brokeback Mountain,[5][6] in which he plays Wyoming ranch hand Ennis Del Mar, who has a love affair with aspiring rodeo rider Jack Twist, played by Jake Gyllenhaal.[7] He also received a nomination for Golden Globe Best Actor in a Drama and a nomination for Academy Award for Best Actor for this performance,[8][9] making him, at age 26, the ninth-youngest nominee for a Best Actor Oscar. In The New York Times review of the film, critic Stephen Holden writes: "Both Mr. Ledger and Mr. Gyllenhaal make this anguished love story physically palpable. Mr. Ledger magically and mysteriously disappears beneath the skin of his lean, sinewy character. It is a great screen performance, as good as the best of Marlon Brando and Sean Penn."[10] In a review in Rolling Stone, Peter Travers states: "Ledger's magnificent performance is an acting miracle. He seems to

Heath Ledger tear it from his insides. Ledger doesn't just know how Ennis moves, speaks and listens; he knows how he breathes. To see him inhale the scent of a shirt hanging in Jack's closet is to take measure of the pain of love lost."[11] After Brokeback Mountain, Ledger costarred with fellow Australian Abbie Cornish in the 2006 Australian film Candy, an adaptation of the 1998 novel Candy: A Novel of Love and Addiction, as young heroin addicts in love attempting to break free of their addiction, whose mentor is played by Geoffrey Rush; for his performance as sometime poet Dan, Ledger was nominated for three "Best Actor" awards, including one of the Film Critics Circle of Australia Awards, which both Cornish and Rush won in their categories. Shortly after the release of Candy, Ledger was invited to join the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences.[12] As one of six actors embodying different aspects of the life of Bob Dylan in the 2007 film I'm Not There, directed by Todd Haynes, Ledger "won praise for his portrayal of 'Robbie [Clark],' a moody, counter-culture actor who represents the romanticist side of Dylan, but says accolades are never his motivation."[] Posthumously, on 23 February 2008, he shared the 2007 Independent Spirit Robert Altman Award with the rest of the film's ensemble cast, its director, and its casting director.[] In his penultimate film performance, Ledger played the Joker in The Dark Knight, directed by Christopher Nolan, first released, in Australia, on 16 July 2008, nearly six months after his death. While working on the film in London, Ledger told Sarah Lyall, in their New York Times interview, that he viewed The Dark Knight's Joker as a "psychopathic, mass murdering, schizophrenic clown with zero empathy."[]

66

Heath Ledger posing with Charlotte Gainsbourg at the 64th Venice Film Festival in 2007.

For his work in The Dark Knight, Ledger won the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor, his family accepting it on his behalf, as well as numerous other posthumous awards including the Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor, which Christopher Nolan accepted for him.[][] At the time of his death, on 22 January 2008, Ledger had completed about half of the work for his final film performance as Tony in Terry Gilliam's The Imaginarium of Doctor Parnassus.[][] Gilliam chose to adapt the film after his death by having fellow actors Johnny Depp, Jude Law, and Colin Farrell play "fantasy transformations" of his character, so that Ledger's final performance could be seen in theatres.

Directorial work
Ledger had aspirations to become a film director and had made some music videos, which director Todd Haynes praised highly in his tribute to Ledger upon accepting the ISP Robert Altman Award, which Ledger posthumously shared, on 23 February 2008.[] In 2006 Ledger directed music videos for the title track on Australian hip hop artist N'fa's CD debut solo album Cause An Effect[] and for the single "Seduction Is Evil (She's Hot)".[][] Later that year, Ledger inaugurated a new record label, Masses Music, with singer Ben Harper and also directed a music video for Harper's song "Morning Yearning".[][] At a news conference at the 2007 Venice Film Festival, Ledger spoke of his desire to make a documentary film about the British singer-songwriter Nick Drake, who died in 1974, at the age of 26, from an overdose of an antidepressant.[] Ledger created and acted in a music video set to Drake's recording of the singer's 1974 song about depression "Black Eyed Dog" a title "inspired by Winston Churchills descriptive term for depression" (black dog);[] it was shown publicly only twice, first at the Bumbershoot Festival, in Seattle, held from 1 to 3 September 2007; and secondly as part of "A Place To Be: A Celebration of Nick Drake", with its screening of Their Place: Reflections On Nick Drake, "a series of short filmed homages to Nick Drake" (including Ledger's), sponsored by American Cinematheque, at the Grauman's Egyptian Theatre, in Hollywood, on 5 October 2007.[] After Ledger's death, his music video for "Black Eyed Dog" was shown on the Internet and excerpted in news clips distributed via

Heath Ledger YouTube.[][][13][14] He was working with Scottish screenwriter and producer Allan Scott on an adaptation of the 1983 novel The Queen's Gambit by Walter Tevis, which would have been his first feature film as a director. He also intended to act in the film, with Ellen Page proposed in the lead role. [][][] Ledger's final directorial work, in which he shot two music videos before his death, premiered in 2009.[15] The music videos, completed for Modest Mouse and Grace Woodroofe,[] include an animated feature for Modest Mouse's song, "King Rat", and the Woodroofe video for her cover of David Bowie's "Quicksand".[16] The "King Rat" video premiered on 4 August 2009.[17]

67

Personal life
Ledger was an avid chess player, winning Western Australia's junior chess championship at the age of 10.[18] As an adult, he often played with other chess enthusiasts at Washington Square Park.[19] Allan Scott's film adaptation of the chess-related 1983 novel The Queen's Gambit, by Walter Tevis, which at the time of his death he was planning to both perform in and direct, would have been Ledger's first feature film as a director.[][]

Relationships
Ledger had a number of high-profile relationships with actresses, including Lisa Zane, Heather Graham and Naomi Watts. In the summer of 2004, he met and began dating actress Michelle Williams on the set of Brokeback Mountain, and their daughter, Matilda Rose, was born on 28 October 2005 in New York Ledger at the 56th Berlin City.[20] Matilda's godparents are Ledger and Williams' Brokeback co-star Jake International Film Festival, 2006 Gyllenhaal and Williams' Dawson's Creek castmate Busy Philipps.[21] In January 2006, Ledger put his residence in Bronte, New South Wales up for sale,[22] and returned to the United States, where he shared a house with Williams, in Boerum Hill, Brooklyn, from 2005 to 2007.[] In September 2007, Williams' father confirmed to Sydney's Daily Telegraph that Ledger and Williams had ended their relationship.[23] After his break-up with Williams, in late 2007 and early 2008, the tabloid press and other public media linked Ledger romantically with supermodels Helena Christensen and Gemma Ward. On 30 January 2011, Gemma Ward stated that the pair began dating in November 2007 and their families spent Christmas together in their home town of Perth.[24][][][][][25]

Press controversies
Ledger's relationship with the press in Australia was sometimes turbulent, and it led to his abandonment of plans for his family to reside part-time in Sydney.[][] In 2004, he strongly denied press reports alleging that "he spat at journalists on the Sydney set of the film Candy," or that one of his relatives had done so later, outside Ledger's Sydney home.[][] On 13 January 2006, "Several members of the paparazzi retaliated ... squirting Ledger and Williams with water pistols on the red carpet at the Sydney premiere of Brokeback Mountain."[][] After his performance on stage at the 2005 Screen Actors Guild Awards, when he had giggled in presenting Brokeback Mountain as a nominee for Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture, the Los Angeles Times referred to his presentation as an "apparent gay spoof."[] Ledger called the Times later and explained that his levity resulted from stage fright, saying that he had been told that he would be presenting the award only minutes earlier; he stated: "I am so sorry and I apologise for my nervousness. I would be absolutely horrified if my stage fright was misinterpreted as a lack of respect for the film, the topic and for the amazing filmmakers."[][]

Heath Ledger Ledger was quoted in January 2006 in Melbourne's Herald Sun as saying that he heard that West Virginia had banned Brokeback Mountain, which it had not; actually, a cinema in Utah had banned the film.[26] He had also referred mistakenly to West Virginia's having had lynchings as recently as the 1980s, but state scholars disputed his statement, observing that, whereas lynchings did occur in Alabama as recently as 1981, according to "the director of state archives and history" quoted in The Charleston Gazette, "The last documented lynching in West Virginia took place in Lewisburg in 1931."[]

68

Health issues
In their New York Times interview, published on 4 November 2007, Ledger told Sarah Lyall that his recently completed roles in I'm Not There (2007) and The Dark Knight (2008) had taken a toll on his ability to sleep: "Last week I probably slept an average of two hours a night. ... I couldn't stop thinking. My body was exhausted, and my mind was still going."[] At that time, he told Lyall that he had taken two Ambien pills, after taking just one had not sufficed, and those left him in "a stupor, only to wake up an hour later, his mind still racing."[] Prior to his return to New York from his last film assignment, in London, in January 2008, while he was apparently suffering from some kind of respiratory illness, he reportedly complained to his co-star from The Imaginarium of Doctor Parnassus, Christopher Plummer, that he was continuing to have difficulty sleeping and taking pills to help with that problem: "Confirming earlier reports that Ledger hadn't been feeling well on set, Plummer says, 'we all caught colds because we were shooting outside on horrible, damp nights. But Heath's went on and I don't think he dealt with it immediately with the antibiotics.... I think what he did have was the walking pneumonia.' [...] On top of that, 'He was saying all the time, 'dammit, I can't sleep'... and he was taking all these pills to help him.'"[] In talking with Interview magazine, after his death Ledger's former fiance Michelle Williams also confirmed reports the actor had experienced trouble sleeping. "For as long as I'd known him, he had bouts with insomnia. He had too much energy. His mind was turning, turning turning always turning."[]

Death
At about 2:45p.m. (EST), on 22 January 2008, Ledger was found unconscious in his bed by his housekeeper, Teresa Solomon, and his masseuse, Diana Wolozin, in his fourth-floor loft apartment at 421 Broome Street in the SoHo neighborhood of Manhattan.[][] According to the police, Wolozin, who had arrived early for a 3:00pm appointment with Ledger, called Ledger's friend, actress Mary-Kate Olsen, for help. Olsen, who was in California, directed a New York City private security guard to go to the scene. At 3:26pm, "[fewer] than 15 minutes after Wolozin first saw him in bed and only a few moments" after first calling Olsen and then calling her a second time to express her fears that Ledger was dead, Wolozin telephoned 9-1-1 "to say that Mr. Ledger was not breathing." At the urging of the 9-1-1 operator, Wolozin administered CPR, which was unsuccessful in reviving him.[] Paramedics and Emergency Medical Technicians (EMT) arrived seven minutes later, at 3:33pm ("at almost exactly the same moment as a private security guard summoned by Ms. Olsen"), but were also unable to revive him.[][][27] At 3:36pm, Ledger was pronounced dead and his body was removed from the apartment.[][]

Autopsy and toxicology report

Two weeks later on 6 February 2008, the Office of the Chief Medical Examiner of New York released its conclusions, based on an initial autopsy of 23 January 2008, and a subsequent complete toxicological analysis.[][][] The report concludes, in part, "Mr. Heath Ledger died as the result of acute intoxication by the combined effects of oxycodone, hydrocodone, diazepam, temazepam, alprazolam and doxylamine."[][] It states definitively: "We have concluded that the manner of death is accident, resulting from the abuse of prescription medications."[][] While the medications found in the toxicological analysis may be prescribed in the United States for insomnia, anxiety, pain, or

Heath Ledger common cold (doxylamine) symptoms, the vast majority of physicians in U.S. are extremely reluctant to prescribe multiple benzodiazepines (e.g., diazepam, alprazolam, and temazepam) to a single patient, let alone prescribe the same to a patient already taking a mix of OxyContin and Vicodin. Although the Associated Press and other media reported that "police estimate Ledger's time of death between 1pm and 2:45pm" (on 22 January 2008),[] the Medical Examiner's Office announced that it would not be publicly disclosing the official estimated time of death.[][28] The official announcement of the cause and manner of Ledger's death heightened concerns about the growing problems of prescription drug abuse or misuse and combined drug intoxication (CDI).[][][]

69

Federal investigation
Late in February 2008, a DEA investigation of medical professionals relating to Ledger's death exonerated two American physicians, who practise in Los Angeles and Houston, of any wrongdoing, determining that "the doctors in question had prescribed Ledger other medications not the pills that killed him."[][] On 4 August 2008, citing unnamed sources, Murray Weiss, of the New York Post, first reported that Mary-Kate Olsen had "refused [through her attorney, Michael C. Miller] to be interviewed by federal investigators probing the accidental drug death of her close friend Heath Ledger ... [without] ... immunity from prosecution," and that, when asked about the matter, Miller at first declined further comment.[][] Later that day, after the police confirmed the gist of Weiss's account to the Associated Press, Miller issued a statement denying that Olsen supplied Ledger with the drugs causing his death and asserting that she did not know their source.[][] In his statement, Miller said specifically: "Despite tabloid speculation, Mary-Kate Olsen had nothing whatsoever to do with the drugs found in Heath Ledger's home or his body, and she does not know where he obtained them," emphasizing that media "descriptions [attributed to an unidentified source] are incomplete and inaccurate."[] After a flurry of further media speculation, on 6 August 2008, the U.S. Attorney's Office in Manhattan closed its investigation into Ledger's death without filing any charges and rendering moot its subpoena of Olsen.[][] With the clearing of the two doctors and Olsen, and the closing of the investigation because the prosecutors in the Manhattan U.S. Attorney's Office "don't believe there's a viable target," it is still not known how Ledger obtained the oxycodone and hydrocodone in the lethal drug combination that killed him.[][] Eleven months after Ledger's death, on 23 December 2008, Jake Coyle, writing for the Associated Press, announced that "Heath Ledger's death was voted 2008's top entertainment story by U.S. newspaper and broadcast editors surveyed by The Associated Press," as it resulted in: "shock and confusion" about "the circumstances", the ruling of the death as an accident caused by "a toxic combination of prescription drugs", and the continuation of "his legacy... [i]n a roundly acclaimed performance as the Joker in the year's biggest box office hit The Dark Knight."[]

Controversy over will

After Ledger's death, in response to some press reports about his will, filed in New York City on 28 February 2008,[][] and his daughter's access to his financial legacy, his father, Kim Ledger, said that he considered the financial well-being of his granddaughter Matilda Rose the Ledger family's "absolute priority" and her mother, Michelle Williams, "an integral part of our family", adding "They will be taken care of and that's how Heath would want it to be".[] Some of Ledger's relatives may be challenging the legal status of his will signed in 2003, prior to his involvement with Williams and the birth of their daughter and not updated to include them, which divides half of his estate between his parents and half among his siblings; they claim that there is a second, unsigned will, which leaves most of that estate to Matilda Rose.[][] Williams' father, Larry Williams, has also joined the controversy about Ledger's will as it was filed in New York City soon after his death.[] On 31 March 2008, stimulating another controversy pertaining to Ledger's estate, Gemma Jones and Janet Fife-Yeomans published an "Exclusive" report, in The Daily Telegraph, citing Ledger's uncle Haydn Ledger and other family members, who "believe the late actor may have fathered a secret love child" when he was 17, and stating that "If it is confirmed that Ledger is the girl's biological father, it could split his multi-million dollar estate

Heath Ledger between ... Matilda Rose ... and his secret love child."[][][] A few days later, reports citing telephone interviews with Ledger's uncles Haydn and Mike Ledger and the family of the other little girl, published in OK! and Us Weekly, "denied" those "claims", with Ledger's uncles and the little girl's mother and stepfather describing them as unfounded "rumors" distorted and exaggerated by the media.[][] On 15 July 2008, Fife-Yeomans reported further, via Australian News Limited, that "While Ledger left everything to his parents and three sisters, it is understood they have legal advice that under WA law, Matilda Rose is entitled to the lion's share" of his estate; its executors, Kim Ledger's former business colleague Robert John Collins and Geraldton accountant William Mark Dyson, "have applied for probate in the West Australian Supreme Court in Perth, advertising for 'creditors and other persons' having claims on the estate to lodge them by 11 August 2008 ... to ensure all debts are paid before the estate is distributed...."[] According to this report by Fife-Yeomans, earlier reports citing Ledger's uncles,[] and subsequent reports citing Ledger's father, which do not include his actual posthumous earnings, "his entire fortune, mostly held in Australian trusts, is likely to be worth up to $20million."[][][] On 27 September 2008, Ledger's father Kim stated that "the family has agreed to leave the US$16.3million fortune to Matilda," adding: "There is no claim. Our family has gifted everything to Matilda."[][][] In October 2008, Forbes.com estimated Ledger's annual earnings from October 2007 through October 2008 including his posthumous share of The Dark Knight's gross income of "US$991million in box office revenue worldwide" as "US$20million."[29]

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Response
In a 2008 edition of his (American) radio show, John Gibson commented on Ledger's death the day before. He opened the segment with funeral music and played a clip of Jake Gyllenhaal's famous line "I wish I knew how to quit you" from Ledger's film Brokeback Mountain; he then said "Well, I guess he found out how to quit you." Among other remarks, Gibson called Ledger a "weirdo" with "a serious drug problem".[30] The next day, he addressed outcry over his remarks by saying that they were in the context of jokes he had been making for months about Brokeback Mountain, and that "There's no point in passing up a good joke."[31] Gibson later apologized on his television and radio shows.[32][33]

Heath Ledger

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Legacy
Memorial tributes and services
As the news of Ledger's death became public, throughout the night of 22 January 2008, and the next day, media crews, mourners, fans, and other onlookers began gathering outside his apartment building, with some leaving flowers or other memorial tributes.[34][35] The next day, at 10:50a.m., Australian time, Ledger's parents and sister appeared outside his mother's house in Applecross, a riverside suburb of Perth, and read a short statement to the media expressing their grief and desire for privacy.[] Within the next few days, memorial tributes were communicated by family members, Prime Minister of Australia Kevin Rudd, Deputy Premier of Western Australia Eric Ripper, Warner Bros. (distributor of The Dark Knight), and thousands of Ledger's fans around the world.[][][][] Several actors made statements expressing their sorrow at Ledger's death, including Daniel Day-Lewis, who dedicated his Screen Actors Guild Award to Ledger, saying that he was inspired by Ledger's acting; Day-Lewis praised Ledger's performances in Monster's Ball and Memorial for Ledger, outside 421 Broome Street, Brokeback Mountain, describing the latter as "unique, perfect."[36][37] SoHo, Manhattan, 23 January 2008 Verne Troyer, who was working with Ledger on The Imaginarium of Doctor Parnassus at the time of his death, had a heart shape, an exact duplicate of a symbol that Ledger scrawled on a piece of paper with his email address, tattooed on his hand in remembrance of Ledger because Ledger "had made such an impression on [him]."[38] On 1 February, in her first public statement after Ledger's death, Michelle Williams expressed her heartbreak and described Ledger's spirit as surviving in their daughter.[39][] After attending private memorial ceremonies in Los Angeles, Ledger's family members returned with his body to Perth.[][] On 9 February, a memorial service attended by several hundred invited guests was held at Penrhos College, garnering considerable press attention; afterward Ledger's body was cremated at Fremantle Cemetery, followed by a private service attended by only 10 closest family members,[][][] with his ashes to be interred later in a family plot at Karrakatta Cemetery, next to two of his grandparents.[][][] Later that night, his family and friends gathered for a wake on Cottesloe Beach.[][][] In January 2011, The State Theatre Centre of Western Australia in Ledger's hometown of Perth named a 575-seat theatre the Heath Ledger Theatre after him. For the opening of the theatre, Ledger's Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor was on display in the theatre's foyer along with his Joker costume.[40]

Posthumous films and awards

Ledger's death affected the marketing campaign for Christopher Nolan's The Dark Knight (2008)[][] and also both the production and marketing of Terry Gilliam's film The Imaginarium of Doctor Parnassus, with both directors intending to celebrate and pay tribute to his work in these films.[][][][] Although Gilliam temporarily suspended production on the latter film,[] he expressed determination to "salvage" it, perhaps using computer-generated imagery (CGI), and dedicated it to Ledger.[][][] In February 2008, as a "memorial tribute to the man many have called one of the best actors of his generation," Johnny Depp, Jude Law, and Colin Farrell signed on to take over Ledger's role, becoming multiple incarnations of his character, Tony, transformed in this "magical re-telling of the Faust story,"[][][]

Heath Ledger and the three actors have donated their fees for the film to Ledger's and Williams's daughter.[] Speaking of editing The Dark Knight, on which Ledger had completed his work in October 2007, Nolan recalled, "It was tremendously emotional, right when he passed, having to go back in and look at him every day. ... But the truth is, I feel very lucky to have something productive to do, to have a performance that he was very, very proud of, and that he had entrusted to me to finish."[] All of Ledger's scenes appear as he completed them in the filming; in editing the film, Nolan added no "digital effects" to alter Ledger's actual performance posthumously.[] Nolan dedicated the film in part to Ledger's memory, as well as to the memory of technician Conway Wickliffe, who was killed during a car accident while preparing one of the film's stunts.[] Released in July 2008, The Dark Knight broke several box office records and received both popular and critical accolades, especially with regard to Ledger's performance as the Joker.[] Even film critic David Denby, who does not praise the film overall in his pre-release review in The New Yorker, evaluates Ledger's work highly, describing his performance as both "sinister and frightening" and Ledger as "mesmerising in every scene", concluding: "His performance is a heroic, unsettling final act: this young actor looked into the abyss."[41] Attempting to dispel widespread speculations that Ledger's performance as the Joker had in any way led to his death (as Denby and others suggest), Ledger's co-star and friend Christian Bale, who played opposite him as Batman, has stressed that, as an actor, Ledger greatly enjoyed meeting the challenges of creating that role, an experience that Ledger himself described as "the most fun Ive ever had, or probably ever will have, playing a character."[][42] Ledger received numerous awards for his Joker role in The Dark Knight. On 10 November 2008, he was nominated for two People's Choice Awards related to his work on the film, "Best Ensemble Cast" and "Best Onscreen Match-Up" (shared with Christian Bale), and Ledger won an award for "Match-Up" in the ceremony aired live on CBS in January 2009.[] On 11 December 2008, it was announced that Ledger had been nominated for a Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor Motion Picture for his performance as the Joker in The Dark Knight; he subsequently won the award at the 66th Golden Globe Awards ceremony telecast on NBC on 11January 2009 with Dark Knight director Christopher Nolan accepting on his behalf.[][] Film critics, co-stars Maggie Gyllenhaal and Michael Caine and many of Ledger's colleagues in the film community joined Bale in calling for and predicting a nomination for the 2008 Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor in recognition of Ledger's achievement in The Dark Knight.[] Ledger's subsequent nomination was announced on 22 January 2009, the anniversary of his death;[43] Ledger went on to win the award, becoming the second person to win a posthumous Academy Award for acting, after fellow Australian actor Peter Finch, who won for 1976's Network. The award was accepted by Ledger's family.[]

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Filmography
Television

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Year

Title

Role Cyclist

Notes (3 episodes)

1993 Ship to Shore 1996 Sweat

Snowy Bowles (26 episodes) (9 episodes) (13 episodes)

1997 Home and Away Scott Irwin Roar Conor

Film
Year Title Role Orphan clown (Uncredited) Toby Ackland Oberon Jimmy NominatedAustralian Film Institute Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role NominatedFilm Critics Circle Award for Best Actor NominatedMTV Movie Award for Best Musical Sequence Blockbuster Entertainment Award for Favorite Male Newcomer Notes

1992 Clowning Around 1997 Blackrock Paws 1999 Two Hands

10 Things I Hate About You 2000 The Patriot 2001 Monster's Ball A Knight's Tale

Patrick Verona Gabriel Martin Sonny Grotowski Sir William Thatcher/ Sir Ulrich von Lichtenstein of Gelderland Harry Faversham Alex Bernier Ned Kelly

NominatedMTV Movie Award for Best Kiss (shared with Shannyn Sossamon) NominatedMTV Movie Award for Best Musical Sequence

2002 The Four Feathers 2003 The Order Ned Kelly

NominatedAustralian Film Institute Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role NominatedFilm Critics Circle Award for Best Actor

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74
Giacomo Casanova Jacob Grimm Skip Engblom Ennis Del Mar Australian Film Institute International Award for Best Actor Australian Film Institute Awards Reader's Choice Best Actor Central Ohio Film Critics Association Award for Best Lead Performance Central Ohio Film Critics Association Award for Actor of the Year Las Vegas Film Critics Society Award for Best Actor MTV Movie Award for Best Kiss (shared with Jake Gyllenhaal) New York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Actor Phoenix Film Critics Society Award for Best Actor San Francisco Film Critics Circle Award for Best Actor Santa Barbara International Film Festival Performance of the Year Award St. Louis Gateway Film Critics Association Award for Best Actor NominatedAcademy Award for Best Actor NominatedBAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role NominatedBroadcast Film Critics Association Award for Best Actor NominatedChicago Film Critics Association Award for Best Actor NominatedChlotrudis Award for Best Actor NominatedIndependent Spirit Award for Best Male Lead NominatedInside Film Award for Best Actor NominatedGolden Globe Award for Best Actor Motion Picture Drama NominatedLondon Film Critics' Circle Award for Best Actor NominatedOnline Film Critics Society Award for Best Actor NominatedScreen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Leading Role NominatedScreen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture NominatedSatellite Award for Best Actor Motion Picture Drama NominatedWashington D.C. Area Film Critics Association Award for Best Actor NominatedAustralian Film Institute Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role NominatedInside Film Award for Best Actor NominatedFilm Critics Circle Award for Best Actor Independent Spirit Robert Altman Award (shared with cast and crew)

2005 Casanova The Brothers Grimm Lords of Dogtown Brokeback Mountain

2006 Candy

Dan Carter

2007 I'm Not There

Robbie Clark

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The Joker Posthumously Awarded: Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor Australian Film Institute International Award for Best Actor BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role Boston Society of Film Critics Award for Best Supporting Actor Broadcast Film Critics Association Award for Best Supporting Actor Chicago Film Critics Association Award for Best Supporting Actor Dallas-Fort Worth Film Critics Association Award for Best Supporting Actor Florida Film Critics Circle Award for Best Supporting Actor Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor Motion Picture IGN Movie Award for Best Performance IGN Movie Award for Favorite Villain Iowa Film Critics Award for Best Supporting Actor Kansas City Film Critics Circle Award for Best Supporting Actor Las Vegas Film Critics Society Award for Best Supporting Actor Los Angeles Film Critics Association Award for Best Supporting Actor Online Film Critics Society Award for Best Supporting Actor MTV Movie Award for Best Villain New York Film Critics Online Award for Best Supporting Actor North Texas Film Critics Award for Best Supporting Actor Oklahoma Film Critics Circle Award for Best Supporting Actor People's Choice Award for Best Ensemble Cast People's Choice Award for Best On-Screen Match-Up (shared with Christian Bale) Phoenix Film Critics Society Award for Best Supporting Actor Rembrandt Award for Best Foreign Actor San Francisco Film Critics Circle Award for Best Supporting Actor Saturn Award for Best Supporting Actor Scream Award for Best Fantasy Actor Scream Award for Best Villain Scream Award for Best Line Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Supporting Role Southeastern Film Critics Association Award for Best Supporting Actor St. Louis Gateway Film Critics Association Award for Best Supporting Actor Toronto Film Critics Association Award for Best Supporting Actor Utah Film Critics Association Award for Best Supporting Actor Washington DC Area Film Critics Association Award for Best Supporting Actor NominatedBroadcast Film Critics Association Award for Best Cast NominatedGransito Movie Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role NominatedLondon Film Critics' Circle Award for Best Actor NominatedSatellite Award for Best Supporting Actor Motion Picture NominatedMTV Movie Award for Best Fight (shared with Christian Bale)

2008 The Dark Knight

2009 The Imaginarium of Doctor Parnassus

Tony Shepard

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Music videos
(2006) "Cause an Effect" and "Seduction is Evil (She's Hot)", songs by N'fa, videos directed by Ledger. (2006) "Morning Yearning," song by Ben Harper, video directed by Ledger. (2007) "Black Eyed Dog," song written by Nick Drake (19481974), video directed by and featuring Ledger.[] (2009) "King Rat", song by Modest Mouse and conceived by Ledger.[][]

References
[2] 'Heath: A Family's Tale' by Janet Fife-Yeomans (2009), p.32: "Ledger was a descendant of the Ledger family of Leeds, Yorkshire who arrived in Western Australia from England in 1880." [13] ("Introductory film" includes excerpts of the music video, Black Eyed Dog, by Heath Ledger, among others.) [14] Drake's song "Black Eyed Dog" is featured as track number five on the soundtrack album for the 1974 film Practical Magic, directed by Griffin Dunne and starring Sandra Bullock and Nicole Kidman. [24] Gemma Ward breaks her silence on Heath Ledger - Telegraph (http:/ / fashion. telegraph. co. uk/ news-features/ TMG8293826/ Gemma-Ward-breaks-her-silence-on-Heath-Ledger. html) [27] (As updated 25 January 2008.) [29] Based on its estimates, Nichols reports, Forbes.com ranks Ledger as third among the world's highest-earning deceased celebrities for that year, following Elvis Presley (1) and Charles M. Schulz (2). [30] "Fox Host John Gibson Mocks Heath Ledger's Death" (http:/ / www. huffingtonpost. com/ 2008/ 01/ 23/ fox-host-john-gibson-mock_n_82962. html) The Huffington Post. 23 January 2008. [31] The John Gibson Show, Fox News Radio, 25 January 2008. [32] The Big Story, Fox News, 24 January 2008 [33] The John Gibson Show, Fox News Radio, 24 January 2008 [40] Cookies must be enabled | Herald Sun (http:/ / www. heraldsun. com. au/ entertainment/ arts-books/ state-theatre-centre-opens-in-perth-honouring-heath-ledger/ story-fn7euh6j-1225996093685) [41] (Postdated)

Further reading
Adler, Shawn. "Heath Ledger Said He Hoped to Evolve as an Actor and Person in 2005 Interview: (http://www. mtv.com/movies/news/articles/1580086/20080122/story.jhtml) Late Actor Was Intelligent, Self-Aware during 'Brokeback Mountain' Chat." MTV.com, 22 January 2008. Retrieved 18 March 2008. (Excerpts from transcript of interview with Heath Ledger conducted by John Norris in 2005.) Arango, Tim. "Esquire Publishes a Diary That Isn't" (http://www.nytimes.com/2008/03/06/books/06esqu. html). The New York Times, nytimes.com, 6 March 2008, Books. Retrieved 25 July 2008. (Rev. of Taddeo.) "Death of a Star: Unsolved Mysteries" (http://www.newsweek.com/id/105569?tid=relatedcl). Newsweek, 4 February 2008: 62, Newsmakers. Both Web and print versions. Retrieved 5 August 2008. The Joker vs. The Real Heath: (http://www.etonline.com/news/2008/07/63600/index.html)Wikipedia:Link rot Entertainment Tonight Looks Back at the Career of Heath Ledger, etonline.com (CBS Studios Inc.), July 2008. Retrieved 8 August 2008. ("ET takes a look back at Heath Ledger's career amid the hugely successful launch of 'The Dark Knight,' which features the late actor portraying the Joker"; includes photo album.) McShane John. Heath Ledger: His Beautiful Life and Mysterious Death. London: John Blake, 2008. ISBN 1-84454-633-0 (10). ISBN 978-1-84454-633-6 (13). (Excerpt listed below.) "Loves of Heath Ledger's Life" (http://www.news.com.au/couriermail/story/0,23739,23564492-5007191,00. html). The Courier-Mail, news.com.au, 20 April 2008. Retrieved 21 April 2008. (Book excerpt.) Nolan, Christopher. "Transition: Charisma as Natural as Gravity (http://www.newsweek.com/id/105580): Heath Ledger, 28, Actor". Newsweek, 4 February 2008: 9, Periscope. Both Web (updated 26 January 2008) and print versions. Retrieved 5 August 2008. (Eulogy.) Norris, Chris. "(Untitled Heath Ledger Project) (http://nymag.com/news/features/44217/): In Which the Protagonist Dies Mysteriously, and the Audience Analyzes His Final Days for Clues to His Real Character". New York, nymag.com, 18 February 2008. Retrieved 21 April 2008.

Heath Ledger Park, Michael Y. "Christian Bale on 'Kindred Spirit' Heath Ledger" (http://www.people.com/people/article/ 0,,20208769,00.html?xid=rss-fullcontentcnn). Web. People, 25 June 2008. Retrieved 5 August 2008. (See Wolf below.) Robb, Brian J. Heath Ledger: Hollywood's Dark Star. London: Plexus Publishing Ltd, 2008. ISBN 0-85965-427-3 (10). ISBN 978-0-85965-427-2 (13). Scott, A. O. "An Appraisal: Prince of Intensity with a Lightness of Touch" (http://www.nytimes.com/2008/01/ 24/movies/24appr.html?hp). The New York Times, nytimes.com, 24 January 2008, Movies. Retrieved 27 April 2008. Sessums, Kevin, with photographs by Bruce Weber. "We're Having a Heath Wave" (http://www.vanityfair. com/culture/features/2000/08/heath200008). Vanity Fair, August 2000, vanityfair.com, August 2008. Web. (4 pages.) Accessed 21 April 2008. (Interview with Heath Ledger; illustrations in "Perth Album", by Bruce Weber.) Taddeo, Lisa. "The Last Days of Heath Ledger" (http://www.esquire.com/features/heath-ledger-last-days). Esquire (April 2008), esquire.com, 5 March 2008. (Updated 21 July 2008.) Accessed 25 July 2008. (Fictional account; cf. rev. by Arango.) Travers, Peter. "Sundance: Shock" (http://www.rollingstone.com/blogs/traverstake/2008/01/ sundance-shock.php). The Travers Take: News and Reviews from Rolling Stone's Movie Critic, Rolling Stone (Blog), rollingstone.com, 22 January 2008. Includes hyperlinked feature: Video Review: A Look at Heath Ledger's Best Performances (http://www.rollingstone.com/blogs/traverstake/2008/02/ video-review-pass-on-hannah-mo.php) (video by Jennifer Hsu, with audio commentary provided by Travers), 1 February 2008. Retrieved 21 April 2008. Wolf, Jeanne. "Christian Bale: 'Life Should Never Be Boring'" (http://www.parade.com/articles/editions/ 2008/edition_06-29-2008/1BATMAN). Parade, 29 June 2008: 89. Both Web and print formats. Retrieved 3 August 2008. (See Park above.)

77

External links
Heath Ledger (http://www.discogs.com/artist/Heath+Ledger) discography at Discogs Heath Ledger (http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_pictures/7203860.stm) at BBC In Pictures Heath Ledger (http://topics.cnn.com/topics/heath_ledger) at CNN Topics Heath Ledger (http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=24102296) at Find a Grave Heath Ledger (http://www.huffingtonpost.com/news/heath-ledger) at The Huffington Post Heath Ledger (http://www.imdb.com/name/nm5132/) at the Internet Movie Database Heath Ledger (http://www.music.msn.com/celebrities/celebrity/heath-ledger/) at MSN Movies Heath Ledger (http://www.mtv.com/movies/person/233661/personmain.jhtml) at MTV Movies Heath Ledger (http://topics.nytimes.com/top/reference/timestopics/people/l/heath_ledger/index.html) at New York Times Topics Heath Ledger (http://www.people.com/people/heath_ledger) at People.com Heath Ledger (http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/1576375/ Heath-Ledger-obituary-An-actor-of-promise.html) at The Daily Telegraph obituary Ledger, Heath (19792008) (http://nla.gov.au/nla.party-452097) National Library of Australia, Trove, People and Organisation record for Heath Ledger

Makarand Deshpande

78

Makarand Deshpande
Makarand Deshpande

Makarand Deshpande at Zee Marathi TV serial 'Kesari' launch Born 6 March 1966 India Mumbai, Maharashtra, India Film actor Director Writer Film producer

Residence Occupation

Makarand Deshpande (born 1966) is an Indian actor, writer, and director in Hindi and Marathi films and theatre. He is often seen in supporting and pivotal roles in various films like Jungle, Sarfarosh, Swades, Makdee, and Darna Zaroori Hai where he often plays drunkard, wayfarer roles. He has directed over 5 films. The bulk of his work, however is in theatre. He has written 35 full-length plays and at least 12 short plays and has his own theatre company, Ansh.[1] Deshpande has an unconventional personality and is noted for his unusual outfits and hairstyles.[2] He lives in Vile Parle in Mumbai. He studied in Shri BPM school.

Makarand Deshpande

79

Filmography
Director
Hanan (2004) Danav (2003) Shahrukh Bola Khoobsurat Hai Tu (2010)

Actor
Marathi Marathi Paul Padte Pudhe (2011)... Judge Malayalam No. 66 Madhura Bus (2012) Amen (2013 film) Telugu Ek Niranjan (2009) as Chidambaram Jalsa (2008) Kannada Dandupalya (film) (2012) as Dandupalya Krishnas Hindi Kalpvriksh (Film) (2012) Tatta (2012) My Friend Pinto (2011) ... Don Bbuddah... Hoga Terra Baap (2011) Khatta Meeta (2010) Guzaarish (2010) Rita (2009) Yun Hota Toh Kya Hota (2006) Darna Zaroori Hai (2006) ... Rahul Ek Khiladi Ek Haseena (2005) ... Poker Player Khamosh... Khauff Ki Raat (2005) ... Manas Dutta Swades (2004) ... Fakir Ek Se Badhkar Ek (2004) ... Krishnamurthy Paisa Vasool (2004) Hanan (2004) ... Surya Chameli (2003) ... Taxi driver Market (2003) ... Anthony Kaalia Makdee (2002) ... Kallu, the village butcher Road (2002) ... Inderpal, Truck driver , sona spa Lal Salam (2002) ... Rajayya Pyaar Diwana Hota Hai (2002) (as Makrandh Deshpandey) ... Bhiku

Company (2002) ... Narrator Ek Aur Visphot (2002) ... Mun. Comm. Omkar Manav

Makarand Deshpande Ghaath (2000) ... Happy Singh Jungle (2000) ... Dorai Swamy Snip! (2000) Sarfarosh (1999) ... Shiva Satya (1998) (as Makarand Deshpande) ... Advocate Chandrakant Mule Udaan (1997) (as Makarand Deshpande) ... Masoombhai Dayachan Ghatak: Lethal (1996) ... Punk (repeatedly slapped by Kashi) Fareb (1996) Naajayaz (1995) ... Street Singer Pehla Nasha (1993) Sir (1993) ... Mak Anth (1994) ... Kali Prahaar: The Final Attack (1991) ... Shirley's brother Salim Langde Pe Mat Ro (1989) ... Peera Qayamat Se Qayamat Tak (1988) (as Mac Deshpanday) ... Baba

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References External links

Interview (http://www.3to6.com/final_theatre/Makrand Deshpande.htm) Makrand Deshpande (http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0221218/) at the Internet Movie Database

Irrfan Khan

81

Irrfan Khan
Irrfan Khan

Khan at the press conference of director Ang Lee's Life of Pi (2012) at New Delhi Born Sahabzade Irrfan Ali Khan [] 7 January 1967 Jaipur, Rajasthan, India Irfan Actor 1988present Sutapa Sikdar (1995present) Website www.irrfan.com [2] [1]

Other names Occupation Years active Spouse(s)

Sahabzade Irrfan Ali Khan, previously known as Irrfan Khan and later as just Irrfan in Bollywood movies[3][4][5] (born 07 January 1967)[] is an Indian National Awards winning actor who appears in film, television, and theatre. He has also acted in many international projects. Khan is perhaps India's best known international actor due to the critical acclaim he has received for his roles in Hollywood films. In India, Khan gained the reputation of a skilled actor from his roles in Bollywood movies such as The Warrior, Maqbool, Haasil, Paan Singh Tomar and Rog. He also hosted the TV show Mano Ya Na Mano and appeared in popular Vodafone commercials. In 2012 he appeared in the lead titular role in Paan Singh Tomar, a biopic about an athlete. Both the movie and Khan's performance received critical acclaim. He has appeared in more than 30 films in Bollywood. Khan's English-language mainstream work includes character roles in movies like The Namesake, New York, I Love You, A Mighty Heart, Slumdog Millionaire, The Amazing Spider-Man, and Life of Pi, as well as in the HBO series In Treatment. Khan has won three Filmfare Awards, a Screen Actors Guild Award, and an Independent Spirit Award nomination. He is also the recipient of 2011 Padma Shri award, the fourth highest civilian award in India. He has garnered the National Film Award for Best Actor in the 60th National Film Awards 2012, for his performance in Paan Singh Tomar.[]

Irrfan Khan

82

Early life and background

Irrfan Khan was born in Jaipur, to a Muslim family. Khan's mother, Begum, was from the Tonk Hakim family, and his father, the late Jagirdar, was from the Khajuriya village near the Tonk district, and ran a tyre business.[6][7][] Khan was studying for his MA degree, when he earned a scholarship to study at National School of Drama (NSD) in New Delhi in 1984.

Career
Irrfan Khan moved to Mumbai, where he acted in numerous television serials like Chanakya, Bharat Ek Khoj, Sara Jahan Hamara, Banegi Apni Baat, Chandrakanta (Doordarshan), "AnooGoonj" on Doordarshan" Star Bestsellers (Star Plus), and Sparsh. Much before these, he had acted in a teleplay on Doordarshan named Laal Ghaas Par Neele Ghode where he played Lenin. It was based on a translation by Uday Prakash of a Russian play by Mikhail Shatrov. He was the main villain in a series called Darr (which aired on Star Plus), where he played the role of a psycho serial killer, opposite Kay Kay Menon. He also played the role of famous revolutionary Urdu poet and Marxist political activist of India Makhdoom Mohiuddin in Kahkashan produced by Ali Sardar Jafri. He acted in some of the episodes of Star Bestsellers (aired on Star-Plus). In one of the episodes (Ek Sham Ki Mulakat), his role was of a parchoon shopkeeper who has a misconception that his landlord's wife is trying to seduce him and it turns out that his own wife (Tisca Chopra) is cheating on him. In the other one, he played the role of an office-accountant who, after being insulted by his female boss, took revenge. He also appeared in a serial called Bhanvar (aired on SET India) for two episodes. In one episode, he performed the role of a thug who somehow lands in court. Theatre and television kept him afloat until Mira Nair offered him a cameo in Salaam Bombay (1988) though his role was edited out in the final film. In the 1990s he appeared in the critically acclaimed film Ek Doctor Ki Maut and Such a Long Journey (1998) and various other films which went unnoticed. After many unsuccessful films, things changed when London-based director Asif Kapadia gave him the lead in The Warrior, a historical film completed in 11 weeks on location in Himachal Pradesh and Rajasthan. In 2001 The Warrior opened in international film festivals, making Irrfan Khan a known face.[8] In 200304 he acted in Indian born writer-director, Ashvin Kumar's short film, "Road to Ladakh". After the film received rave reviews[9] at international festivals, the film is now being made into a full length feature, again starring Irrfan Khan.[10] That same year he played the title role in the critically acclaimed Maqbool, an adaptation of Shakespeare's Macbeth. His first Bollywood main lead role came in 2005 with film Rog in which his performance was praised by critics, especially a critic wrote "Irfaan's eyes speak louder than his words and every time he is in frame, be it talking to his buddy Munish or arguing with Suhel, he shows his capability as an actor".[11] Thereafter he appeared in several films either playing the leading role or a supporting role as a villain. In 2004 he won the Filmfare Best Villain Award for his role in film Haasil. Critics praised his performance in Haasil saying that "as the ambitious, brash, fearless goon who is mind-blowing. He is outright scary and makes you sit up, wondering what he'll do next".[12] In 2007, he appeared in the box office hits Metro, for which he received a Filmfare Best Supporting Actor Award, and The Namesake. His chemistry with Konkana Sen in Metro was one of the highlights of the Multi-star movie. They were closely followed by his appearance in the international films A Mighty Heart and The Darjeeling Limited. Even after becoming a successful actor in Bollywood, he has not severed his ties with television. He anchored a show Mano Ya Na Mano (airing on Star One). He hosted another programme named Kyaa Kahein which was similar to Mano Ya Na Mano. In 2008, he was featured as a narrator in an Arts Alliance production, id Identity of the Soul. The performance toured worldwide, with tens of thousands turning out to see the event as it toured the West Bank. He also plays the police inspector in the 2008 film Slumdog Millionaire, for which he and the cast of the movie won a Screen Actors

Irrfan Khan Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture. About him, Danny Boyle said, "he has an instinctive way of finding the "moral center" of any character, so that in Slumdog, we believe the policeman might actually conclude that Jamal is innocent. Boyle compares him to an athlete who can execute the same move perfectly over and over. "It's beautiful to watch."[13] In 2009, he featured in the film Acid Factory. Khan has stated that he wants to do more and more action films in the future.[14] He also appeared as an FBI agent in New York and as a Gujarati diamond merchant in New York, I Love You. His latest film Paan Singh Tomar in which essays the role of real-life Rajput runner Paan Singh Tomar has received extremely favourable reviews by critics. Irrfan has been highly praised. He recently worked on the third season of the HBO series In Treatment, enacting the part of Sunil, who is finding it difficult to come to terms with his wife's death and loneliness after moving to New York, USA. In addition, Irrfan signed a contract to be in the new Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham remake in December 2011. Khan played Dr. Rajit Ratha in The Amazing Spider-Man in 2012.[15]

83

Personal life
On 23 February 1995, Khan married writer Sutapa Sikdar, who is also an NSD graduate. They have two children named Babil and Aryan.[1] He has two brothers, Imran Khan and Salman Khan and one sister Rukhsana Begum. Sutapa said about him, "He was always focused. I remember when he would come home, he would head straight for the bedroom, sit on the floor, and read books. The rest of us would be hanging around gossiping." Even now, as reads through at least one new Hollywood script a week, he believes in doing his homework, staying up till 3 in the morning, taking notes, trying to understand ways to play his character. Sikdar recalls how he would demand as many as 11 rewrites from her when he directed episodes of Banegi Apni Baat. "Once he dragged me to a police station in Mumbai to understand procedure," she recalls.[16] Recently, he has changed his name to Irrfan. He also said he likes the sound of the extra "r" in his name.[17]

Awards
Wins
2003: Filmfare Best Villain Award Haasil 2007: Filmfare Best Supporting Actor Award Life in a Metro 2008: Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture Slumdog Millionaire 2011: Padma Shri[18] 2012: Filmfare Critics Award for Best Actor Paan Singh Tomar 2012: IRDS Film Award for social concern Best male character Paan Singh Tomar[19] 2012: National Film Award for Best Actor Paan Singh Tomar

Irrfan Khan

84

Nominations
2007: Independent Spirit Award: Best Supporting Male The Namesake 2008: Stardust Best Supporting Actor Award The Namesake 2008: IIFA Award: IIFA Best Supporting Actor Life in a Metro

Filmography
Year Film Letter writer Ajit Alfred Rahul Amulya Role Notes

1988 Salaam Bombay 1989 Kamla Ki Maut 1989 Jazeere 1990 Drishti 1991 Ek Doctor Ki Maut 1993 Karamati Coat 1998 Bada Din 1999 The Goal 2001 The Warrior 2001 Kasoor 2002 Pratha Kali Salwaar 2002 Gunaah 2003 Haasil

Police Inspector The Coach Lafcadia Warrior Public Prosecutor Priest Ninni Pandey Shankar Police Inspector Digvijay Pandey Ranvijay Singh Filmfare Award for Best Performance in a Negative Role

Footpath Maqbool 2004 Shadows of Time Aan: Men at Work Charas: A Joint Operation

Sheikh Maqbool Yani Mishra Yusuf Pathan Ranbhir Singh Rathore Bengali/German film

2005 Chocolate: Deep Dark Secrets Pipi Rog Chehraa 7 Phere 2006 Yun Hota To Kya Hota The Killer Deadline: Sirf 24 Ghante Sainikudu Inspector Uday Rathore Chandranath Diwan Manoj Salim Rajabali Vikram/Roopchand Swaroopchand Solanki Krish Vaidya Pappu Yadav Telugu film

Irrfan Khan

85
Mir Zubair Mahmood, East Karachi Deputy Inspector General Monty Ashoke Ganguli The Father Ravi Kumar Farooque, Najma's husband Avtar Short film Suraj Kumar Dr. Mukherjee Thomas Police Inspector Vishal Kapoor Samit Kaizar Billu/Vilas Pardesi Roshan (FBI Official) Mansuhkhbai Vinay Patnaik Vikram Gupta Bacchoo/ Tony Khosla Arun Wasiullah Khan a.k.a. Musafir Vikram Paan Singh Tomar National Film Award for Best Actor Filmfare Critics Award for Best Actor NominatedFilmfare Award for Best Actor Screened at the 2007 Cannes Film Festival

2007 A Mighty Heart

Life in a Metro The Namesake The Darjeeling Limited Apna Asmaan Aaja Nachle Partition 2008 Road to Ladakh Tulsi Sunday Krazzy 4 Mumbai Meri Jaan Slumdog Millionaire Chamku Dil Kabaddi 2009 Acid Factory Billu New York New York, I Love You 2010 Right Yaaa Wrong Hisss Knock Out 2011 Yeh Saali Zindagi 7 Khoon Maaf Thank You 2012 Paan Singh Tomar

Filmfare Award for Best Supporting Actor

The Amazing Spider-Man Banker to the Poor Life of Pi 2013 Saheb, Biwi Aur Gangster Returns Jai Ramji Hungame Pe Hangama

Dr. Rajit Ratha filming Adult Piscine Molitor Patel ("Pi") Indrajeet Singh aka Raja Bhaiyya

pre-production pre-production

Irrfan Khan

86

Television
Year Film Chanakya 1994 Chandrakanta 1995 Banegi Apni Baat 1997 Just Mohabbat "Mr. Singh" a.k.a "Psycho Singh" a.k.a "Psycho Uncle" Maharishi Valmiki Najib-ud-daula and Gulam Kadir Khan He plays a [20] teacher. "Senapati" Bhadrashal "Badrinath/Somnath" Role Other notes

1997 Jai Hanuman 1994 The Great Maratha 1999 Star Bestsellers 2010 In Treatment

Ek Shaam Ke Mulaqaat "Sunil" 2013 ' 'Paan Singh tomar "Paan singh tomar"

References
[1] Irrfan Khan's Profile (http:/ / www. irrfan. com/ profile. htm) [2] http:/ / www. irrfan. com [5] He is credited as Irrfan Khan in the 2012 U.S. film The Amazing Spider-Man. [9] Road of Ladakh Short Film (http:/ / www. the-south-asian. com/ March2003/ Film-Road to Ladakh. htm) [10] Irrfan Khan goes to Hollywood,Rediff movies (http:/ / in. rediff. com/ movies/ 2003/ nov/ 07irfan. htm) [15] http:/ / www. hollywoodreporter. com/ news/ amazing-spider-man-widest-india-release-342712 [19] http:/ / www. indiantelevision. com/ aac/ y2k13/ aac44. php

External links
Irrfan Khan (http://www.imdb.com/name/nm451234/) at the Internet Movie Database Irrfan Khan Official Website (http://www.irrfan.com) TIME Magazine coverage of Irrfan Khan (http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1959014,00. html) TIME Magazine photo feature (http://www.time.com/time/photogallery/0,29307,1959033_2033954,00.html) Irrfan Khan takes the comic turn (http://www.hindustantimes.com/Entertainment/Bollywood/ Irrfan-Khan-takes-the-comic-turn/Article1-878645.aspx)

Naseeruddin Shah

87

Naseeruddin Shah
Naseeruddin Shah

Naseeruddin Shah Born 20 July 1950 Barabanki, Uttar Pradesh, India Actor

Occupation

Years active 1972present Spouse(s) Manara Sikri (deceased) Ratna Pathak Shah (1982present) Heeba Shah Imaad Shah Vivaan Shah Padma Bhushan, Padma Shri, National Film Award

Children

Awards Signature

Naseeruddin Shah (born 20 July 1950) is an Indian/Bollywood film actor and director. He is widely considered to be one of the finest Indian stage and film actors. He is an influential actor of the Indian Parallel (New Wave) Cinema. Shah has won numerous awards in his career, including three National Film Awards, three Filmfare Awards for Best Actor, and a Best Actor Award (The Volpi Cup) at the Venice Film Festival. The Government of India has honoured him with both the Padma Shri and the Padma Bhushan civilian awards for his contributions to Indian cinema.

Early life
Shah was born on 20 July 1950 in Barabanki, Uttar Pradesh, India where his father was an Army officer. Shah's family hails from Sardhana in District Meerut (Uttar Pradesh). He is a descendant of the 19th-century Afghan warlord Jan Fishan Khan. Naseeruddin Shah did his schooling at St. Anselm's Ajmer and St Joseph's College, Nainital. He graduated in arts from Aligarh Muslim University in 1971 and attended National School of Drama in Delhi. He has been successful in mainstream Bollywood cinema as well as in Parallel Cinema. He has appeared in

Naseeruddin Shah international films, notably playing Captain Nemo in the Hollywood comic book adaptation The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen. His elder brother is Lt. General Zameerud-din Shah PVSM, SM, VSM, recently appointed as the Vice-Chancellor of Aligarh Muslim University. His nephew (cousin's son) Salim Shah is also a TV and film actor.[1]

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Career
Shah has acted in movies such as Nishant, Aakrosh, Sparsh, Mirch Masala, Albert Pinto Ko Gussa Kyon Ata Hai, Trikal, Bhavni Bhavai, Junoon, Mandi, Mohan Joshi Hazir Ho!, Ardh Satya, Katha, Jaane Bhi Do Yaaro, etc.[2] In the very early stages of his career he acted in the film Dil Aakhir Dil Hai directed by noted director Ismail Shroff, with Rakhi where she played the character of Naseer's elder girlfriend Kusumji whom he was forced to marry unwillingly because he is quite younger than her (in the film). One of his most important films, Masoom (1983) was shot at St Joseph's College, Nainital. He became active in mainstream Bollywood cinema with the 1980 film Hum Paanch. His next major success in mainstream films was the 1986 multi-starrer film Karma where he acted alongside veteran Dilip Kumar. Starring roles for films such as Ijaazat (1987), Jalwa (1988) and Hero Hiralal (1988) followed. In 1988 he played opposite his wife Ratna Pathak as Inspector Ghote, the fictional detective of H. R. F. Keating's novels in the Merchant-Ivory English language film The Perfect Murder. He has acted in several multi-starrer Bollywood films as well, such as Ghulami (1985), Tridev (1989) and Vishwatma (1992). In 1994, he acted as the villain in Mohra, his 100th film as an actor. He forayed into Malayalam cinema the same year, through T. V. Chandran's critically well acclaimed drama Ponthan Mada. The film portrayed the irrational bonding of a feudal serf (played by Mammootty) and a colonial landlord (played by Shah). He strongly believed that the distinction between art and commercial films had largely reduced, especially with the directors of the former also making commercial films. In 2000 his dream of playing Mahatma Gandhi was realised when he played Gandhi in Kamal Hassan's critically acclaimed Hey Ram which focused on the assassination of Gandhi from the assailant's point of view. He won a lot of critical acclaim by playing the role of Mohit, the drunken coach to a deaf and mute boy in Iqbal, which was written by Vipul K Rawal with Shah specially in mind.[citation needed] He also worked in Neeraj Pandey's critically acclaimed A Wednesday (2008). Later, he starred in international projects such as Monsoon Wedding in 2001 and a Hollywood comic book adaptation The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen in 2003 (co-starring Sean Connery) where he played the role of Captain Nemo. His portrayal of Nemo was very close to the design of the graphic novel, although his Nemo was far less manic. He worked in an Indian adaptation of Shakespeare's Macbeth, titled Maqbool and Rajiv Rai's Asambhav opposite Arjun Rampal and Priyanka Chopra in 2004. He then went on to work in The Great New Wonderful (2005). He was most recently seen in The Dirty Picture (2011). Shah's upcoming films include The Hunt where he plays a recluse growing marijuana in his forest retreat. He made his Pakistani film debut in Khuda Ke Liye by Shoaib Mansoor where he played a short cameo.

Naseeruddin Shah

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Other media and art forms

In 1977, he, Tom Alter and Benjamin Gilani formed a theatre group called Motley Productions. Their first play was Samuel Beckett's Waiting for Godot, which was staged at the Prithvi Theatre on 29 July 1979.[3] In 1988, he acted in the eponymous television series based on the life and times of Mirza Ghalib, directed by Gulzar and telecast on DD National.[citation needed] In 1989, he acted as the Maratha King Shivaji in another eponymous television series Bharat Ek Khoj based on Jawaharlal Nehru's book The Discovery of India.[citation needed]

In 1999, he acted as a special agent in the TV series Tarkash on Zee TV. He played the role of a retired agent haunted by nightmares who is re-inducted as he apparently knows something about a dreaded terrorist somehow connected with his past.[citation
needed]

Naseeruddin Shah playing Pozzo in Motley's production of Waiting for Godot at The Doon School, 2009.

In 1998, he played the role of Mahatma Gandhi in the play Mahatma Vs. Gandhi, (which looked at the Mahatma's relation with Harilal Gandhi, his first son).[4] With this, he achieved his objective of portraying Mahatma Gandhi, a role he had auditioned for in Richard Attenborough's Gandhi.[5] In 2000, he again portrayed the Mahatma, this time on film, in Hey Ram.[citation needed] He played the villain with the dual identity of a ghazal singer and a Pakistani spy who supports terrorism in India in Sarfarosh (1999).[citation needed] He played the role of Mohit, a drunken coach, in the critically acclaimed Iqbal. The role was specially written keeping him in mind by Vipul K Rawal, the writer of the film. It was recentlyWikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers#Chronological items voted as one of ten Hindi films that is considered ideal training and motivational material.Wikipedia:Avoid weasel words He was the first of several celebrity actors, who played the role of narrator in the popular audiobook series for kids Karadi Tales.[citation needed] He was the narrator in the film Paheli the Indian entry to the 2006 Academy Awards.[citation needed] He has been awarded the life membership of International Film And Television Club of Asian Academy of Film & Television.[citation needed]

As a director
Naseeruddin Shah has been giving performances with his theatre troupe at places such as New Delhi, Mumbai, Bangalore and Lahore. He has directed plays written by Lavender Kumar, Ismat Chughtai and Saadat Hasan Manto. His directorial debut in movies, Yun Hota To Kya Hota, was released in 2006. It stars several established actors such as Konkona Sen Sharma, Paresh Rawal, Irfan Khan, newcomer Ayesha Takia, his son Imaad Shah and his old friend Ravi Baswani.[citation needed]

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Personal life
He first got married to Manara Sikri, Surekha Sikris step-sister. He has a daughter named Heeba Shah from his first marriage. He married Bollywood actress Ratna Pathak Shah in 1982 after the death of his first wife.[citation needed] He has two sons from his second marriage Imaad and Vivaan. He co-starred with Ratna in films like Jaane Tu... Ya Jaane Na, Mirch Masala and The Perfect Murder.[6][7]

Awards
Award Civilian Awards Padma Shri Padma Bhushan India's fourth highest civilian award 1987 Awarded India's Third highest civilian award 2003 Awarded National Film Award National Film Award for Best Actor National Film Award for Best Actor Sparsh Paar 1979 Won 1984 Won 2006 Won Film Year Status

National Film Award for Best Supporting Actor Iqbal Filmfare Award Filmfare Best Actor Award Filmfare Best Actor Award Filmfare Best Actor Award Filmfare Best Supporting Actor Award Filmfare Best Villain Award Filmfare Best Supporting Actor Award Filmfare Best Villain Award Filmfare Best Villain Award Filmfare Best Villain Award Filmfare Best Actor Award Aakrosh Chakra Masoom Sir Mohra Naajayaz Chaahat Sarfarosh Krrish A Wednesday Venice Film Festival The Volpi Cup (Award for Best Actor) Paar

1981 Won 1982 Won 1984 Won 1993 Nominated 1995 Nominated 1996 Nominated 1998 Nominated 2000 Nominated 2007 Nominated 2008 Nominated

1984 Won

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Other Awards
2000: Won: Sangeet Natak Akademi Award 2000: Won: IIFA (International Indian Film Academy) Award Artistic Excellence for Performance in a Negative Role for Sarfarosh

Filmography
Actor
Year 1975 Nishant 1976 Manthan 1977 Bhumika 1977 Tabbaliyu Neenade Magane 1977 Godhuli 1978 Junoon 1979 Sparsh 1980 Aakrosh 1980 Albert Pinto Ko Gussa Kyon Aata Hai 1980 Bhavni Bhavai 1980 Hum Paanch 1981 Chakra 1981 Umrao Jaan 1982 Bazaar 1982 Situm 1983 Jaane Bhi Do Yaaron 1983 Katha 1983 Masoom 1983 Woh Saat Din 1984 Paar 1984 Mohan Joshi Hazir Ho 1984 Holi 1985 Ghulami 1985 Trikaal 1985 Mirch Masala 1985 Khamosh 1986 Karma 1987 Jalwa 1987 Tamas 1987 Ijaazat Mahender Nasiruddin Shah Lukka Gohar Mirza Salim Subhash Vinod Chopra Rajaram Purshotam Joshi DK Dr. Anand Naurangia Lawyer Malkani Professor Singh SP Sultan Singh Ruiz Pereira subedar Captain Bakshi Khairuddin Chishti Kapil Film Vishwam Bhola Sunil Verma Shastri Priest Sarfaraz Khan Aniruddh Parmar Bhaskar Kulkarni Albert Pinto Kannada film Role Notes

Gujarati film

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Hero Hiralal Raj Phirojshah Inspector Ghote Jay Singh Rajshekar

1988 Hero Hiralal 1988 Maalamaal 1988 Pestonjee 1988 The Perfect Murder 1989 Tridev 1989 Mane (The House) 1991 Ek Ghar 1991 Lakshmanrekha 1992 Vishwatma 1992 Electric Moon 1992 Chamatkar 1992 Panaah 1993 Kabhi Haan Kabhi Naa 1993 Sir 1994 Ponthan Mada 1994 Mohra 1994 Drohkaal 1995 Naajayaz 1995 Takkar 1996 Chaahat 1997 Bombay Boys 1998 Chinagate 1998 Such a Long Journey 1999 Sarfarosh 1999 Bhopal Express 2000 Hey Ram

Amar Kapoor Suryapratap Singh Rambuhj Goswami Amar Kumar Devaa Father Breganza Professor Amar Verma Sheema Thampuran Mr. Zindal DCP Abbas Lodhi Raj Solanki Inspector De Costa Ajay Narang Mastana Major Sarfaraz Khan Jimmy Bilimoria Gulfaam Hasan Bashir Mahatma Gandhi Simultaneously made into Tamil Tamil Debut Lalit Verma Captain Nemo Releasing in (2003) (US film) (Malayalam film)

2001 Monsoon Wedding 2002 The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen 2002 Encounter: The Killing 2003 Maqbool 2004 3 Deewarein 2004 Main Hoon Na 2005 Paheli 2005 Iqbal 2005 The Great New Wonderful 2006 Being Cyrus 2006 Krrish 2006 Omkara

Inspector Bharucha Inspector Purohit Ishaan Brig. Shekhar Sharma Him Self Mohit Avi Dinshaw Sethna Dr. Siddhant Arya Bhaisaab Voice of Narrator Cricket Coach

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Babaji Yeti Cyrus G.K. Jayaram Maulana Wali (A Pakistani film) French-German-Indian Film

2006 Banaras 2006 Valley of Flowers 2007 Parzania 2007 Amal 2007 Khuda Ke Liye 2007 Dus Kahaniyaan 2008 Mithya 2008 Shoot on Sight 2008 Jaane Tu Ya Jaane Na 2008 A Wednesday 2008 Mere Baap Pehle Aap 2008 Mithya 2009 Barah Aana 2009 Firaaq 2009 Today's Special 2009 Bolo Raam 2010 Peepli Live 2010 Ishqiya 2010 Raajneeti 2010 Allah Ke Banday 2011 7 Khoon Maaf 2011 That Girl in Yellow Boots 2011 The Blueberry Hunt 2011 Zindagi Na Milegi Dobara 2011 The Dirty Picture 2011 Deool 2011 Chaalis Chauraasi 2011 Michael 2012 Maximum 2013 Sona Spa 2013 Mad Dad 2013 Khasi Katha A Goat Saga 2013 Mastaan 2013 Amma 3D

Tariq Ali Amar Singh Rathore . Jai's father Anonymous antagonist Sheekha's father

Shukla Khan Sahab Akbar N.S. Negi Salim Kidwai Iftikhar Bhaskar Sanyal Warden Dr. Modhusudhon Tarafdar Diwakar Colonel Salman Habib Suryakanth Dacoit Pankaj Purushottam Suri (Sir) Michael Police Officer Baba Dayanand Announced Butcher Bengali film Announced Pre-Production Simultaneously made into Telugu, Hindi, Tamil, and English Telugu Debut English Debut Marathi Film Hindi Film Post-Production Agricultural Minister Khalu Jaan/Khalu/Iftikhar People Leader

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Director
Yun Hota To Kya Hota (2006)

References
[4] A review of the play Mahatma Vs. Gandhi (http:/ / www. rediff. com/ news/ 1998/ feb/ 23nandy. htm) [5] http:/ / cinema. sholay. com/ stories/ dec2001/ 24122001-1. htm

External links
Naseeruddin Shah (http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0787462/) at the Internet Movie Database Article about Shah's direction of plays (http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/mp/2003/03/24/stories/ 2003032400650100.htm) An interview about state of Bollywood movies (http://www.rediff.com/entertai/2001/dec/01shah.htm) An article about Naseerudddin Shah's directorial debut in Cinema (http://www.deccanherald.com/ deccanherald/aug142005/enter1043402005812.asp)

Atul Kulkarni

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Atul Kulkarni
Atul Kulkarni

Born

September 10, 1965 Belgaum, Karnataka, India Actor Geetanjali Kulkarni Website www.atulkulkarni.com [1]

Occupation Spouse(s)

Atul Kulkarni (- ) (born 10 September 1965) is an Indian actor who has won two National Awards and has attained the superstar status in Marathi film industry after successful movies like Valu (film) and Natarang. Kulkarni won a National Award for his portrayal of Shriram Abhyankar in the film Hey Ram. Although he started his career in theatre, he has won critical acclaim for his performances in films like Page 3 and the Aamir Khan starrer Rang De Basanti. He has acted in several Marathi movies including Maati Maay (A Gravekeeper's Tale) that premiered at the Toronto Film Festival. He has achieved superstar status in Marathi Films with the success of blockbuster movie of year 200910 Natarang.

Early life
Kulkarni was born on 10 September 1965 in Belgaum, Karnataka, India. Atul completed his secondary education (10th Standard) from Haribhai Deokaran High School, Solapur, Maharashtra. His father, a businessman, and his mother, a housewife, were settled in Solapur. He completed his Junior College (12th Standard) from Belgaum and was able to secure a seat for electrical engineering at College of Engineering Pune (COEP) . Due to his disinterest in engineering, he quit the college and came back to Solapur to join D. A. V. College, Solapur which was affiliated to Shivaji University. He completed his graduation in English literature. He is married to theatre actress Geetanjali Kulkarni, whom he met at National School of Drama.

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Acting
Kulkarni's first stint with stage was during his high school days and later during his college days he was actively participating in cultural gatherings. While studying, Atul joined Natya Aradhana, an amateur theatre group from Solapur. Working with this group helped him groom better. After working backstage for two years, finally he got a chance to act. He decided to pursue a career in professional acting. Atul joined the National School of Drama, New Delhi (19921995 batch). His acting skills were given final touches at this institutions which has produced legendary actors of international fame. Atul Kulkarni holds a postgraduate diploma in dramatic arts from National School of Drama, New Delhi. His most successful performance, both commercially and critically was as Gunawant Kagalkar in the Marathi blockbuster Natarang.[citation needed] He made his debut in Kannada film Bhoomi Geetha in 1997 and has acted in several Tamil films.[citation needed] Atul Kulkarni is acting in a romantic film.In which he is in love with Chak De girl Sagarika Ghatge.His mature love story will be seen in Director Satish Rajwade's Marathi Movie Premachi Gosht.[2]

Awards
National Film Awards 2000: Won: Best Supporting Actor in Hey Ram Citation: For his serious performance as a cold blooded fundamentalist stalking the cities during the turbulent years of partition that led to the assassination of Mahatma Gandhi.[] 2002: Won: Best Supporting Actor in Chandni Bar Citation: For depicting a ruthless character, trapped in a world without social values.[] Filmfare Awards 2001: Nominated: Best Supporting Actor in Hey Ram Asia Pacific Screen Awards 2010: Nominated: Best Performance by an Actor in Natarang

Filmography
Year 1997 2000 2000 2000 2001 2002 2002 2003 2003 2003 2003 2003 Film Bhoomi Geetha Kairee Language Kannada Marathi Jadhav teacher Role

Jayam Manade Raa Telugu Hey Ram Chandni Bar Run Bhet Mango Souffl Dahavi Fa 88 Antop Hill Satta Dum Hindi / Tamil Hindi Tamil Marathi English Marathi Hindi Hindi Hindi Shriram Abhyankar Potya Sawant Bhaskar Satish Edwin 'Ed' Prakash Ganesh Deshmukh (teacher) Pratyush Shelar Yashwant Varde 'Encounter' Shankar

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2003 2004 2004 2004 2004 2004 2004 2004 2005 2005 2006 2006 2006 2007 2007 2007 2008 2008 2008 2009 2009 2009 2009 2010 2010 2010 2010 2011 2011 2012 2012 2012 2012 2013 2013 2013 Vaastu Purush Chanti Gowri Mansarovar Vajram Khakee Devrai Manmadhan Page 3 Chakwa Kedi Raam Rang De Basanti Aa Dinagalu Maati Maay Malayalam Hindi Marathi Tamil Hindi Marathi Tamil Telugu Hindi Kannada Marathi Laxman Pandey Agni Shridhar Narsu Sandeep Swanand Gaddamwar Krishnadeva Saivar Dr. Iqbal Ansari Shesh ACP Deva Vinayak Mane Tushar Khot Pughazhenthy Marathi Telugu Telugu Sarkar Data

Gauri: The Unborn Hindi Valu Talappavu Kurukshetra Yeh Mera India Delhi 6 Padikathavan Marathi Malayalam Malayalam Hindi Hindi Tamil

Raj Gobar Kasi Anandan

Vandae Maatharam Malayalam / Tamil Yaksha Sukhaant Natarang Bumm Bumm Bole Panjaa Chaalis Chauraasi Suzhal Surangani Edegarike Vallinam Premachi Goshta Zanjeer Toofan [3] Kannada Marathi Marathi Hindi Telugu Hindi Tamil Tamil Kannada Tamil Marathi Hindi Telugu English Raoji Ram Kulkarni Bobby Guna Kagalkar

[4]

Upcoming Singularity

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Theatre
Samudra Gandhi Virudhha Gandhi Manoos Navacha Bet Aapan Sarech Ghodegaonkar Chapha Natak Zale Mokale Aabhal Kharashe

References
[1] http:/ / www. atulkulkarni. com/ [2] Premachi Goshta Marathi Movie (http:/ / marathistars. com/ movies/ premachi-goshta-marathi-movie-cast-crew-photos/ )

External links
Atul Kulkarni The official site (http://www.atulkulkarni.com/) Atul Kulkarni (http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0474609/) at the Internet Movie Database Atul Kulkarni's interview on Rediff (http://www.rediff.com/entertai/2002/nov/09atul.htm) Interview on Gmagazine.com (http://www.gmagazine.com/magazine/april2003/Interviews10.asp) Another Rediff Interview (http://us.rediff.com/movies/2003/jun/27atul.htm)

QUEST http://quest.org.in/node/158

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Academy Award
The Oscars
85th Academy Awards An Academy Award statuette. Awarded for Country Presented by First awarded Excellence in cinematic achievements United States Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences 1929

Official website www.oscars.org [1]

The Academy Awards, now officially known as The Oscars,[2] are a set of awards given annually for excellence of cinematic achievements. The Oscar statuette is officially named the Academy Award of Merit and is one of nine types of Academy Awards. Organized and overseen by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (AMPAS),[3] the awards are given each year at a formal ceremony. The AMPAS was originally conceived by Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer studio executive Louis B. Mayer as a professional honorary organization to help improve the film industrys image and help mediate labor disputes. The awards themselves were later initiated by the Academy as awards "of merit for distinctive achievement" in the industry.[4] The awards were first given in 1929 at a ceremony created for the awards, at the Hotel Roosevelt in Hollywood. Over the years that the award has been given, the categories presented have changed; currently Oscars are given in more than a dozen categories, and include films of various types. As one of the most prominent award ceremonies in the world, the Academy Awards ceremony is televised live in more than 100 countries annually. It is also the oldest award ceremony in the media; its equivalents, the Grammy Awards for music, the Emmy Awards for television, and the Tony Awards for theater, are all modeled after the Academy Awards. The 85th Academy Awards were held on Sunday, February 24, 2013, at the Dolby Theatre in Los Angeles, California. The 86th Academy Awards will be held on Sunday, March 2, 2014, at the Dolby Theatre in Los Angeles. This will be a week later than normal as not to interfere with the 2014 Winter Olympics.[5]

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History
The first awards were presented on May 16, 1929, at a private brunch at the Hollywood Roosevelt Hotel with an audience of about 270 people. The post Academy Awards party was held at the Mayfair Hotel.[] The cost of guest tickets for that night's ceremony was $5. Fifteen statuettes were awarded, honoring artists, directors and other personalities of the filmmaking industry of the time for their works during the 19271928 period. Winners had been announced three months earlier; however, that was changed in the second ceremony of the Academy Awards in 1930. Since then and during the first decade, the results were given to newspapers for publication at 11pm on the night of the awards.[] This method was used until the Los Angeles Times announced the winners before the ceremony began; as a result, the Academy has since 1941 used a sealed envelope to reveal the name of the winners.[] For the first six ceremonies, the eligibility period spanned two calendar years. For example, the 2nd Academy Awards presented on April 3, 1930, recognized films that were released between August 1, 1928 and July 31, 1929. Starting with the 7th Academy Awards, held in 1935, the period of eligibility became the full previous calendar year from January 1 to December 31.

Gary Cooper and Joan Fontaine holding their Oscars at the Academy Awards, 1942

The first Best Actor awarded was Emil Jannings, for his performances in The Last Command and The Way of All Flesh. He had to return to Europe before the ceremony, so the Academy agreed to give him the prize earlier; this made him the first Academy Award winner in history. The honored professionals were awarded for all the work done in a certain category for the qualifying period; for example, Jannings received the award for two movies in which he starred during that period. Since the fourth ceremony, the system changed, and professionals were honored for a specific performance in a single film. As of the 83rd Academy Awards ceremony held in 2011[6], a total of 2,809 Oscars have been given for 1,853 awards.[7] A total of 302 actors have won Oscars in competitive acting categories or have been awarded Honorary or Juvenile Awards. The 1939 film Beau Geste is the only movie that features as many as four Academy Award winners for Best Actor in a Leading Role (Gary Cooper, Ray Milland, Susan Hayward, Broderick Crawford) prior to any of the actors receiving the Best Actor Award. At the 29th ceremony, held on March 27, 1957, the Best Foreign Language Film category was introduced. Until then, foreign-language films were honored with the Special Achievement Award.

Oscar statuette
Design
Although there are eight other types of annual awards presented by the Academy (the Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award, the Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award, the Gordon E. Sawyer Award, the Academy Scientific and Technical Award, the Academy Award for Technical Achievement, the John A. Bonner Medal of Commendation, and the Student Academy Award) plus two awards that are not presented annually (the Special Achievement Award in the form of an Oscar statuette and the Honorary Award that may or may not be in the form of an Oscar statuette), the best known one is the Academy Award of Merit more popularly known as the Oscar statuette. Made of gold-plated britannium on a black metal base, it is 13.5in (34cm) tall, weighs 8.5lb (3.85kg) and depicts a knight

Academy Award rendered in Art Deco style holding a crusader's sword standing on a reel of film with five spokes. The five spokes each represent the original branches of the Academy: Actors, Writers, Directors, Producers, and Technicians.[8] In 1928, MGM's art director Cedric Gibbons, one of the original Academy members, supervised the design of the award trophy by printing the design on a scroll.[9] In need of a model for his statuette, Gibbons was introduced by his future wife Dolores del Ro to Mexican film director and actor Emilio "El Indio" Fernndez. Reluctant at first, Fernndez was finally convinced to pose nude to create what today is known as the "Oscar". Then, sculptor George Stanley (who also did the Muse Fountain[10] at the Hollywood Bowl) sculpted Gibbons's design in clay and Sachin Smith cast the statuette in 92.5 percent tin and 7.5 percent copper and then gold-plated it. The only addition to the Oscar since it was created is a minor streamlining of the base. The original Oscar mold was cast in 1928 at the C.W. Shumway & Sons Foundry in Batavia, Illinois, which also contributed to casting the molds for the Vince Lombardi Trophy and Emmy Awards statuettes. Since 1983,[11] approximately 50 Oscars are made each year in Chicago by Illinois manufacturer R.S. Owens & Company.[12] In support of the American effort in World War II, the statuettes were made of plaster and were traded in for gold ones after the war had ended.[13]

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Naming
The origin of the name Oscar is disputed. One biography of Bette Davis claims that she named the Oscar after her first husband, band leader Harmon Oscar Nelson;[14] one of the earliest mentions in print of the term Oscar dates back to a Time magazine article about the 1934 6th Academy Awards.[15] Walt Disney is also quoted as thanking the Academy for his Oscar as early as 1932.[16] Another claimed origin is that the Academy's Executive Secretary, Margaret Herrick, first saw the award in 1931 and made reference to the statuette's reminding her of her "Uncle Oscar" (a nickname for her cousin Oscar Pierce).[17] Columnist Sidney Skolsky was present during Herrick's naming and seized the name in his byline, "Employees have affectionately dubbed their famous statuette 'Oscar'".[18] The trophy was officially dubbed the "Oscar" in 1939 by the Academy of Motion Pictures Arts and Sciences. It may also have been named after the famous Irish playwright Oscar Wilde. In 1882, when disembarking in New York to begin his "Grand Tour" of America, Wilde was asked by a customs officer whether he had anything to declare and reputedly replied "I have nothing to declare but my genius."[19]

Ownership of Oscar statuettes

Since 1950, the statuettes have been legally encumbered by the requirement that neither winners nor their heirs may sell the statuettes without first offering to sell them back to the Academy for US$1. If a winner refuses to agree to this stipulation, then the Academy keeps the statuette. Academy Awards not protected by this agreement have been sold in public auctions and private deals for six-figure sums.[20] In December 2011, Orson Welles' sole 1941 Oscar for Citizen Kane (Best Original Screenplay) was put up for auction, after his heirs won a 2004 court decision that Welles did not sign any agreement to return the statue to the Academy.[21] On December 20, 2011 it sold in an online auction for US$861,542.[] While the Oscar is owned by the recipient, it is essentially not on the open market.[22] Michael Todd's grandson tried to sell Todd's Oscar statuette to a movie prop collector in 1989, but the Academy won the legal battle by getting a permanent injunction. Although some Oscar sales transactions have been successful, some buyers have subsequently returned the statuettes to the Academy, which keeps them in its treasury.[23]

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Nomination
Since 2004, Academy Award nomination results have been announced to the public in late January. Prior to that, the results were announced in early February.

Voters
The Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (AMPAS), a professional honorary organization, maintains a voting membership of 5,783 as of 2012[6].[24] Academy membership is divided into different branches, with each representing a different discipline in film production. Actors constitute the largest voting bloc, numbering 1,311 members (22 percent) of the Academy's composition. Votes have been certified by the auditing firm PricewaterhouseCoopers (and its predecessor Price Waterhouse) for the past 73 annual awards ceremonies.[25] All AMPAS members must be invited to join by the Board of Governors, on behalf of Academy Branch Executive Committees. Membership eligibility may be achieved by a competitive nomination or a member may submit a name based on other significant contribution to the field of motion pictures. New membership proposals are considered annually. The Academy does not publicly disclose its membership, although as recently as 2007 press releases have announced the names of those who have been invited to join. The 2007 release also stated that it has just under 6,000 voting members. While the membership had been growing, stricter policies have kept its size steady since then.[26] In May 2011, the Academy sent a letter advising its 6,000 or so voting members that an online system for Oscar voting will be implemented in 2013.[27]

Rules
According to Rules 2 and 3 of the official Academy Awards Rules, a film must open in the previous calendar year, from midnight at the start of January 1 to midnight at the end of December 31, in Los Angeles County, California, to qualify (except for the Best Foreign Language Film).[28] For example, the 2009 Best Picture winner, The Hurt Locker, was actually first released in 2008, but did not qualify for the 2008 awards as it did not play its Oscar-qualifying run in Los Angeles until mid-2009, thus qualifying for the 2009 awards. Rule 2 states that a film must be feature-length, defined as a minimum of 40minutes, except for short subject awards, and it must exist either on a 35 mm or 70 mm film print or in 24frame/s or 48frame/s progressive scan digital cinema format with native resolution not less than 1280x720. Producers must submit an Official Screen Credits online form before the deadline; in case it is not submitted by the defined deadline, the film will be ineligible for Academy Awards in any year. The form includes the production credits for all related categories. Then, each form is checked and put in a Reminder List of Eligible Releases. In late December ballots and copies of the Reminder List of Eligible Releases are mailed to around 6000 active members. For most categories, members from each of the branches vote to determine the nominees only in their respective categories (i.e. only directors vote for directors, writers for writers, actors for actors, etc.). There are some exceptions in the case of certain categories, like Foreign Film, Documentary and Animated Feature Film, in which movies are selected by special screening committees made up of members from all branches. In the special case of Best Picture, all voting members are eligible to select the nominees for that category. Foreign films must include English subtitles, and each country can submit only one film per year.[29] The members of the various branches nominate those in their respective fields, while all members may submit nominees for Best Picture. The winners are then determined by a second round of voting in which all members are then allowed to vote in most categories, including Best Picture.[30]

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Ceremony
Telecast
The major awards are presented at a live televised ceremony, most commonly in late February or early March following the relevant calendar year, and six weeks after the announcement of the nominees. It is the culmination of the film awards season, which usually begins during November or December of the previous year. This is an elaborate extravaganza, with the invited guests walking up the red carpet in the creations of the most prominent fashion designers of the day. Black tie dress is the most common outfit for men, although fashion may dictate not wearing a bow-tie, and musical performers sometimes do not adhere to this. (The artists who recorded the nominees for Best Original Song quite often perform those songs live at the awards ceremony, and the fact that they are performing is often used to promote the television broadcast).

31st Academy Awards Presentations, Pantages Theater, Hollywood, 1959

The Academy Awards is televised live across the United States (excluding Hawaii; they aired live in Alaska starting in 2011 for the first time since 1996), Canada, the United Kingdom, and gathers millions of viewers elsewhere throughout the world.[31] The 2007 ceremony was watched by more 81st Academy Awards Presentations, Kodak Theater, Hollywood, 2009 than 40 million Americans.[32] Other awards ceremonies (such as the Emmys, Golden Globes, and Grammys) are broadcast live in the East Coast but are on tape delay in the West Coast and might not air on the same day outside North America (if the awards are even televised). The Academy has for several years claimed that the award show has up to a billion viewers internationally, but this has so far not been confirmed by any independent sources. The Awards show was first televised on NBC in 1953. NBC continued to broadcast the event until 1960 when the ABC Network took over, televising the festivities through 1970, after which NBC resumed the broadcasts. ABC once again took over broadcast duties in 1976; it is under contract to do so through the year 2020.[33] After more than 60 years of being held in late March or early April, the ceremonies were moved up to late February or early March starting in 2004 to help disrupt and shorten the intense lobbying and ad campaigns associated with Oscar season in the film industry. Another reason was because of the growing TV ratings success of the NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Championship, which would cut into the Academy Awards audience. The earlier date is also to the advantage of ABC, as it now usually occurs during the highly profitable and important February sweeps

Academy Award period. (Some years, the ceremony is moved into early March in deference to the Winter Olympics.) Advertising is somewhat restricted, however, as traditionally no movie studios or competitors of official Academy Award sponsors may advertise during the telecast. The Awards show holds the distinction of having won the most Emmys in history, with 47 wins and 195 nominations.[34] After many years of being held on Mondays at 9:00pm Eastern/6:00 p.m Pacific, in 1999 the ceremonies were moved to Sundays at 8:30pm Eastern/5:30pm Pacific.[35] The reasons given for the move were that more viewers would tune in on Sundays, that Los Angeles rush-hour traffic jams could be avoided, and that an earlier start time would allow viewers on the East Coast to go to bed earlier.[36] For many years the film industry had opposed a Sunday broadcast because it would cut into the weekend box office.[37] On March 30, 1981, the awards ceremony was postponed for one day after the shooting of President Ronald Reagan and others in Washington, D.C. In 1993, an In Memoriam segment was introduced,[] honoring those who had made a significant contribution to cinema who had died in the preceding 12 months, a selection compiled by a small committee of Academy members.[38] This segment has drawn criticism over the years for the omission of some names. In 2010, the organizers of the Academy Awards announced that winners' acceptance speeches must not run past 45seconds. This, according to organizer Bill Mechanic, was to ensure the elimination of what he termed "the single most hated thing on the show" overly long and embarrassing displays of emotion.[39] The Academy has also had recent discussions about moving the ceremony even further back into January, citing TV viewers' fatigue with the film industry's long awards season. But such an accelerated schedule would dramatically decrease the voting period for its members, to the point where some voters would only have time to view the contending films streamed on their computers (as opposed to traditionally receiving the films and ballots in the mail). Also, a January ceremony may have to compete with National Football League playoff games.[40]

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Awards ceremonies
The following is a listing of all Academy Awards ceremonies.[41][42][43]
Ceremony Date Best Picture winner Wings Length of ceremony 15 minutes Number of Rating viewers 270 Host(s) Venue

1st Academy Awards 2nd Academy Awards 3rd Academy Awards 4th Academy Awards 5th Academy Awards 6th Academy Awards

May 16, 1929 April 3, 1930 November 5, 1930 November 10, 1931 November 18, 1932 March 16, 1934

Douglas Fairbanks, William C. deMille William C. deMille

Hollywood Roosevelt Hotel Ambassador Hotel

The Broadway Melody All Quiet on the Western Front Cimarron

1 hour, 50 minutes 2 hours, 13 minutes 2 hours, 3 minutes 1 hour, 52 minutes 1 hour, 50 minutes

Conrad Nagel

Lawrence Grant

Biltmore Hotel

Grand Hotel

Lionel Barrymore, Conrad Nagel

Ambassador Hotel

Cavalcade

Will Rogers

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February 27, 1935 March 5, 1936 March 4, 1937 March 10, 1938 It Happened One Night Mutiny on the Bounty The Great Ziegfeld 1 hour, 45 minutes 2 hours, 12 minutes 2 hours, 56 minutes 1 hour, 56 minutes 2 hours, 6 minutes 3 hours, 52 minutes 2 hours, 10 minutes 1 hour, 48 minutes 2 hours, 14 minutes 1 hour, 42 minutes 2 hours, 10 minutes 1 hour, 41 minutes 2 hours, 52 minutes 1 hour, 58 minutes 1 hour, 35 minutes 1 hour, 50 minutes Irvin S. Cobb Biltmore Hotel

7th Academy Awards 8th Academy Awards 9th Academy Awards 10th Academy Awards

Frank Capra

George Jessel

The Life of Emile Zola You Can't Take It With You Gone with the Wind Rebecca

Bob Burns

11th Academy February 23, Awards 1939 12th Academy February 29, Awards 1940 13th Academy February 27, Awards 1941 14th Academy February 26, Awards 1942 15th Academy Awards 16th Academy Awards 17th Academy Awards 18th Academy Awards 19th Academy Awards 20th Academy Awards 21st Academy Awards 22nd Academy Awards 23rd Academy Awards 24th Academy Awards 25th Academy Awards March 4, 1943 March 2, 1944 March 15, 1945 March 7, 1946 March 13, 1947 March 20, 1948 March 24, 1949 March 23, 1950

None

Bob Hope

Ambassador Hotel (Cocoanut Grove) Biltmore Hotel (Biltmore Bowl)

How Green Was My Valley Mrs. Miniver

Ambassador Hotel (Cocoanut Grove) Jack Benny Grauman's Chinese Theater

Casablanca

Going My Way

Bob Hope, John Cromwell

The Lost Weekend

Bob Hope, James Stewart

The Best Years of Our Lives Gentleman's Agreement Hamlet

Jack Benny

Shrine Auditorium

Agnes Moorehead, Dick Powell

Robert Montgomery

The Academy Theater Pantages Theatre

All the King's Men

Paul Douglas

March 29, 1951 March 20, 1952 March 19, 1953

All About Eve

2 hours, 18 minutes 1 hour, 53 minutes 1 hour, 32 minutes

Fred Astaire

An American in Paris The Greatest Show on Earth

Danny Kaye

40 million

Bob Hope, Conrad Nagel

Pantages Theatre / NBC International Theatre Pantages Theatre / NBC Century Theatre

26th Academy Awards 27th Academy Awards 28th Academy Awards 29th Academy Awards

March 25, 1954 March 30, 1955 March 21, 1956 March 27, 1957

From Here to Eternity On the Waterfront

1 hour, 58 minutes 1 hour, 48 minutes 1 hour, 30 minutes 3 hours, 8 minutes

43 million

Donald O'Connor, Fredric March

Bob Hope, Thelma Ritter

Marty

Jerry Lewis, Claudette Colbert, Joseph L. Mankiewicz Jerry Lewis, Celeste Holm

Around the World in 80 Days

Academy Award

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March 26, 1958 The Bridge on the River Kwai 2 hours, 41 minutes Bob Hope, David Niven, James Stewart, Jack Lemmon, Rosalind Russell Bob Hope, David Niven, Tony Randall, Mort Sahl, Sir Laurence Olivier, Jerry Lewis Bob Hope Pantages Theatre

30th Academy Awards

31st Academy Awards

April 6, 1959

Gigi

1 hour, 55 minutes

32nd Academy Awards 33rd Academy Awards 34th Academy Awards 35th Academy Awards 36th Academy Awards 37th Academy Awards 38th Academy Awards 39th Academy Awards 40th Academy Awards 41st Academy Awards 42nd Academy Awards 43rd Academy Awards 44th Academy Awards 45th Academy Awards 46th Academy Awards 47th Academy Awards 48th Academy Awards

April 4, 1960

Ben-Hur

1 hour, 40 minutes

April 17, 1961 April 9, 1962 April 8, 1963 April 13, 1964 April 5, 1965 April 18, 1966 April 10, 1967 April 10, 1968 April 14, 1969 April 7, 1970

The Apartment

2 hours, 5 minutes 2 hours, 10 minutes 2 hours, 30 minutes 2 hours, 8 minutes 2 hours, 50 minutes 2 hours, 54 minutes 2 hours, 31 minutes 1 hour, 50 minutes 2 hours, 33 minutes 2 hours, 25 minutes

Santa Monica Civic Auditorium

West Side Story

Lawrence of Arabia Tom Jones

Frank Sinatra

Jack Lemmon

My Fair Lady

Bob Hope

The Sound of Music A Man for All Seasons In the Heat of the Night Oliver!

None

Dorothy Chandler Pavilion

Midnight Cowboy

43.40

April 15, 1971 April 10, 1972 March 27, 1973 April 2, 1974 April 8, 1975 March 29, 1976

Patton

2 hours, 52 minutes 1 hour, 44 minutes 2 hours, 38 minutes 3 hours, 23 minutes 3 hours, 20 minutes 3 hours, 12 minutes

The French Connection The Godfather

Helen Hayes, Alan King, Sammy Davis, Jr., Jack Lemmon Carol Burnett, Michael Caine, Charlton Heston, Rock Hudson John Huston, Burt Reynolds, David Niven, Diana Ross Sammy Davis, Jr., Bob Hope, Shirley MacLaine, Frank Sinatra Goldie Hawn, Gene Kelly, Walter Matthau, George Segal, Robert Shaw

The Sting

The Godfather Part II One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest

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March 28, 1977 April 3, 1978 April 9, 1979 April 14, 1980 Rocky 3 hours, 38 minutes 3 hours, 30 minutes 3 hours, 25 minutes 3 hours, 12 minutes Warren Beatty, Ellen Burstyn, Jane Fonda, Richard Pryor Bob Hope

49th Academy Awards 50th Academy Awards 51st Academy Awards 52nd Academy Awards 53rd Academy Awards 54th Academy Awards 55th Academy Awards 56th Academy Awards 57th Academy Awards 58th Academy Awards 59th Academy Awards 60th Academy Awards 61st Academy Awards 62nd Academy Awards 63rd Academy Awards 64th Academy Awards 65th Academy Awards 66th Academy Awards 67th Academy Awards 68th Academy Awards 69th Academy Awards 70th Academy Awards 71st Academy Awards

Annie Hall

39.73 million

31.10

The Deer Hunter

Johnny Carson

Kramer vs. Kramer

March 31, 1981 March 29, 1982 April 11, 1983 April 9, 1984 March 25, 1985 March 24, 1986 March 30, 1987 April 11, 1988 March 29, 1989 March 26, 1990

Ordinary People

3 hours, 13 minutes 3 hours, 24 minutes 3 hours, 15 minutes 3 hours, 42 minutes 3 hours, 10 minutes 3 hours, 2 minutes 3 hours, 19 minutes 3 hours, 33 minutes 3 hours, 19 minutes 3 hours, 37 minutes

Chariots of Fire

Gandhi

Liza Minnelli, Dudley Moore, Richard Pryor, Walter Matthau Johnny Carson

Terms of Endearment Amadeus

38.00

Jack Lemmon

Out of Africa

38.65 million 39.72 million 42.04 million 42.77 million 40.22 million

25.71

Alan Alda, Jane Fonda, Robin Williams Chevy Chase, Goldie Hawn, Paul Hogan Chevy Chase Shrine Auditorium

Platoon

25.94

The Last Emperor

27.80

Rain Man

28.41

None

Driving Miss Daisy

26.42

Billy Crystal

Dorothy Chandler Pavilion

March 25, 1991 March 30, 1992 March 29, 1993 March 21, 1994 March 27, 1995 March 25, 1996 March 24, 1997 March 23, 1998 March 21, 1999

Dances with Wolves The Silence of the Lambs Unforgiven

3 hours, 35 minutes 3 hours, 33 minutes 3 hours, 30 minutes 3 hours, 18 minutes 3 hours, 35 minutes 3 hours, 38 minutes 3 hours, 34 minutes 3 hours, 47 minutes 4 hours, 2 minutes

42.79 million 44.44 million 45.84 million 46.26 million 48.87 million 44.81 million 40.83 million 57.25 million 45.63 million

28.06

Shrine Auditorium

29.84

Dorothy Chandler Pavilion

32.85

Schindler's List

31.86

Whoopi Goldberg

Forrest Gump

33.47

David Letterman

Shrine Auditorium

Braveheart

30.48

Whoopi Goldberg

Dorothy Chandler Pavilion Shrine Auditorium

The English Patient Titanic

25.83

Billy Crystal

35.32

Shakespeare in Love

28.51

Whoopi Goldberg

Dorothy Chandler Pavilion

Academy Award

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March 26, 2000 American Beauty 4 hours, 4 minutes 46.53 million 29.64 Billy Crystal Shrine Auditorium

72nd Academy Awards 73rd Academy Awards 74th Academy Awards 75th Academy Awards

March 25, 2001 March 24, 2002 March 23, 2003

Gladiator

3 hours, 23 minutes 4 hours, 23 minutes 3 hours, 30 minutes 3 hours, 44 minutes

42.93 million 40.54 million 33.04 million 43.56 million

25.86

Steve Martin

A Beautiful Mind

25.13

Whoopi Goldberg

Dolby Theatre

Chicago

20.58

Steve Martin

76th Academy February 29, Awards 2004

The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King Million Dollar Baby Crash

26.68

Billy Crystal

77th Academy February 27, Awards 2005 78th Academy Awards March 5, 2006

3 hours, 14 minutes 3 hours, 33 minutes 3 hours, 51 minutes 3 hours, 21 minutes 3 hours, 30 minutes 3 hours, 37 minutes

42.16 million 38.64 million 39.92 million 31.76 million 36.94 million 41.62 million

25.29

Chris Rock

22.91

Jon Stewart

79th Academy February 25, Awards 2007 80th Academy February 24, Awards 2008 81st Academy February 22, Awards 2009 82nd Academy Awards March 7, 2010

The Departed

23.65

Ellen DeGeneres

No Country for Old Men Slumdog Millionaire The Hurt Locker

18.66

Jon Stewart

21.68

Hugh Jackman

24.75

Steve Martin, Alec Baldwin

83rd Academy February 27, The King's Speech Awards 2011 84th Academy February 26, Awards 2012 85th Academy February 24, Awards 2013 86th Academy Awards March 2, [44] 2014 The Artist

3 hours, 15 minutes 3 hours, 14 minutes 3 hours, 35 minutes TBA

37.63 million 39.30 million 40.30 million TBA

21.97

James Franco, Anne Hathaway

25.50

Billy Crystal

Argo

26.60

Seth MacFarlane

TBA

TBA

TBA

87th Academy February 22, Awards 2015 Ceremony Date

TBA

TBA

TBA

TBA

TBA

Best Picture winner

Length of ceremony

Number of Rating viewers

Host(s)

Venue

Historically, the "Oscarcast" has pulled in a bigger haul when box-office hits are favored to win the Best Picture trophy. More than 57.25 million viewers tuned to the telecast for the 70th Academy Awards in 1998, the year of Titanic, which generated close to US$600 million at the North American box office pre-Oscars.[45] The 76th Academy Awards ceremony in which The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King (pre-telecast box office earnings of US$368 million) received 11 Awards including Best Picture drew 43.56 million viewers.[] The most watched ceremony based on Nielsen ratings to date, however, was the 42nd Academy Awards (Best Picture Midnight Cowboy) which drew a 43.4% household rating on April 7, 1970.[46] By contrast, ceremonies honoring films that have not performed well at the box office tend to show weaker ratings. The 78th Academy Awards which awarded low-budgeted, independent film Crash (with a pre-Oscar gross of

Academy Award US$53.4 million) generated an audience of 38.64 million with a household rating of 22.91%.[47] In 2008, the 80th Academy Awards telecast was watched by 31.76 million viewers on average with an 18.66% household rating, the lowest rated and least watched ceremony to date, in spite of celebrating 80 years of the Academy Awards.[48] The Best Picture winner of that particular ceremony was another independently financed film (No Country for Old Men).

109

Venues
In 1929, the first Academy Awards were presented at a banquet dinner at the Hollywood Roosevelt Hotel. From 19301943, the ceremony alternated between two venues: the Ambassador Hotel on Wilshire Boulevard and the Biltmore Hotel in downtown Los Angeles. Grauman's Chinese Theater in Hollywood then hosted the awards from 1944 to 1946, followed by the Shrine Auditorium in Los Angeles from 1947 to 1948. The 21st Academy Awards in 1949 were held at the Academy Award Theater at what was the Academy's headquarters on Melrose Avenue in Hollywood.[49] From 1950 to 1960, the awards were presented at Hollywood's Pantages Theatre. Pantages Theatre, 2008 With the advent of television, the 19531957 awards took place simultaneously in Hollywood and New York first at the NBC International Theatre (1953) and then at the NBC Century Theatre (19541957), after which the ceremony took place solely in Los Angeles. The Oscars moved to the Santa Monica Civic Auditorium in Santa Monica, California in 1961. By 1969, the Academy decided to move the ceremonies back to Los Angeles, this time to the Dorothy Chandler Pavilion at the Los Angeles County Music Center. In 2002, the Kodak Theatre became the permanent home of the award ceremonies. However, due to Eastman Kodak's bankruptcy issues, this theatre was renamed the Hollywood and Highland Center in the days preceding the February 26, 2012, awards ceremony. As of May 2012, the theatre was once again renamed to the Dolby Theatre after Dolby Laboratories acquired the naming rights.[50]

Merit categories
Current categories
Best Actor in a Leading Role: since 1928 Best Actor in a Supporting Role: since 1936 Best Actress in a Leading Role: since 1928 Best Actress in a Supporting Role: since 1936 Best Animated Feature: since 2001 Best Animated Short Film: since 1931 Best Cinematography: since 1928 Best Costume Design: since 1948 Best Director: since 1928 Best Documentary Feature: since 1943 Best Documentary Short: since 1941 Best Film Editing: since 1935 Best Foreign Language Film: since 1947 Best Live Action Short Film: since 1931

Best Makeup and Hairstyling: since 1981 Best Original Score: since 1934

Academy Award Best Original Song: since 1934 Best Picture: since 1928 Best Production Design: since 1928 Best Sound Editing: since 1963 Best Sound Mixing: since 1930 Best Visual Effects: since 1939 Best Adapted Screenplay: since 1928 Best Original Screenplay: since 1940

110

In the first year of the awards, the Best Director award was split into two separate categories (Drama and Comedy). At times, the Best Original Score award has also been split into separate categories (Drama and Comedy/Musical). From the 1930s through the 1960s, the Art Direction (now Production Design), Cinematography, and Costume Design awards were likewise split into two separate categories (black-and-white films and color films). Prior to 2012, the Production Design award was called Art Direction, while the Makeup and Hairstyling award was called Makeup. Another award, entitled the Academy Award for Best Original Musical, is still in the Academy rulebooks and has yet to be discontinued. However, due to continuous insufficient eligibility each year, it has not been awarded since 1984 (when Purple Rain won).[51]

Discontinued categories
Best Assistant Director: 1933 to 1937 Best Director, Comedy Picture: 1928 only Best Dance Direction: 1935 to 1937 Best Engineering Effects: 1928 only Best Original Musical or Comedy Score: 1995 to 1999 Best Original Story: 1928 to 1956 Best Score Adaptation or Treatment: 1962 to 1969; 1973 Best Short Film Color: 1936 and 1937 Best Short Film Live Action 2 Reels: 1936 to 1956 Best Short Film Novelty: 1932 to 1935 Best Title Writing: 1928 only Best Unique and Artistic Quality of Production: 1928 only

Proposed categories
The Board of Governors meets each year and considers new award categories. To date, the following proposed categories have been rejected: Best Casting: rejected in 1999 Best Stunt Coordination: rejected every year from 1991-2012[52][53][54][55] Best Title Design: rejected in 1999

Academy Award

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Special categories
The Special Academy Awards are voted on by special committees, rather than by the Academy membership as a whole. They are not always presented on a consistent annual basis.

Current special categories

Academy Honorary Award: since 1929 Academy Scientific and Technical Award: since 1931 Gordon E. Sawyer Award: since 1981 Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award: since 1956 Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award: since 1938

Discontinued special categories

Academy Juvenile Award: 1934 to 1960 Academy Special Achievement Award: 1972 to 1995

Criticism
Due to the positive exposure and prestige of the Academy Awards, studios spend millions of dollars and hire publicists specifically to promote their films during what is typically called the "Oscar season". This has generated accusations of the Academy Awards being influenced more by marketing than quality. William Friedkin, an Academy Award-winning film director and former producer of the ceremony, expressed this sentiment at a conference in New York in 2009, describing it as "the greatest promotion scheme that any industry ever devised for itself".[56] In addition, some winners critical of the Academy Awards have boycotted the ceremonies and refused to accept their Oscars. The first to do so was Dudley Nichols (Best Writing in 1935 for The Informer). Nichols boycotted the 8th Academy Awards ceremony because of conflicts between the Academy and the Writers' Guild.[] George C. Scott became the second person to refuse his award (Best Actor in 1970 for Patton) at the 43rd Academy Awards ceremony. Scott described it as a 'meat parade', saying 'I don't want any part of it."[57][58][59] The third winner, Marlon Brando, refused his award (Best Actor in 1972 for The Godfather), citing the film industry's discrimination and mistreatment of Native Americans. At the 45th Academy Awards ceremony, Brando sent Sacheen Littlefeather to read a 15-page speech detailing his criticisms.[] Tim Dirks, editor of AMC's filmsite.org, has written of the Academy Awards, Unfortunately, the critical worth, artistic vision, cultural influence, and innovative qualities of many films are not given the same voting weight. Especially since the 1980s, moneymaking "formula-made" blockbusters with glossy production values have often been crowd-pleasing titans (and Best Picture winners), but they haven't necessarily been great films with depth or critical acclaim by any measure.[60] Acting prizes in certain years have been criticized for not recognizing superior performances so much as being awarded for sentimental reasons,[61] personal popularity,[62] atonement for past mistakes,[63] or presented as a "career honor" to recognize a distinguished nominee's entire body of work.[64]

Academy Award

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Associated events
The following events are closely associated with the annual Academy Awards ceremony: Nominees luncheon Governors Awards The 25th Independent Spirit Awards (in 2010), usually held in Santa Monica the Saturday before the Oscars, marked the first time it was moved to a Friday and a change of venue to L.A. Live. Golden Raspberry Awards The annual "Night Before", traditionally held at the Beverly Hills Hotel, begun in 2002 and generally known as THE party of the season, benefits the Motion Picture and Television Fund, which operates a retirement home for SAG actors in the San Fernando Valley. Elton John AIDS Foundation Academy Award Party airs the awards live at the nearby Pacific Design Center. The Governors' Ball is the Academy's official after-party, including dinner (until 2011), and is held adjacent to the awards-presentation venue. In 2012, the three course meal was replaced by appetizers. The Vanity Fair after-party, historically held at the former Morton's restaurant, since 2009 has been held at the Sunset Tower.

Notes
[1] http:/ / www. oscars. org/ [6] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ w/ index. php?title=Academy_Award& action=edit [17] "Oscar" in The Oxford English Dictionary, June 2008 Draft Revision. [18] Levy, Emanuel (2003) All About Oscar: The History and Politics of the Academy Awards Continuum, New York. ISBN 0-8264-1452-4 [20] (Levy 2003, pg 28) [23] (Levy 2003, pg 29) [32] Nielsen Press Release: The Nielsen Company's 2008 Guide to the Academy Awards (http:/ / www. nielsen. com/ media/ 2008/ pr_080221a. html) [36] Academy Awards will move to Sunday night (http:/ / news. google. com/ newspapers?nid=1955& dat=19980701& id=-CsiAAAAIBAJ& sjid=eqYFAAAAIBAJ& pg=6637,43314) Reading Eagle July 1, 1998; From Google News Archive [37] Never Say Never: Academy Awards move to Sunday (http:/ / news. google. com/ newspapers?nid=1980& dat=19990319& id=sKEiAAAAIBAJ& sjid=laoFAAAAIBAJ& pg=1224,4570799) The Item March 19, 1999; From Google News Archive [44] http:/ / www. oscars. org/ press/ pressreleases/ 2013/ 20130325. html [46] Charts and Data: Top 100 TV Shows of All Time by Variety (http:/ / www. variety. com/ index. asp?layout=chart_pass& charttype=chart_topshowsalltime) [51] Music Awards | Rules for the 84th Academy Awards | Academy of Motion Picture Arts & Sciences (http:/ / www. oscars. org/ awards/ academyawards/ rules/ rule16. html)

References
Brokaw, Lauren (2010). "Wanna see an Academy Awards invite? We got it along with all the major annual events surrounding the Oscars" (http://thedailytruffle.com/2010/03/ oscar-week-parties-the-weekly-juice-oscar-edition/). Los Angeles: The Daily Truffle. Cotte, Oliver (2007). Secrets of Oscar-winning animation: Behind the scenes of 13 classic short animations. Focal Press. ISBN978-0-240-52070-4. Gail, K., and Piazza, J. (2002). The Academy Awards: The Complete History of Oscar. Black Dog & Leventhal Publishers, Inc. ISBN 1-57912-240-X. Levy, Emanuel (2003). All About Oscar: The History and Politics of the Academy Awards. New York: Continuum. ISBN 0-8264-1452-4. Wright, Jon (2007). The Lunacy of Oscar: The Problems with Hollywood's Biggest Night. Thomas Publishing, Inc.

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External links
Official website (http://www.oscars.org/) Oscar.com (http://www.oscar.com/)official Academy Award ceremony site. Academy Awards (http://www.dmoz.org/Arts/Movies/Awards/Academy_Awards/) at the Open Directory Project. "Oscar Greats" (http://www.time.com/time/archive/collections/0,21428,c_oscars,00.shtml) at Time magazine.

Article Sources and Contributors

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Article Sources and Contributors

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Sullivan, SPat, Sahara4u, Saurabhdeshmukh343, Shakirfan, ShelfSkewed, Shell Kinney, Shipz, Shri8131, Skarebo, SriniG, Sushilbhandarkar, Swapniljs, Tabletop, Tanmayeej, TechLight, The Anonymouse, Titodutta, Topbanana, Tushonline, Universal Hero, Utcursch, Vikram.more, Vinaymaske, Vishalvn, Vivvt, Waacstats, Widr, Wizardman, Woohookitty, YellowMonkey, 128 anonymous edits Academy Award Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=549157414 Contributors: *drew, -kayac71-, 1 Lucky Texan, 205ywmpq, 28bytes, 3finger, 5Q5, 75tpickupsx1983, 7dollarsand2cents, A Clown in the Dark, A wild Rattata, A.K.A.47, ADyuaa, AKR619, ARGOU, AarnKrry, Aaron Kashtan, Aaron Schulz, AaronY, Aashaa, Abcdefgy2, Abundant, Academic Challenger, Accurizer, Adam7davies, AdamJacobMuller, Addshore, Adieu Aschau, Adoniscik, Aewold, Afabbro, Afterwriting, AgarwalSumeet, Agateller, Agerskov, Ahmad.ghamdi.24, Aidenkaramanyan, Aillema, Aimeemay, Ajcadoo, Alan Liefting, Alansohn, Alaska97, AldezD, Ale jrb, Alejandro Alvarez, AlexKnightNZ, AlexManMaster, Alexf, Alexissenoski, AlexiusHoratius, Alfiboy, Allstarecho, Aloysiushonig, Alsharine, Alton, AmazingRaceClub, Amelee1, Ameliorate!, American Eagle, AmericanSights2008, Amitkinger, Amy Larie Hall, Anansi00, Andres, Andrevan, Andy M. 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Image:LondonSmog.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:LondonSmog.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 2.0 Generic Contributors: Ardfern, Bhoeble, BrokenSphere, D-Kuru, Diwas, Jborme, Lobo, Look2See1, Saperaud, Solipsist File:Eubank-Love-2011-Figur-William-Eubank-Genesis.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Eubank-Love-2011-Figur-William-Eubank-Genesis.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: Leki File:Jean-Luc Godard at Berkeley, 1968 (1).jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Jean-Luc_Godard_at_Berkeley,_1968_(1).jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Contributors: Gary Stevens File:Jean Luc Godard Signature.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Jean_Luc_Godard_Signature.svg License: Public 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