C H A P T E R 1

Limits and Their Properties

Section 1.1

A Preview of Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

Section 1.2

Finding Limits Graphically and Numerically . . . . . . . . 27

Section 1.3

Evaluating Limits Analytically

Section 1.4

Continuity and One-Sided Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

Section 1.5

Infinite Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

Review Exercises

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

Problem Solving

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

C H A P T E R 1
Limits and Their Properties
Section 1.1

A Preview of Calculus

Solutions to Odd-Numbered Exercises

1. Precalculus: 20 ftsec15 seconds  300 feet

3. Calculus required: slope of tangent line at x  2 is rate of

change, and equals about 0.16.

5. Precalculus: Area  12 bh  12 53  15

2 sq. units

7. Precalculus: Volume  243  24 cubic units

9. (a)

(1, 3)
4

8
2

(b) The graphs of y2 are approximations to the tangent line to y1 at x  1.

(c) The slope is approximately 2. For a better approximation make the list numbers smaller:

0.2, 0.1, 0.01, 0.001

11. (a) D1  5  12  1  52  16  16  5.66
5
5
5
5
5
5
(b) D2  1   2   1   2  3   1   3  4   1   4  1
2

 2.693  1.302  1.083  1.031  6.11

(c) Increase the number of line segments.

Section 1.2
1.

1.9

1.99

1.999

2.001

2.01

2.1

f x

0.3448

0.3344

0.3334

0.3332

0.3322

0.3226

lim

x2

3.

Finding Limits Graphically and Numerically

x2
 0.3333
x2  x  2

 0.1

x
f x
lim

x0

 0.01

0.2911

 0.001

0.2889

x  3  3

 Actual limit is 13 .

 0.2887

0.2887

0.001

0.01

0.1

0.2887

0.2884

0.2863

 Actual limit is 1 23.

27

28

Chapter 1

5.

2.9

f x

0.0641

lim

x3

7.

Limits and Their Properties

2.999

3.001

3.01

3.1

0.0627

0.0625

0.0625

0.0623

0.0610

1x  1
 14
 0.0625
x3

 0.1

2.99

f x

 0.01

0.9983

lim

x0

 0.001

0.99998

sin x
 1.0000
x

 Actual limit is  161 .

1.0000

0.001

0.01

0.1

1.0000

0.99998

0.9983

(Actual limit is 1.) (Make sure you use radian mode.)

11. lim f x  lim 4  x  2

9. lim 4  x  1

x2

x3

13. lim

x2

x  5 does not exist. For values of x to the left of 5, x  5 x  5 equals 1,

x5
whereas for values of x to the right of 5, x  5 x  5 equals 1.
x5

15. lim tan x does not exist since the function increases and
x 2

17. lim cos1x does not exist since the function oscillates
x0

between 1 and 1 as x approaches 0.

decreases without bound as x approaches 2.

19. Ct  0.75  0.50 t  1
(a)

(b)

3.3

3.4

3.5

3.6

3.7

C 1.75

2.25

2.25

2.25

2.25

2.25

2.25

2.5

2.9

3.1

3.5

1.75

1.75

1.75

2.25

2.25

2.25

lim Ct  2.25

t3.5

(c)

0
0

C 1.25

lim Ct does not exist. The values of C jump from 1.75 to 2.25 at t  3.
t3

21. You need to find  such that 0 < x  1 <  implies

1
f x  1   1 < 0.1. That is,
x

0.1 <

1
 1 < 0.1
x

1  0.1 <

1
x

< 1  0.1

9
<
10

1
x

11
<
10

10
>
9

>

10
11

10
10
1 > x 1 >
1
9
11
1
1
> x 1 >  .
9
11

So take  

1
. Then 0 < x  1 <  implies
11

1
1
< x1 <
11
11

1
1
< x1 < .
11
9

Using the first series of equivalent inequalities, you obtain

f x  1 

1
 1 <  < 0.1.
x

Section 1.2
23. lim 3x  2  8  L
x2

3x  2  8
3x  6
3 x  2

< 0.01
< 0.01
< 0.01

0.01
 0.0033  
3
0.01
Hence, if 0 < x  2 <  
, you have
3

0 < x2 <

3x  6 < 0.01
3x  2  8 < 0.01
f x  L < 0.01
3 x  2 < 0.01

27. lim x  3  5

Finding Limits Graphically and Numerically

25. lim x2  3  1  L

x2

x2  3  1
x2  4
x  2x  2
x  2 x  2

< 0.01
< 0.01

If we assume 1 < x < 3, then   0.015  0.002.

Hence, if 0 < x  2 <   0.002, you have

1

x  2 x  2 < 0.01
x2  4 < 0.01
x2  3  1 < 0.01
f x  L < 0.01

 12 x  1  12 4  1  3

 x  1  3 < 
x  2 < 

< 

1
2

< 

Hence, let   .

1
2

1
2

Hence, if 0 < x  2 <   , you have

x2 < 

x  3  5 < 
f x  L < 

x  4
x  4

< 
< 2

Hence, let   2.

Hence, if 0 < x  4 <   2, you have

x  4 < 2

x  2
 x  1  3
1
2

1
2

< 
< 

f x  L < 

31. lim 3  3

3
33. lim 
x0

x6

x0

Given  > 0:

x < 

3 x  0 < 
Given  > 0: 

33 < 

3


0 < 

< 3  

Hence, any  > 0 will work.

Hence, let   3.

Hence, for any  > 0, you have

Hence for 0 < x  0 <   3, you have

x  2 < 0.002  50.01 < x  2 0.01

Given  > 0:

x  3  5
x  2

< 0.01

0.01

x4

Given  > 0:

< 0.01

x  2 < x  2

29. lim

x2

f x  L < 
33 < 

29

x <
<
3
x  0 < 
f x  L < 

3

3 x


30

Chapter 1

Limits and Their Properties

35. lim x  2  2  2  4

x2

37. lim x2  1  2

x1

Given  > 0:

Given  > 0:

x  2  4
 x  2  4
x  2  x  2  x  2

x2  1  2
x2  1
x  1x  1

< 

x  2 < 0

< 
< 

Hence,   .

 x  2 < 
 x  2  4 < 
x  2  4 < 
f x  L < 

If we assume 0 < x < 2, then   3.


Hence for 0 < x  1 <   , you have
3

x2  1 < 
x2  1  2 < 
f x  2 < 
x9

0.5

41. f x 

x4
1
6

x  1 < 3 < x  1 

(because x  20)

x  5  3

lim f x 

< 

x2 < 

x4

< 

x  1 < x  1

Hence for 0 < x  2 <   , you have

39. f x 

< 

10

x  3

lim f x  6

x9

0.1667

10
0

The domain is 5, 4  4, .

1
The graphing utility does not show the hole at  4, 6 .

The domain is all x 0 except x  9. The graphing

utility does not show the hole at 9, 6.

43. lim f x  25 means that the values of f approach 25 as x gets closer and closer to 8.
x8

45. (i) The values of f approach different

numbers as x approaches c from
different sides of c:

(ii) The values of f increase without bound as x approaches c:

(iii) The values of f oscillate

between two fixed numbers as
x approaches c:

4
3

4 3 2 1
1

3 2 1
1

47. f x  1  x1x

lim 1  x1x  e  2.71828

x0

y
7

(0, 2.7183)

2
1
3 2 1
1

x
1

4 3 2

x
2

f x

f x

0.1

2.867972

0.1

2.593742

0.01

2.731999

0.01

2.704814

0.001

2.719642

0.001

2.716942

0.0001

2.718418

0.0001

2.718146

0.00001

2.718295

0.00001

2.718268

0.000001

2.718283

0.000001

2.718280

Section 1.3
49. False; f x  sin xx is
undefined when x  0.
From Exercise 7, we have
lim

x0

51. False; let

f x 

sin x
 1.
x

Evaluating Limits Analytically

31

53. Answers will vary.

x10, 4x,
2

x4
.
x4

f 4  10
lim f x  lim x2  4x  0  10

x4

x4

55. If lim f x  L1 and lim f x  L2, then for every  > 0, there exists 1 > 0 and 2 > 0 such that x  c < 1 f x  L1 <  and
xc

xc

x  c < 2  f x  L2 < . Let  equal the smaller of 1 and 2. Then for x  c
L1  L2  L1  f x  f x  L2 L1  f x   f x  L2 <   .
Therefore, L1  L2 < 2. Since  > 0 is arbitrary, it follows that L1  L2.

< , we have

57. lim  f x  L  0 means that for every  > 0 there exists  > 0 such that if
xc

0 < x  c < ,
then

 f x  L  0

< .

This means the same as f x  L <  when

0 < x  c < .

Thus, lim f x  L.

xc

Section 1.3
1.

Evaluating Limits Analytically

(a) lim hx  0

x5

3.

(b) lim hx  6

x0

x1

13

(a) lim f x  0

(b) lim f x  0.524

hx  x2  5x

f x  x cos x
7. lim 2x  1  20  1  1

5. lim x4  24  16
x2

x0

9. lim x2  3x  32  33  9  9  0

x3

11. lim 2x2  4x  1  232  43  1  18  12  1  7

x3

13. lim

x2

17. lim

x7

1 1

x
2
5x
x  2

15. lim

x1

57
7  2

35
9

35
3

x3
13
2
2



x2  4 12  4
5
5

19. lim x  1  3  1  2
x3

x 3

 6

32

Chapter 1

Limits and Their Properties

21. lim x  32  4  32  1

23. (a) lim f x  5  1  4

x4

x1

(b) lim gx  43  64

x4

(c) lim g f x  g f 1  g4  64

x1

25. (a) lim f x  4  1  3

27. lim sin x  sin

x 2

x1

(b) lim gx  3  1  2


1
2

x3

(c) lim g f x  g3  2

x1

29. lim cos

x2

33.

x
2
1
 cos

3
3
2

lim sin x  sin

x56

31. lim sec 2x  sec 0  1

x0

5 1

6
2

35. lim tan

x3

37. (a) lim 5gx  5 lim gx  53  15

xc

xc

(b) lim  f x  gx  lim f x  lim gx  2  3  5

xc

xc

xc

(c) lim  f xgx   lim f x lim gx  23  6

xc

xc

xc

lim f x

f x
2
xc
(d) lim


xc gx
lim gx 3

39. (a) lim  f x3  lim f x3  43  64

xc

xc

(b) lim f x   lim f x  4  2

xc

xc

(c) lim 3 f x  3 lim f x  34  12

xc

xc

(d) lim  f x32  lim f x32  432  8

xc

xc

41. f x  2x  1 and gx 

x  0.

4x
 tan 34  1

2x2  x
agree except at
x

xc

43. f x  xx  1 and gx 

x3  x
agree except at x  1.
x1

(a) lim gx  lim f x  1

(a) lim gx  lim f x  2

(b) lim gx  lim f x  3

(b) lim gx  lim f x  0

x0

x1

45. f x 

x1

x0

x1

x1

x2  1
and gx  x  1 agree except at x  1.
x1

lim f x  lim gx  2

x1

x1

47. f x 
x  2.

x1

x1

x3  8
and gx  x2  2x  4 agree except at
x2

lim f x  lim gx  12

x2

x2

12
3

9
0

49. lim

x5

x5
x5
 lim
x2  25 x5 x  5x  5
 lim

x5

1
1

x  5 10

51. lim

x3

x2  x  6
x  3x  2
 lim
x3 x  3x  3
x2  9
 lim

x3

x  2 5 5


x  3 6 6

Section 1.3

53. lim

x  5  5

 lim

x0

 lim

x0

55. lim

x  5  3

x4

x4

x  5  5

 lim

x4

x  5  5
x  5  5

5
x  5  5
1
1
 lim


xx  5  5 x0 x  5  5 25
10

x  5  3

x4

x4

 lim

x0

Evaluating Limits Analytically

x  5  3
x  5  3

1
x  5  9
1
1

 lim

x  4x  5  3 x4 x  5  3 9  3 6

1
1
2  2  x

1
1
2x 2
22  x
57. lim
 lim
 lim

x0
x0
x0 22  x
x
x
4

59. lim

x0

2x 
x  2x
2x  2
x  2x
 lim
 lim 2  2

x0

x0

x 
x2  2x 
x  1  x2  2x  1
x2  2x
x  
x2  2x  2
x  1  x2  2x  1
 lim

x0

x0

61. lim

 lim 2x 
x  2  2x  2

x0

63. lim

x  2  2

x0

 0.1

f x

 0.354
 0.01

0.358

 0.001

0.001

0.01

0.1

0.345

0.354

0.353

0.349

0.354

Analytically, lim

x  2  2

x0

 lim

x  2  2

x0

 lim

x0

x  2  2

x  2  2

x22

x x  2  2

 lim

x0

1
x  2  2

1
22

1
1

2x 2
1
65. lim

x0
x
4

 0.354

 0.1

 0.01

 0.001

0.001

f x

 0.263

 0.251

 0.250

 0.250

1
1

2x 2
2  2  x
Analytically, lim
 lim
x0
x0
x
22  x

0.01

0.1

 0.249

 0.238

x

1

lim
 .
x  x0
 lim
22  x x x0 22  x
4

33

34

Chapter 1

67. lim

x0

Limits and Their Properties

sin x
 lim
x0
5x

sin x
x

15
  1 15
 51

69. lim

x0

1
sin x1  cos x
 lim
x0 2
2x2

sin x
x

1  cos x
x

1
 10  0
2

1  cos h2
1  cos h
1  cos h
 lim
h0
h0
h
h

sin2 x
sin x
 lim
sin x  1 sin 0  0
x0
x0
x
x

71. lim

73. lim

 00  0

75. lim

x 2

cos x
 lim sin x  1
x 2
cot x

79. f t 

f t

t0

sin 3t
sin 3t
 lim
t0
2t
3t

 0.01

2.96

 0.001

2.9996

0.001

0.01

0.1

2.9996

2.96

2

2
1

The limit appear to equal 3.

sin 3t
sin 3t
 lim 3
 31  3.
t0
t0
t
3t

Analytically, lim

81. f x 

32
 1 32
 23

sin 3t
t
 0.1

77. lim

sin x2
x

2

0.1

0.01 0.001 0 0.001 0.01 0.1

f x

0.099998 0.01 0.001 ? 0.001 0.01 0.099998

2

sin x2
sin x2
 lim x
 01  0.
x0
x0
x
x2

Analytically, lim

83. lim

h0

f x  h  f x
2x  h  3  2x  3
2x  2h  3  2x  3
2h
 lim
 lim
 lim
2
h0
h0
h0 h
h
h
h

4
4

4
4
f x  h  f x
4x  4x  h
xh
x
85. lim
 lim
 lim
 lim
 2
h0 x  hx
h0
h0
h0
h
h
x  hxh
x
87. lim 4  x2 lim f x lim 4  x2
x0

x0

x0

89. f x  x cos x

4

4 lim f x 4
x0

Therefore, lim f x  4.

x0

3
2

3
2

lim x cos x  0

x0

Section 1.3



91. f x  x sin x

93. f x  x sin

2

1
x

0.5

0.5

0.5



lim x sin x  0

lim x sin

x0

95. We say that two functions f and g agree at all but one
point (on an open interval) if f x  gx for all x in the
interval except for x  c, where c is in the interval.

1
0
x

97. An indeterminant form is obtained when evaluating a limit

using direct substitution produces a meaningless fractional
expression such as 00. That is,
lim

xc

f x
gx

for which lim f x  lim gx  0

xc

99. f x  x, gx  sin x, hx 

When you are close to 0 the magnitude of f is

approximately equal to the magnitude of g.
Thus, g  f  1 when x is close to 0.

f
h

xc

sin x
x



101. st  16t2  1000

lim
t5

s5  st
600  16t2  1000
16t  5t  5
 lim
 lim
 lim 16t  5  160 ftsec.
t5
t5
t5
5t
5t
 t  5

Speed  160 ftsec

103. st  4.9t2  150
s3  st
4.932  150  4.9t2  150
4.99  t2
 lim
 lim
t3
t3
t3
3t
3t
3t

lim

 lim

x3

4.93  t3  t
 lim 4.93  t  29.4 msec
x3
3t

105. Let f x  1x and gx  1x. lim f x and lim gx do not exist.
x0

x0

  lim 0  0

1
1
 
lim  f x  gx  lim
x0
x0 x
x

x0

107. Given f x  b, show that for every  > 0 there exists a  > 0 such that f x  b <  whenever x  c < . Since
f x  b  b  b  0 <  for any  > 0, then any value of  > 0 will work.

35

0.5

2

x0

Evaluating Limits Analytically

 

109. If b  0, then the property is true because both sides are equal to 0. If b  0, let  > 0 be given. Since lim f x  L,



xc

there exists  > 0 such that f x  L <  b whenever 0 < x  c < . Hence, wherever 0 < x  c < ,
we have

b f x  L

< 

or

bf x  bL

which implies that lim bf x  bL.

xc

< 

36

Chapter 1

Limits and Their Properties

M f x f xgx M f x

111.

113. False. As x approaches 0 from the left,

lim M f x  lim f xgx lim M f x 

xc

xc

xc

x  1.
x

M0 lim f xgx M0

xc

0 lim f xgx 0

xc

Therefore, lim f xgx  0.

x c

115. True.

117. False. The limit does not exist.

4

119. Let
f x 

4,4,


if x 0
if x < 0

lim f x  lim 4  4.

x0

x0

lim f x does not exist since for x < 0, f x  4 and for x 0, f x  4.

x0

rational
0,1, ifif xx isis irrational
0, if x is rational
g x  
x, if x is irrational

121. f x 

lim f x does not exist.

x0

No matter how close to 0 x is, there are still an infinite number of rational and irrational numbers so that lim f x does not
x0
exist.
lim gx  0.

x0

When x is close to 0, both parts of the function are close to 0.

123. (a) lim

x0

1  cos x
1  cos x
 lim
x0
x2
x2
 lim

x0

1  cos2 x
x 1  cos x
2

sin2 x
x0
x2

 lim
 1

1  cos x

1  cos x

1  cos x

12
 21

(b) Thus,

1  cos x 1
1
 1  cos x  x2
x2
2
2
1
cos x  1  x2 for x  0.
2

1
(c) cos0.1  1  0.12  0.995
2
(d) cos0.1  0.9950, which agrees with part (c).

Section 1.4

Section 1.4

3. (a) lim f x  0

(b) lim f x  1

(b) lim f x  0

x3

x4

x3

The function is continuous at

x  3.

x0

x4

(c) lim f x does not exist

(c) lim f x  0

x3

lim

x0 

9.

does not exist because

x
x2  9

grows

x

lim
 x  x0

xx  x x


x0

x3

x
x2  9

x
 1.
x

 lim 

x3

lim

x3 

without bound as x 3  .

1
1

x  x  x
x  x
x
 lim 
13. lim 
x0
x0
x
xx  x

15. lim f x  lim

The function is NOT continuous

at x  4.

The function is NOT continuous at

x  3.

x5
1
1
 lim

x2  25 x5 x  5 10

x 

lim f x  2

x4 

(b) lim f x  2

x3

(c) lim f x  1

11. lim

5. (a)

x3

x3

x5

37

Continuity and One-Sided Limits

1. (a) lim f x  1

7. lim

Continuity and One-Sided Limits

1
xx  x

1
1
 2
xx  0
x

x2 5

2
2

17. lim f x  lim x  1  2

x1

x1

lim f x  lim x3  1  2

x1

x1

lim f x  2

x1

21. lim 3x  5  33  5  4

19. lim cot x does not exist since

x 

x4

x  3 for 3 < x < 4

lim cot x and lim cot x do not exist.

x 

x 

23. lim 2  x does not exist

x3

because
lim2  x  2  3  5

x3

and

25. f x 

1
x2  4

27. f x 

has discontinuities at x  2 and

x  2 since f 2 and f 2 are not
defined.

x
x
2

has discontinuities at each integer

k since lim f x  lim f x.
xk

xk

lim 2  x  2  4  6.

x3

29. gx  25  x2 is continuous

on 5, 5 .

31. lim f x  3  lim f x.

x0

x0

f is continuous on 1, 4 .

33. f x  x2  2x  1 is continuous

for all real x.

38

Chapter 1

Limits and Their Properties

35. f x  3x  cos x is continuous for all real x.

37. f x 

x
is not continuous at x  0, 1. Since
x2  x

x
1
for x  0, x  0 is a removable

x2  x x  1
discontinuity, whereas x  1 is a nonremovable
discontinuity.

39. f x 

x
is continuous for all real x.
x2  1

41. f x 

x2
x  2x  5

has a nonremovable discontinuity at x  5 since lim f x

x5
does not exist, and has a removable discontinuity at
x  2 since
lim f x  lim

x2

43. f x 

x  2 has a nonremovable discontinuity at x  2 since

45. f x 

x,x ,

x2

x2

1
1
 .
x5
7

lim f x does not exist.

x2

x 1
x > 1

has a possible discontinuity at x  1.

1. f 1  1
2.

lim f x  lim x  1

x1

x1

x1

x1

lim f x  1

lim f x  lim x2  1

x1

3. f 1  lim f x

x1

f is continuous at x  1, therefore, f is continuous for all real x.

x
 1,
47. f x  2
3  x,

x 2

1. f 2 

x > 2

2
12
2

lim f x  lim

x2

2.

has a possible discontinuity at x  2.

x2

2x  1  2

lim f x  lim 3  x  1

x2

x2

lim f x does not exist.

x2

Therefore, f has a nonremovable discontinuity at x  2.

49. f x 

x
tan 4 ,
x,

x
x

1. f 1  1
2. lim f x  1
x1

3. f 1  lim f x

x1

x
< 1
tan 4 ,

1
x,

1 < x < 1
has possible discontinuities at x  1, x  1.
x 1 or x 1

f 1  1
lim f x  1

x1

f 1  lim f x

x1

f is continuous at x  1, therefore, f is continuous for all real x.

Section 1.4

Continuity and One-Sided Limits

39

51. f x  csc 2x has nonremovable discontinuities at integer

multiples of 2.

53. f x  x  1 has nonremovable discontinuities at each

integer k.

55. lim f x  0

57. f 2  8

50

x0

lim f x  0

Find a so that lim ax2  8 a 

x0

x2

f is not continuous at x  2.

8
 2.
22

8
10

59. Find a and b such that lim  ax  b  a  b  2 and lim ax  b  3a  b  2.
x1

x3

a  b  2

 3a  b  2
 4

4a

a  1
b

2,
f x  x  1,
2,

x 1
1 < x < 3
x 3

2  1  1

61. f gx  x  12

63. f gx 

Continuous for all real x.

Nonremovable discontinuities at x  1

67. f x 

65. y  x  x
Nonremovable discontinuity at each integer
0.5

1
1

x2  5  6 x2  1

2xx  2x,4,
2

x 3
x > 3

Nonremovable discontinuity at x  3
5

1.5
5

69. f x 

x
x2  1

71. f x  sec

Continuous on  , 

73. f x 

sin x
x

Continuous on:
. . . , 6, 2, 2, 2, 2, 6, 6, 10, . . .
1
75. f x  16x4  x3  3 is continuous on 1, 2 .

f 1  33
16 and f 2  4. By the Intermediate Value
Theorem, f c  0 for at least one value of c between
1 and 2.

x
4

The graph appears to be continuous on the interval

4, 4 . Since f 0 is not defined, we know that f has
a discontinuity at x  0. This discontinuity is removable
so it does not show up on the graph.

40

Chapter 1

Limits and Their Properties

77. f x  x2  2  cos x is continuous on 0,  .

f 0  3 and f   2  1 > 0. By the Intermediate
Value Theorem, f c  0 for the least one value of c
between 0 and .

81. gt  2 cos t  3t

79. f x  x3  x  1
f x is continuous on 0, 1 .
f 0  1 and f 1  1
By the Intermediate Value Theorem, f x  0 for at least
one value of c between 0 and 1. Using a graphing utility,
we find that x  0.6823.
83. f x  x2  x  1

g is continuous on 0, 1 .

f is continuous on 0, 5 .

g0  2 > 0 and g1  1.9 < 0.

f 0  1 and f 5  29

By the Intermediate Value Theorem, gt  0 for at least

one value c between 0 and 1. Using a graphing utility, we
find that t  0.5636.

1 < 11 < 29
The Intermediate Value Theorem applies.
x2  x  1  11
x2  x  12  0

x  4x  3  0
x  4 or x  3
c  3 (x  4 is not in the interval.)
Thus, f 3  11.
85. f x  x3  x2  x  2

87. (a) The limit does not exist at x  c.

f is continuous on 0, 3 .

(b) The function is not defined at x  c.

f 0  2 and f 3  19

(c) The limit exists at x  c, but it is not equal to the

value of the function at x  c.

2 < 4 < 19
The Intermediate Value Theorem applies.

(d) The limit does not exist at x  c.

x3  x2  x  2  4
x3  x2  x  6  0

x  2x2  x  3  0
x2
(x2

 x  3 has no real solution.)

c2

Thus, f 2  4.
89.

91. The functions agree for integer values of x:

y
5
4
3
2
1
2 1

gx  3  x  3  x  3  x

f x  3  x  3  x
x
1

3 4 5 6 7

2
3

However, for non-integer values of x, the functions

differ by 1.
f x  3  x  gx  1  2  x.

The function is not continuous at x  3 because

lim f x  1  0  lim f x.

x3

for x an integer

x3

1
1
For example, f 2   3  0  3, g2   3  1  4.

Section 1.4

 t 2 2  t

Continuity and One-Sided Limits

93. Nt  25 2
t

1.8

3.8

Nt

50

25

50

25

Number of units

50
40
30
20
10

t
2

Discontinuous at every positive even integer.The

company replenishes its inventory every two months.

10 12

Time (in months)

95. Let V  43  r 3 be the volume of a sphere of radius r.

V1  43   4.19
V5  3 53  523.6
4

Since 4.19 < 275 < 523.6, the Intermediate Value Theorem implies that there is at least one value r between 1 and 5 such
that Vr  275. (In fact, r  4.0341.)
97. Let c be any real number. Then lim f x does not exist since there are both rational and
xc

irrational numbers arbitrarily close to c. Therefore, f is not continuous at c.

y

1, if x < 0
0, if x  0
99. sgnx 
1, if x > 0

4
3
2
1

(a) lim sgnx  1

4 3 2 1

x0

x
1

(b) lim sgnx  1

x0

(c) lim sgnx does not exist.

x0

101. True; if f x  gx, x  c, then lim f x  lim gx and
xc

xc

103. False; f 1 is not defined and lim f x does not exist.
x1

at least one of these limits (if they exist) does not equal
the corresponding function at x  c.

105. (a) f x 

0 x < b
b < x 2b

(b) gx 

2b

x
2

0 x b

b

x
2

b < x 2b

2b

x
b

2b

NOT continuous at x  b.

x
b

2b

Continuous on 0, 2b .

41

42

Chapter 1

107. f x 

Limits and Their Properties

x  c2  c

, c > 0

Domain: x  c2 0 x c2 and x  0, c2, 0  0, 

x  c2  c

lim

x0

 lim

x  c2  c

x0

x  c2  c
x  c2  c

x  c2  c2
1
1
 lim

x0 xx  c2  c
x0 x  c2  c
2c

 lim

Define f 0  12c to make f continuous at x  0.

109. hx  xx

15

h has nonremovable discontinuities at

x  1, 2, 3, . . . .
3

3
3

Section 1.5
1.

Infinite Limits

lim 2

x

x2  4

lim 2

x

x2  4

x2

x2

3.

lim tan

x
 
4

lim tan

x

4

x2

x2

5. f x 

1
x2  9

3.5

3.1

3.01

3.001

2.999

2.99

2.9

2.5

f x

0.308

1.639

16.64

166.6

166.7

16.69

1.695

0.364

lim f x  

x3

lim f x   

x3

7. f x 

x2
x2  9

3.5

3.1

3.01

3.001

2.999

2.99

2.9

2.5

f x

3.769

15.75

150.8

1501

1499

149.3

14.25

2.273

lim f x  

x3

lim f x   

x3

Section 1.5

9. lim
x0

1
1

 lim
x2  x0 x2

Therefore, x  0 is a vertical asymptote.

Infinite Limits

43

x2  2

x  2x  1 

11. lim
x2

x2  2
 
x  2x  1

lim

x2

Therefore, x  2 is a vertical asymptote.

lim 

x2  2

x  2x  1 

lim 

x2  2
 
x  2x  1

x1

x1

Therefore, x  1 is a vertical asymptote.

13.

lim 

x2

x2

x2
x2
  and lim  2
 
x2 x  4
4

15. No vertical asymptote since the denominator is never zero.

Therefore, x  2 is a vertical asymptote.

lim

x2

x2
x2
   and lim 2

x2 x  4
x2  4

Therefore, x  2 is a vertical asymptote.

17. f x  tan 2x 

x

21.

lim

x2

lim

x2

sin 2x
has vertical asymptotes at
cos 2x

2n  1  n
 
, n any integer.
4
4
2
x

x  2x  1



x
 
x  2x  1

Therefore, x  2 is a vertical asymptote.

lim

x

x  2x  1 

lim

x
 
x  2x  1

x1

x1

19. lim 1 
t0

4
4
    lim 1  2
t0
t2
t

Therefore, t  0 is a vertical asymptote.

x3  1 x  1x2  x  1

x1
x1

23. f x 

has no vertical asymptote since

lim f x  lim x2  x  1  3

x1

x1

Therefore, x  1 is a vertical asymptote.

25. f x 

x  5x  3
x3

,x5
x  5x2  1 x2  1

No vertical asymptotes. The graph has a hole at x  5.

27. st 

t
has vertical asymptotes at t  n, n
sin t

a nonzero integer. There is no vertical asymptote at

t  0 since
lim
t0

t
 1.
sin t

44

Chapter 1

Limits and Their Properties

x2  1
 lim x  1  2
x1 x  1
x1

29. lim

31.

lim 

x2  1

x1

lim

x2  1
 
x1

x1

x1

Vertical asymptote at
x  1

Removable discontinuity at x  1

33. lim
x2

37.

x3
 
x2

lim

x3

45. lim

x 

x3

x2  2x  3
x1 4
 lim 

x3 x  2
x2  x  6
5

41. lim 1 
x0

35. lim

1
 
x

x2  x
x
1
 lim 2

x1 x  1x  1
x1 x  1
2

39. lim

43. lim
x0

x
 lim x sin x  0
csc x x

x2

x  3x  3 

47.

2

sin x 

lim

x 12

x sec x   and

lim

x 12

x sec x   .

Therefore, lim x sec x does not exist.

x 12

49. f x 

x2  x  1
x3  1

lim f x  lim

x1

x1

51. f x 

1

x1 

1
x2  25

lim f x   

x5

0.3

0.3

53. A limit in which f x increases or decreases without

bound as x approaches c is called an infinite limit.  is
not a number. Rather, the symbol

55. One answer is f x 

x3
x3

.
x  6x  2 x2  4x  12

lim f x  

xc

says how the limit fails to exist.

57.

k
, 0 < r < 1. Assume k  0.
1r
k
lim S  lim
  (or   if k < 0)
r1
r1 1  r

59. S 

y
3
2
1
2

1
1
2

Section 1.5

61. C 

528x
, 0 x < 100
100  x

63. (a) r 

(a) C25  $176 million

(b) r 

(b) C50  $528 million

(c) C75  $1584 million

x25

f x

0.5

0.2

0.1

0.01

0.001

0.0001

0.1585

0.0411

0.0067

0.0017

0.5

lim

x0
1.5

x  sin x
0
x

1.5

0.25

(b)

x
f x

0.5

0.2

0.1

0.01

0.001

0.0001

0.1585

0.0823

0.0333

0.0167

0.0017

0.001

0.0001

0.1667 0.1667

0.1667

0.25

1.5

lim

1.5

x0

x  sin x
0
x2

0.25

(c)

x
f x

0.5

0.2

0.1

0.1585

0.1646

0.1663

0.1666

0.01

0.25

1.5

lim

1.5

x0

x  sin x
 0.1167 16
x3

0.25

(d)

x
f x

0.5

0.2

0.1

0.1585

0.3292

0.8317

1.6658

0.01

0.001

0.0001

16.67

166.7

1667.0

1.5

1.5

1.5

1.5

For n 3, lim
x0

x  sin x
 .
xn

lim

x0

x  sin x

x4

7
ftsec
12

215
3
 ftsec
2
625  225

(c) lim

528
  Thus, it is not possible.
(d) lim 
x100 100  x
65. (a)

27
625  49

2x
625  x2



Infinite Limits

45

46

Chapter 1

Limits and Their Properties

(b) The direction of rotation is reversed.

67. (a) Because the circumference of the motor is

half that of the saw arbor, the saw makes
17002  850 revolutions per minute.

(d)

(c) 220 cot   210 cot : straight sections.

The angle subtended in each circle is


2  2

2

(e)

    2 .

0.3

0.6

0.9

1.2

1.5

306.2

217.9

195.9

189.6

188.5

450

Thus, the length of the belt around the pulleys is

20  2   10  2   30  2 .

Total length  60 cot  30  2 

(f)

0, 2 

Domain:


2

lim

2

L  60 188.5

(All the belts are around pulleys.)

(g) lim L  
0

71. False; let

69. False; for instance, let

f x 

1,
f x  x
3,

x2  1
or
x1

x0
x  0.

The graph of f has a vertical asymptote at x  0, but

f 0  3.

x
gx  2
.
x 1
73. Given lim f x   and lim gx  L:
xc

xc

(2) Product:

If L > 0, then for

 L2 > 0 there exists 1 > 0 such that gx  L < L2 whenever 0 < x  c < 1. Thus,
L2 < gx < 3L2. Since lim f x   then for M > 0, there exists 2 > 0 such that f x > M2L whenever

x  c

xc

< 2. Let  be the smaller of 1 and 2. Then for 0 < x  c < , we have f xgx > M2LL2  M.

Therefore lim f xgx  . The proof is similar for L < 0.

xc

(3) Quotient: Let

> 0 be given.

There exists 1 > 0 such that f x > 3L2

whenever 0 < x  c < 1 and there exists 2 > 0 such that gx  L <

L2 whenever 0 < x  c < 2. This inequality gives us L2 < gx < 3L2. Let  be the smaller of 1 and 2. Then
for 0 <

x  c

gx
f x

<

3L2

.
3L2

Therefore, lim

xc

75. Given lim

xc

< , we have

gx
 0.
f x

1
 0.
f x

Suppose lim f x exists and equals L. Then,

xc

lim 1
1
1
 xc
  0.
xc f x
lim f x L
lim

xc

This is not possible. Thus, lim f x does not exist.

xc