Contents

Loudspeaker Enclosure Analysis Program

Reference Manual

Release 5

EnclosureShop i
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LEAP EnclosureShop
Reference Manual

© 2002 - 2003 LINEARX SYSTEMS INC.

All Rights Reserved.

Tel: (503) 612-9565

Fax: (503) 612-9344

Printed in the United States of America.

February 25, 2003.

This document was produced on a Pentium-4 / 2GHz PC with Win2K using Adobe PageMaker 7.0, Adobe
Illustrator 8.0, Adobe PhotoShop 6.0, MathType 4.0 for mathematics typography, and SnagIt 5.2 for screen
captures. Final masters were produced using an Xerox Docutech image setter. Help files were composed and
compiled using Windows Help Designer 3.1.

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License Agreement and Limited Warranty

Carefully read all of the following terms and conditions of this agreement before opening and using the contents of this
package. The opening of this package indicates your acceptance of the terms and conditions of this license agreement. If
you are not willing to accept the terms and conditions of this agreement, then you should return the entire product, with the
package seal unbroken, to the place of purchase for a full refund of the purchase price.

■ Copyright Ownership
Both the program and the documentation are protected under applicable copyright laws. LinearX is the holder of this copyright. Your right to use the program
and the documentation are limited to the terms and conditions described herein. Use of the software unless pursuant to the terms and conditions of this
license, or as otherwise authorized by law, is an infringement of the copyright.

■ Limited Non-Exclusive License

You may: (a) use the enclosed program on a single computer, (b) physically transfer the program from one computer to another provided that the program is
used on only one computer at a time, and that you remove any copies of the program from the computer from which the program is being transferred, (c) make
copies of the program solely for backup or archival purposes. You must reproduce and include the copyright notice and label any backup copy.

You may not: (a) distribute copies of the program or the documentation to others, (b) lease, rent, grant sublicenses, or other rights to the program, (c) provide
use of the program in a computer service business, network, time-sharing multiple CPU or multiple users arrangement without the prior written consent of
LinearX, (d) translate or otherwise alter the program or related documentation without the prior written consent of LinearX.

■ Terms
Your license to use the program and the documentation will automatically terminate if you fail to comply with the terms of this agreement. Your license
terminates in the event that you receive a license for an updated version of the product that replaces this product. If a license expiration date is printed on your
documentation, or provided through other means such as a time limited electronic or software key, your license expires on the day as shown in the documen-
tation, or on the day that the electronic or software key expires. If this license is terminated you agree to destroy all copies of the program and documentation.

■ Limited Warranty
LinearX warrants to the original licensee that the disk(s) and or electronic key(s) on which the program is recorded will be free from defects in materials and
workmanship under normal use for a period of ninety (90) days from the date of purchase as evidenced by a copy of your receipt. If failure of the product
components has resulted from accident, abuse, or misapplication of the product, then LinearX or third party licensors shall have no responsibility to replace the
disk(s) or key(s) under this limited warranty.

This limited warranty and right of replacement is in lieu of, and you hereby waive, any and all other warranties, both expressed and implied, including but not
limited to warranties of merchantability and fitness for a particular purpose. The liability of LinearX or third party licensors pursuant to this limited warranty shall
be limited to the replacement of the defective disk(s) or key(s), and in no event shall LinearX or third party licensors be liable for incidental, indirect, punitive,
or consequential damages, including but not limited to loss of use, loss of profits, loss of data or data being rendered inaccurate, or losses sustained by third
parties even if LinearX or third party licensors have been advised of the possibility of such damages. This warranty gives you specific legal rights which may
vary from state to state. Some states do not allow the limitation or exclusion of liability for consequential damages, so the above limitation may not apply to you.

In addition to the foregoing, you should recognize that all complex software systems and their documentation contain errors and omissions. LinearX, its
distributors, and dealers shall not be responsible under any circumstances for providing information on or corrections to errors and omissions discovered at any
time in the product, whether or not they are aware of the errors or omissions. LinearX does not recommend the use of this product in applications in which
errors or omissions could result in loss of life, injury, or other significant loss.

This license agreement shall be governed by the laws of the state of Oregon and shall inure to the benefit of LinearX, its successors, administrators, heirs and
assigns or third party licensors.

■ United States Federal Government Restrictions

If this software is acquired by or on behalf of the U.S. Federal government or its agencies, this provision applies. Use, duplication, or disclosure of this software
is subject to restrictions set forth in the appropriate FAR 52.227-19 and DFAR 252.227-7013 documents, as applicable. The software is "commercial computer
software" and is licensed only with "Restricted Rights". Other Federal restrictions may also apply.

LinearX Systems Inc.

9500 SW Tualatin-Sherwood Rd.
Tualatin, OR 97062-8586 USA

TEL:(503) 612-9565 FAX:(503) 612-9344 WEB: www.linearx.com

Copyright 2002-2003, LinearX Systems Inc. All rights reserved. All other Trademarks are the property of their respective owners.

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Technical Support
LinearX provides detailed printed manuals and on-line help within the program as the primary
source for user information and assistance regarding the use of this product. If these sources do
not contain the answers to your questions, contact LinearX via any of the following methods:

Internet Forums: www.linearx.com/forums

Internet Email: [email protected]
Internet Web: www.linearx.com
Fax: (503) 612-9344
Tel: (503) 612-9565

Technical support is free and unlimited at this time, however we reserve the right to charge for
this service in the future as conditions, overhead, and support personnel requirements dictate.

When contacting us regarding a technical support issue, PLEASE follow these steps to aid us in
understanding and solving your problem:

(1) The About Box contains a procedure for generating a SYSCONFIG.TXT file. This file can be created by the user
through the About Box and contains all of the information about your computer system and operating system. If you
feel that your question could involve issues relating to your computer/operating system, please produce this file and
attach it along with your fax or Email question.

(2) If your question involves specific details or parameters unique to your project and problem, please include a copy of
your design files with the necessary data so that we can reproduce your problem. This is only possible if you are
communicating via an electronic means such as Email or uploading files directly to our web site.

(3) If the issue regards error messages from the program, please include an exact description of the error message
and/or address information that the program reports.

(4) If there are specific steps involved to reproduce the issue, please note these exact steps required so that we can
reproduce the problem.

Technical support hours are: Monday-Friday 9:00AM to 5:00PM Pacific Standard Time.

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Contents
Chapter 1: Installation 1
1.1 System Requirements .......................................................... 3
1.2 Software Installation ............................................................ 4
1.3 Authorization Key Installation ............................................... 5
1.4 Starting the Program ................................................................. 6
1.5 How to use the Manuals ........................................................... 7

Chapter 2: General Features 9

2.1 Tool Bars, Tool Buttons, & Control Bars .............................. 11
2.2 Graph Control Bar .................................................................. 12
2.3 Tracking Cursor .................................................................... 13
2.4 System & Guide Curve Libraries ............................................ 14
2.5 Graph Hot Spots & Popup Menus ......................................... 15
2.6 Quick View Window ................................................................ 16
2.7 Graph Scrolling & Panning ...................................................... 17
2.8 Design Documentation ............................................................ 18
2.9 Numeric Entry & Formats ....................................................... 19
2.10 Color Select Dialog ............................................................... 21
2.11 Font Select Dialog ............................................................ 24

Chapter 3: Graph Windows 27

3.1 Design Parameters ............................................................... 29
3.2 SPL Response ...................................................................... 30
3.3 Voltage Response ............................................................... 31
3.4 Impedance Response .......................................................... 32
3.5 Excursion Response .............................................................. 33
3.6 Linear Velocity Response ....................................................... 34
3.7 Acceleration Response .......................................................... 35
3.8 Volume Velocity Response ................................................ 36
3.9 Delay Response ................................................................. 37
3.10 Transient Response .............................................................. 38
3.11 Polar Response ............................................................... 39
3.12 Ratio Response ............................................................... 40

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Contents
Chapter 4: Transducer Modeling 41
4.1 Introduction .............................................................. 43
4.2 References & Standards ................................................... 44
4.3 Dynamic Analogies .......................................................... 45
4.4 Radiation Impedance ....................................................... 46
4.5 Acoustic Network Analysis ............................................. 51
4.6 Acoustic Current ............................................................. 53
4.7 Electrical Impedance ........................................................ 54
4.8 Acoustic Pressure & Directivity ........................................ 55
4.9 Acoustic Power & Efficiency ............................................ 58
4.10 Highpass Filter Approximation ......................................... 61
4.11 Motor Impedance .......................................................... 63
4.12 Diaphragm Structure ...................................................... 75
4.13 Diaphragm Breakup ....................................................... 81
4.14 Diaphragm Suspension .................................................... 89
4.15 Magnetic Gap ................................................................ 95
4.16 Temperature & Power Compression ............................. 103
4.17 Model Performance & Comparison ............................... 105

Chapter 5: Enclosure Modeling 121

5.1 Introduction ...................................................................... 123
5.2 Models & Structures ........................................................ 124
5.3 Shell ................................................................................ 126
5.4 Chambers ........................................................................ 129
5.5 Transducers ..................................................................... 131
5.6 Ports ............................................................................. 135
5.7 Domain Space ................................................................ 139
5.8 Domain Volume .............................................................. 159
5.9 Diffraction ...................................................................... 161

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Contents
Chapter 6: File Menu 173
6.1 New ....................................................................... 175
6.2 Open ......................................................................... 176
6.3 Reopen ...................................................................... 177
6.4 Save ........................................................................... 178
6.5 SaveAs ...................................................................... 179
6.6 Revert ........................................................................ 180
6.7 Convert LEAP-4 DGL ....................................................... 181
6.8 Convert LEAP-4 TSL ....................................................... 184
6.9 Open Graph Setup ............................................................. 185
6.10 Save Graph Setup ............................................................. 186
6.11 Print .............................................................................. 187
6.12 File Editor ..................................................................... 190
6.13 Preferences .................................................................... 192
6.14 Exit ................................................................................ 195

Chapter 7: Edit Menu 197

7.1 Transducer Parameters ......................................................... 199
7.2 Enclosure Parameters .......................................................... 223
7.3 Layout Parameters ............................................................ 235
7.4 Analysis Parameters ............................................................ 267
7.5 Calculate Response .............................................................. 271

Chapter 8: Model Menu 273

8.1 Reference Enclosure ........................................................... 275
8.2 Flat Baffle Enclosure .......................................................... 284
8.3 Sealed Highpass Enclosure .................................................. 288
8.4 Ported Highpass Enclosure ................................................. 292
8.5 Sealed Bandpass Enclosure ................................................. 296
8.6 Ported Bandpass Enclosure .................................................. 300
8.7 Double Bandpass Enclosure .................................................. 304
8.8 Custom Multipass Enclosure ................................................. 308

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Contents
Chapter 9: Graph Menu 317
9.1 Parameters .................................................................. 319
9.2 System Curves ................................................................ 321
9.3 Guide Curves ................................................................ 325
9.4 Notes & Comments ........................................................... 331

Chapter 10: Processing Menu 333

10.1 Unary Math Operations ................................................ 335
10.2 Binary Math Operations ................................................ 345
10.3 Minimum Phase Transform .......................................... 347
10.4 Group Delay Transform ................................................ 351
10.5 Delay Phase Transform ................................................ 353
10.6 Fast Fourier Transform .................................................. 357
10.7 Inverse Fast Fourier Transform ..................................... 359
10.8 Tail Correction ............................................................... 361
10.9 Curve Averaging ............................................................ 363
10.10 Polar Convertor ........................................................... 367
10.11 Data Transfer ............................................................ 373
10.12 Data Splice ............................................................... 375
10.13 Data Realign ............................................................... 377

Chapter 11: Utilities Menu 379

11.1 Import Curve Data ........................................................... 381
11.2 Export Curve Data ........................................................... 383
11.3 Export Graphics .............................................................. 385
11.4 Copy Graphics to Clipboard ............................................. 391
11.5 Copy Design Data to Clipboard ........................................ 393
11.6 View Clipboard ............................................................... 395
11.7 Curve Capture ................................................................. 397
11.8 Curve Editor ................................................................... 403
11.9 Quick Design .................................................................. 417
11.10 Reverse Speaker ....................................................... 427
11.11 Transducer Model Derivation ..................................... 437

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Contents
Chapter 12: Scale Menu 477
12.1 Parameters ......................................................................... 479
12.2 Auto ................................................................................ 485
12.3 Up ...................................................................................... 487
12.4 Down .................................................................................. 489

Chapter 13: View Menu 491

13.1 Zoom In / Zoom Out ...................................................... 493
13.2 Zoom 1X / 2X / 4X / 8X ................................................. 495
13.3 Redraw / RedrawAll ......................................................... 497

Chapter 14: Window Menu 499

14.1 Tile Horizontal ............................................................. 501
14.2 Tile Vertical ................................................................. 503
14.3 Cascade All ................................................................ 505
14.4 Minimize All ................................................................ 507
14.5 Normal All ................................................................. 509
14.6 Arrange Icons ............................................................. 511
14.7 Graph Window List ....................................................... 513

Chapter 15: Toolbars Menu 515

15.1 Show All ........................................................................ 517
15.2 Hide All .......................................................................... 519
15.3 Menu Toolbars ................................................................ 521
15.4 Status Toolbars .............................................................. 523
15.5 ToolBox ......................................................................... 525

Chapter 16: Help Menu 527

16.1 Contents .................................................................... 529
16.2 Index ................................................................. 531
16.3 Glossary ................................................................. 533
16.4 About Modules ....................................................... 535
16.5 About Program ....................................................... 537

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Contents
Appendix 539
Appendix A: SI Units .............................................................. 541
Appendix B: Standard Speaker Dimensions ............................. 543
Appendix C: References .......................................................... 545
Appendix D: Key Not Found - Troubleshooting ........................ 549

Index 553

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xii EnclosureShop
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Chapter 1 Installation

Installation 1

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Chapter 1 Installation

1.1 System Requirements

EnclosureShop is an extremely intensive numerical application. The program

contains literally hundreds of numerical mathematics algorithms, some of which
are extremely large and place very high demands on the CPU's floating point
performance.

EnclosureShop will use all of the speed your processor has to offer, and probably
want much more. The complexity of your design will largely determine the amount
of CPU power and memory required. For high order enclosures the program can
consume the entire Win32 2GB address space. For more typical simple enclosures,
memory usage runs anywhere from 50-250MB.

EnclosureShop also uses extensive graphics including OpenGL® 3D display

modes. For best results, a 1024 x 768 video resolution, is suggested with 16-32 bit
color depth. High quality modern 3D video cards with hardware acceleration are
strongly recommended.

Minimum System Requirements:

■ Mouse and Keyboard
■ LPT port or USB port
■ Windows® 95, 98, SE, ME, NT4, 2000, XP
■ 250MB free Hard Drive space
■ 64MB RAM Memory
■ Pentium® II / 350 or equivalent
■ Video 800 x 600 Resolution / 64K Colors
■ OpenGL® 3D graphics support
■ TrueType® or Adobe® Fonts

Recommended System Requirements:

■ Windows® 2000 or Windows® XP
■ 300MB free Hard Drive space
■ 256MB RAM Memory or more
■ Pentium® III / 1GHz or equivalent
■ Video 1024 x 768 Res / 24 or 32 bit Color
■ Nvidia® OpenGL® version 1.2 drivers
■ Adobe® Fonts with Adobe Type Manager®

Note: Due to the limitations of Win9X, not all of the program's features and/or
capabilities will be available in those operating systems.

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1.2 Software Installation

This software requires a full Win32 operating system such as Win9X (95/98/
SE/Me) or NT (4/2K/XP). It cannot be installed under Win32S (Win3.11).

This software requires version 4.72 or higher of the Windows common control
library COMCTL32.DLL. This will be checked during installation, and your
system will be upgraded if necessary.

Note: IMPORTANT !
If you are using NT, your user account must have Administrator rights.

Installation Instructions:
■ Place the distribution CD into your CD-ROM drive.
■ If the CD does not AutoRun, locate and run the Setup.Exe file.
■ Follow the instructions on the screen.
■ Select an electronic or manual Registration method.

The registration will prompt you for the product Serial Number, which can be
found on the bottom of the Authorization Key or the product box.

Note:
Memory and resource management under Win9X is very different than under
WinNT. This program is very large, and can consume substantial quantities
of memory ranging from 40MB to 200MB. NT (NT4,W2K,WXP) is much better
at running large programs than Win9X.

Running other applications along with this program places additional de-
mands on the operating system and resources. If you experience very slow
response from the program, or heavy disk drive caching activity, you should
probably close other applications, or close and restart this program.

For best results we suggest:

(1) 256MB or more is strongly recommended
(2) TheWindows swap file should be >2X your RAM.
(3) You should make the swap file size fixed.

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Chapter 1 Installation

1.3 Authorization Key Installation

In order for the program to operate, the authorization key must be installed on your
computer. At his time only an LPT port key is offered, however, in the near future
a USB type key will be an option.

Installing the Authorization Key:

■ Connect the key to one of your LPT parallel printer ports.

Do not place the key on a COM port. The key will not operate on a COM serial port,
it must be located on an LPT port.

LPT ports can be identified as a 25 pin female connector located on the back of your
computer. If you have a printer attached to your LPT port, just place the key
between your computer and printer cable. If you have other key devices on your
LPT port, the authorization key will work with these keys and can be located in any
position before or after other keys.

The key contains the serial number (registration number) of your program. This
registration number is displayed in the About Box inside the program. If you wish
to obtain an extra key for operation on a second computer, or a site license for
multiple installations, please contact the factory or a dealer.

Note:
There are many other types of products which may also be installed on an LPT port
besides a printer; for example ZIP drives, Syquest drives, Tape drives, Scanners,
etc. The authorization key will not interfere with these products, however some of
these products may prevent the authorization key from working. Not all devices will
allow sharing of the LPT port. If this is the case, then a second LPT port may be
required. If you receive Key Not Found, please see Appendix-C.

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1.4 Starting the Program

Once the installation program has been completed, and the computer rebooted,
go to the Start Menu and locate the entry LinearX > LEAP > EnclosureShop.
If during installation you also chose to install a group folder of icons on your
desktop, you may also start the program from that location as well.

If you have installed the program to a different folder/directory than the default,
the tutorial files will not be automatically loaded when you start the program
the first time. You will need to select File | Open from the menu and locate the
files in the actual installation folder.

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Chapter 1 Installation

1.5 How to use the Manuals

The remaining chapters of this Reference Manual contain detailed information on

the contents of the program; modeling, menus, dialogs, screens, and other opera-
tional areas which the user will encounter. Use this manual when you wish to know
more about the operational details of the program.

All of the reference information is also available inside the program within the Help
system. Virtually all of the dialogs in the program contain a Help button which
provides context sensitive help. Clicking these buttons will open the Help window
and display all the reference information for that dialog.

The Application Manual contains several tutorials in addition to other example

designs contained in the application notes. The tutorials introduce you to the basic
operational features of the program. The application notes provide different
examples of how to integrate various features to accomplish more complex tasks.

Where to go from here:

• Read the following Chapter 2: General Features
• Read the following Chapter 3: Graph Windows
• Read Tutorial-1 in the Application Manual

This is the recommended minimum. You should also read Tutorial-2 and for further
application information read any other tutorials.

Note: All users should read through Tutorial-1 to learn the program basics.

Due to the large number of features and capabilities contained in the program which
will be new to many users, it may also be a good idea to read the modeling chapters
which will explain many of the concepts, terminology, and parameters. These are
given here in the Reference Manual:

• Chapter 4: Transducer Modeling

• Chapter 5: Enclosure Modeling

If you have a question about how to accomplish a complex design task, try to find
an example of something similar in the Tutorials or Application Notes. We
anticipate writing additional app notes in the future and do appreciate any sugges-
tions for specific topics. Enjoy!

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General Features 2

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Chapter 2 General Features

2.1 Tool Bars, Tool Buttons, & Control Bars

There are 11 menus in this program and over 100 tool buttons, arranged on 9
moveable Toolbars. Essentially, the functions given on a particular menu column
are provided as tool buttons on a single corresponding toolbar.

There are two (2) control bars (also known as trays) shown on the main screen.
These trays autosize to hold the toolbars and have user selectable backgrounds like
the Marble pattern shown below. One tray is fixed at the top of the screen below
the menu and the second tray, known as the ToolBox, is a floating window.

Toolbars can be moved and rearranged simply by grabbing the handle on the left
of each toolbar. They can be docked into any of the three trays or dragged onto the
screen by themselves as a single floating window. They can also be enabled or
disabled for display.

Toolbox

Toolbars

Status Bar

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General Features Chapter 2

2.2 Graph Control Bar

Below the top tray is a line of 12 buttons known as the Graph Control Bar. This
program is an MDI application with 12 child windows. When any child
window is maximized, the Graph Control Bar will appear. You can press any
one of these buttons to switch to a different window. They effectively work
very much like the tabs in a dialog box.

The 12 MDI child windows contain: Design, SPL, Voltage, Impedance,

Excursion, Velocity, Acceleration, Volume, Delay, Transient, Polar, and Ratio
graphs showing various curve values. The titles are self explanatory. Printing
is done on the basis of these 12 windows.

Graph Control Bar

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Chapter 2 General Features

2.3 Tracking Cursor

In the bottom tray, the cursor functions are shown. The cursor will track any System
or Guide curve based on the points in the curve. To move the cursor to another
frequency quickly, double click the left mouse button at the desired frequency. Use
the Left/Right or the Home/End keyboard arrow keys to move along a curve. Use
the Up/Down keyboard arrow keys to change to a different curve in the same curve
library. To change to a different curve library, use the buttons in the cursor toolbar.

The Absolute/Relative buttons select the cursor measurement mode. When you
press Relative another black cursor will appear at the current position. As you move
the cursor the displayed data will be calculated relative to the reference position.
Pressing the Absolute button will return to normal mode.

Cursor
Marker

Cursor Controls and Readouts

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General Features Chapter 2

2.4 System & Guide Curve Libraries

There are two different curve libraries provided in the program: System Curves
and Guide Curves. Each library can contain up to 99 curves of data. The System
library curves are generated by the analysis of your design. The Guide curve
library can contain any arbitrary data you wish to import, process, or copy from
the System library. No editing or processing can be executed on System curves
since these are exclusively generated by the program automatically.

You can select which curve is tracked by the cursor using the two library
buttons and Up/Down spin buttons in the Status Bar. The spin buttons will
increment/decrement through the 99 curves of the selected library. Only
curves enabled for display can be tracked.

Cursor Curve Selection

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Chapter 2 General Features

2.5 Graph Hot Spots & Popup Menus

There are a number of regions defined in the graph artwork that respond to double
clicks with the left mouse button. These are hot spots that will activate various
dialogs depending on the region. For example, double clicking over a scale region
will open the Scale | Parameters dialog. The various regions are shown below.

There is also a popup menu available using the right mouse button which provides
a listing of similar various common dialogs.

Graph Parameters Cursor Control

Scale
Parameters

Data
Curves

Notes
Comments

Graph Parameters

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General Features Chapter 2

2.6 Quick View Window

There are many occasions where you may wish a tighter view of a particular
area of a graph. A common example is when the scale is setup to show the full
stopband region, but you then wish to see the small passband ripple near 0dB.

Rather than having to constantly change the scale factor for the graph, you can
drag a rectangle using the mouse over the range of interest. The Quick View
window will appear with a smaller scale factor and frequency range. There are
two options for determining the vertical scale as controlled in the File |
Preferences dialog. The frequency/time limits will be rounded to the nearest
major division, and the number of vert/horz divisions is the same as the main
graph. To close the Quick View, press ESC or right click the mouse button.

Quick View
Window

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Chapter 2 General Features

2.7 Graph Scrolling & Panning

There are two scroll bars on each graph window, one for vertical scrolling and one
for horizontal scrolling. Either or both may or may not be present depending on the
zoom level of the graph window.

You can also drag or pan the graph window directly by use of the mouse. First press
and hold the SHFT key, and while holding the left mouse button drag the artwork.
The normal mouse pointer will be changed to a hand symbol.

The schematic window also has auto panning, which occurs if a selected group of
components is dragged towards the edge of the window. The window will be
scrolled automatically.

Horizontal
Scroll Bar

Mouse Cursor Dragging Hand Vertical

Scroll Bar

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General Features Chapter 2

2.8 Design Documentation

Documentation of the design itself is provided on the Design Parameters

graph. This is not actually a graph, but a text listing of the numeric values with
additional graphical icons and pictures to help document the design.

Documenting the design requires extensive parameters. All parameters which

define the transducers, ports, and chambers used in the design along with the
domain itself are listed.

The number of pages in the listing is a function of the design complexity. Most
designs require only two pages, while other more complex designs could
contain many pages.

The listing is divided into sections, with parameters grouped by their function
and area of usage. Understanding the listing can be difficult until you become
familiar with the location of various data and what it means.

The 3D description of the enclosure shell and simulation coordinates may be

of little interest, unless you have specific use for this information. However for
completeness this information is provided in fairly high detail.

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Chapter 2 General Features

2.9 Numeric Entry & Formats

The dynamic range of numeric values can be extremely large. To handle this wide
range efficiently, the program makes extensive use of engineering notation. These
are single character multiplier suffixes which appear at the end of a numerical
floating point (real number) value.

We are all familiar with the common usage of engineering notation for common
components such as a 10K resistor or a 1u Farad capacitor. Here, the "K" represents
1E+3 and the "u" represents 1E-6. While these are common SI suffixes that will be
familiar to most users, there are other SI suffixes that are less common. The full
list of supported SI multipliers are as follows:

Note that in virtually all of the

suffix chars, the following conven-
SI Multipliers tion is used: upper case is used for
Name Value Suffix Name Value Suffix multipliers greater than unity, and
lower case is used for multipliers
kilo 10+3 K,k milli 10-3 m smaller than unity. The only ex-
mega 10+6 M micro 10-6 u ception is the kilo suffix where
+9 -9
both cases are supported (K or k).
giga 10 G nano 10 n

tera 10+12 T pico 10-12 p Use of the exa suffix E can lead to
confusion since the standard scien-
peta 10+15 P femto 10-15 f tific notation uses the letter E as
exa 10+18 E atto 10-18 a well, e.g. 1.234E+5. The program
+21 -21
assumes that if the E character is
zeta 10 Z zepto 10 z the last character in the number, it
yotta 10+24 Y yocto 10-24 y is treated as the exa multiplier 10+18.
If additional numeric values fol-
low E then it is treated as scientific.

To avoid confusion component values are never displayed with the type of units.
For example, a capacitor value of 2.4f means 2.4 femto (2.4E-15). It does not mean
2.4 Farads. It is assumed that the user already knows what the units are for the given
component (e.g. Ohms, Henrys, Farads, etc.). Please keep this in mind when you
enter component values - you do not need to add the units.

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General Features Chapter 2

Entering Numerical Values

Floating point numbers can be entered in any of three forms: real number
format, scientific format, or engineering format. Examples are:

2400.75 (real)
2.40075E3 or 2.40075D3 (scientific)
2.40075K (engineering)

A floating point number must not contain spaces. Therefore do not place
spaces between suffixes or other digits. Note that the scientific format supports
the use of either the E or D character to separate the exponent, lower case also.

In many dialog locations throughout the program, the entry of the numeric
values is monitored and checked for range violations. For example, many
parameters will not permit either negative or zero values. If you enter such a
value in one of these locations it will be automatically corrected, typically to
a value of unity.

In some dialog locations additional constraints may be placed on the numeric

value that you enter. This is to maintain the validity of the inherent formulas
involved with the parameter.

For example, if you were entering one of the values involved with the equation
2+3=5, then some other value in the equation must be simultaneously adjusted
to maintain the validity of the equation. The program will perform many of
these tasks for you automatically.

Equation checking is performed when the focus leaves the current edit control.
This informs the program that you have finished editing a value. You can Tab
to another control or click the mouse in a different control to force the program
to check the parameter relationships.

Numerical Precision
The program uses the maximum Intel architecture 80-Bit extended floating
point format for all of the numeric data in the program. This results in
numerical precision of about 18 decimal digits. However, it should be noted
that for many high order filters 80-Bit precision is inadequate. Some of the
internal numerical algorithms can easily require more precision than is avail-
able in the 80-Bit format for high order designs.

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Chapter 2 General Features

2.10 Color Select Dialog

A special button control is located on many dialogs

throughout the program which provides for special
editing of color selection. Two examples of such
buttons are shown here on the right.

The center of the button displays the current color for the parameter. When you
click the button, another dialog will open to change the color.

The Color Select dialog provides many powerful and convenient features for color
selection and editing. Three different color models are supported, as well as live
mouse editing on a color wheel. Colors can be picked from presets, and new user
defined colors can be saved as well.

The dialog contains many small color pads which have the dual function of display
and selection. Clicking a color pad loads the color as the current selection. If the
current color matches one of the pads, then the pad will be highlighted.

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General Features Chapter 2

Standard Colors
These are the 20 standard Windows colors. Some of the black colors are
actually masking colors, but the remainder are generally the primary VGA 16
set. If your video mode is 16 or 256 color, then choosing one of these colors
will provide for solid color. Other special colors will require dithering which
may be undesirable. Clicking on one of the pads will select the color.

Extended Colors
There are 30 additional colors provided here for quick selection. Your video
mode will need to have more than 256 colors for solid display, or they will be
dithered. Clicking on one of the color pads will select the color.

Custom Colors
There are 20 additional locations provided here for user custom colors. When
the Add Custom button is clicked, the current color will be added to the array.
The array is auto incrementing, and when a color is added it will be assigned
to the next pad. These colors will persist as long as the program is running.
Clicking on one of the color pads will select the color.

Selection
These two pads display the current and original colors. This allows you to
compare the two, or to return to the original if desired. Clicking on the Original
Color pad will make it the current color.

Add Custom Button

Clicking this button will add the current color to the Custom Colors array. The
array is auto incremented so the next color pad will be used.

Model and Parameters

There are three color model choices:
- Hue-Saturation-Value (HSV)
- Red-Green-Blue (RGB)
- Cyan-Magenta-Yellow (CMY)

The model selection controls which set of parameters appear on the sliders.
The Hue slider has a range of 0 degrees to 360 degrees. This is the Hue of color
as specified radially around the HSV wheel. All other sliders range from 0%
to 100%.

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Chapter 2 General Features

HSV Color Space

The large circle, or color wheel, in the right of the dialog enables live color editing
by use of the mouse. While holding down the left mouse button, drag across the
wheel and the color at the point of the mouse is selected. If you go into the black
region, the last color at the edge is kept until you re-enter the circle. The color wheel
represents the polar coordinates of Hue as angle and Saturation as magnitude.

The vertical slider next to the wheel controls the Value parameter. This is
essentially the overall brightness of the entire wheel. As the slider is moved, the
Value of the wheel will change between 0% black and 100% full color brightness.

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General Features Chapter 2

2.11 Font Select Dialog

A special button control is located on many dialogs throughout the

program which provides for special editing of font selection. An
example of such a button is shown here. When you click the
button, a dialog will open for font selection.

Choosing a font and its size is completely up to the user. It is certainly possible
to select a font and/or size that is too large for the available space in the graphics.
However, with a little experimentation you will quickly see what is possible
and what will actually work. The program positions the text items automati-
cally either left, center, or right justified. By changing the size of a font you can
easily see how the program will position the text.

This program only utilizes vector fonts. This means that TrueType and/or
Adobe (ATM) fonts should be present. If you will be printing to a pen plotter,
you should choose a plotter stroke font such as Modern that does not require
fill, and can be easily drawn by a pen.

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Chapter 2 General Features

TypeFace
In this group box the number of vector font families is shown, the type of font which
is currently selected, and a list of the available fonts.

TypeSize
The size of the font in points can be selected from the list box, incremented using
the spin buttons, or entered directly in the list box.

TypeStyle
Several check boxes are provided to control the style of the font. All or none of the
options can be combined.

TypeColor
This button displays and selects the color for the font. To change the color, click
the button and the Color Select dialog will be presented.

Sample Text
A text sample of the current selection is displayed in this group box. The
background color will be automatically set depending on the color of the font. A
check box allows you to view the font in actual size, or at a different size controllable
by the spin buttons at the lower right of the group box.

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26 EnclosureShop
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Chapter 3 Graph Windows

Graph Windows 3

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Graph Windows Chapter 3

28 EnclosureShop
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Chapter 3 Graph Windows

3.1 Design Parameters

The Design window displays a listing of the parameters which define the enclosure
simulation. This is not actually a graph but a text listing of the numeric values with
additional graphical icons and pictures to help document the design. The Graph
Parameters dialog defines the fonts and colors used.

Documenting the design requires extensive parameters. All parameters which

define the transducers, ports, and chambers used in the design along with the
domain itself are listed.

The number of pages in the listing is a function of the design complexity. Most
designs require only two pages, while other more complex designs could contain
many pages.

The listing is divided into sections, with parameters grouped by their function and
area of usage. Understanding the listing can be difficult until you become familiar
with the location of various data and what it means.

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Graph Windows Chapter 3

3.2 SPL Response

The SPL graph displays the magnitude and phase of any enabled System or Guide
curves that contain SPL type data. The Graph Parameters dialog controls much of
the design and look of this graph including: number of vertical/horizontal major/
minor divisions, colors, fonts, lines, and backgrounds. The Scale Parameters
dialog controls the vertical scale and top value, as well as the linear or log horizontal
frequency axis.

A Map region is located below the grid area that lists the color assignments for Data
Curves. A Note region is also shown for user notes and comments.

Many different SPL curves can be produced from enclosure analysis including near
field pressure, chamber pressure, power response, and various domain response
curves. These curves may be generated for every port, transducer, or chamber in
the design yielding a large number of possible SPL curves.

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Chapter 3 Graph Windows

3.3 Voltage Response

The Voltage graph displays the magnitude and phase of any enabled System or
Guide curves that contain Voltage type data. The Graph Parameters dialog
controls much of the design and look of this graph including: number of
vertical/horizontal major/minor divisions, colors, fonts, lines, and backgrounds.
The Scale Parameters dialog controls the vertical scale and top value, as well
as the linear or log horizontal frequency axis.

A Map region is located below the grid area that lists the color assignments for
Data Curves. A Note region is also shown for user notes and comments.

In most cases of enclosure simulation the voltage drive for the enclosure is a
simple flat line. However if significant source impedance or custom generator
functions are used, the voltage across the transducers will not be constant.

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Graph Windows Chapter 3

3.4 Impedance Response

The Impedance graph displays the magnitude and phase of any enabled System or
Guide curves that contain Impedance type data. The Graph Parameters dialog
controls much of the design and look of this graph including: number of vertical/
horizontal major/minor divisions, colors, fonts, lines, and backgrounds. The Scale
Parameters dialog controls the vertical scale and top value, as well as the linear or
log horizontal frequency axis.

A Map region is located below the grid area that lists the color assignments for Data
Curves. A Note region is also shown for user notes and comments.

Impedance curves will be produced for each individual transducer set in the
enclosure, in addition to the total enclosure impedance of all in parallel.

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Chapter 3 Graph Windows

3.5 Excursion Response

The Excursion graph displays the magnitude and phase of any enabled System or
Guide curves that contain Excursion type data. The units are Meters. The Graph
Parameters dialog controls much of the design and look of this graph including:
number of vertical/horizontal major/minor divisions, colors, fonts, lines, and
backgrounds. The Scale Parameters dialog controls the vertical scale and top
value, as well as the linear or log horizontal frequency axis.

A Map region is located below the grid area that lists the color assignments for Data
Curves. A Note region is also shown for user notes and comments.

Excursion curves are generated for each transducer and port set in the enclosure. In
the case of air vents, the excursion represents the motion of air within the port.

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Graph Windows Chapter 3

3.6 Linear Velocity Response

The Velocity graph displays the magnitude and phase of any enabled System
or Guide curves that contain Velocity type data. The units are Meters/Second.
The Graph Parameters dialog controls much of the design and look of this
graph including: number of vertical/horizontal major/minor divisions, colors,
fonts, lines, and backgrounds. The Scale Parameters dialog controls the
vertical scale and top value, as well as the linear or log horizontal frequency
axis.

A Map region is located below the grid area that lists the color assignments for
Data Curves. A Note region is also shown for user notes and comments.

Linear Velocity curves (also known as mechanical current) are generated for
each transducer and port set in the enclosure. In the case of air vents, the
velocity represents the motion of air within the port.

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Chapter 3 Graph Windows

3.7 Acceleration Response

The Acceleration graph displays the magnitude and phase of any enabled System
or Guide curves that contain Acceleration type data. The units are Meters/Second².
The Graph Parameters dialog controls much of the design and look of this graph
including: number of vertical/horizontal major/minor divisions, colors, fonts, lines,
and backgrounds. The Scale Parameters dialog controls the vertical scale and top
value, as well as the linear or log horizontal frequency axis.

A Map region is located below the grid area that lists the color assignments for Data
Curves. A Note region is also shown for user notes and comments.

Acceleration curves are generated for each transducer and port set in the enclosure.
In the case of air vents, the acceleration represents the motion of air within the port.

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3.8 Volume Velocity Response

The Volume graph displays the magnitude and phase of any enabled System or
Guide curves that contain volume velocity type data. The units are cubic
Meters/Second. The Graph Parameters dialog controls much of the design and
look of this graph including: number of vertical/horizontal major/minor
divisions, colors, fonts, lines, and backgrounds. The Scale Parameters dialog
controls the vertical scale and top value, as well as the linear or log frequency
horizontal axis.

A Map region is located below the grid area that lists the color assignments for
Data Curves. A Note region is also shown for user notes and comments.

Volume velocity curves (also known as acoustic current) are generated for each
transducer and port set in the enclosure. Volume velocity is the acoustic
equivalent of electrical current. It is the rate of fluid flow, in this case air.

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3.9 Delay Response

The Delay graph displays the magnitude and phase of any enabled System or
Guide curves that contain Time vs. Frequency type data. The Graph Param-
eters dialog controls much of the design and look of this graph including:
number of vertical/horizontal major/minor divisions, colors, fonts, lines, and
backgrounds. The Scale Parameters dialog controls the vertical scale and top
value, as well as the linear or log horizontal frequency axis.

A Map region is located below the grid area that lists the color assignments for
Data Curves. A Note region is also shown for user notes and comments.

The simulator of the program can perform automatic computation of the SPL
group delay for the enclosure response. This is an option. You can also
compute Group Delay of any other curves you wish by using the Processing
| Group Delay transform.

Any curves which have the units of Time vs. Frequency will be displayed here.
Typically, these are group delay curves, but could be any other type of time
curve as well.

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3.10 Transient Response

The Transient graph displays the magnitude and phase of any enabled System or
Guide curves that contain Voltage vs. Time type data. The Graph Parameters
dialog controls much of the design and look of this graph including: number of
vertical/horizontal major/minor divisions, colors, fonts, lines, and backgrounds.
The Scale Parameters dialog controls the vertical scale and top value, as well as the
horizontal time axis.

A Map region is located below the grid area that lists the color assignments for Data
Curves. A Note region is also shown for user notes and comments.

The most common types of curves displayed on this graph will be either Step or
Impulse response functions. While the simulator of the program does not automati-
cally produce these curves, they can be generated by using the Processing | Inverse
Fourier Transform dialog.

There are too many conditional parameters which must be defined by the user in
order to generate Impulse/Step response data. For this reason, the program cannot
make these choices for the user automatically.

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3.11 Polar Response

The Polar graph displays the magnitude and phase of any enabled System or Guide
curves that contain SPL vs. Angle type data. The Graph Parameters dialog controls
much of the design and look of this graph including: number of vertical/horizontal
major/minor divisions, colors, fonts, lines, and backgrounds. The Scale Param-
eters dialog controls the vertical scale and top value, as well as the horizontal angle
axis.

A Map region is located below the grid area that lists the color assignments for Data
Curves. A Note region is also shown for user notes and comments.

The simulator of the program can automatically produce these curves, based on the
domain and diffraction analysis options. Both true SPL and normalized polar
curves can be generated. Polar curves can also be manually compiled using the
Processing | Polar Convertor dialog.

The graph also displays the Beam Width (BW) in degrees, Q, and the Directivity
Index (DI) for each of the polar curves.

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Graph Windows Chapter 3

3.12 Ratio Response

The Ratio graph displays the magnitude and phase of any enabled System or
Guide curves that contain dimensionless Ratio vs. frequency type data. The
Graph Parameters dialog controls much of the design and look of this graph
including: number of vertical/horizontal major/minor divisions, colors, fonts,
lines, and backgrounds. The Scale Parameters dialog controls the vertical
scale and top value, as well as the linear or log horizontal frequency axis.

A Map region is located below the grid area that lists the color assignments for
Data Curves. A Note region is also shown for user notes and comments.

Ratio data is primarily transfer functions. This can be produced from dividing
two curves of the same units, or by simply changing the units of a curve to Ratio.
It is a general purpose graph that has many uses.

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Chapter 4 Transducer Modeling

Transducer Modeling 4
dB Axial & Power Response
100

90

80

PaAxial Axial Response

70 PaPwr Power Response

Eg=2V
R=1M

60
10 100 f 1k 10k

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Transducer Modeling Chapter 4

42 EnclosureShop
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Chapter 4 Transducer Modeling

4.1 Introduction

This chapter will define and explain some of the modeling techniques used by
EnclosureShop to simulate electrodynamic transducers. A detailed treatment of
this subject is far beyond the scope and intent of this chapter. Rather, the
information provided here should help the user understand the issues involved,
terminology, and the advanced capabilities of the program.

Conventional transducer modeling has been around for over 50 years. This type of
modeling describes the transducer using a simplified set of fixed constants. In many
cases complex parameters were assumed to be negligible, or have fixed constant
values, to allow for a simplified approximate solution. While this approach was
very appropriate decades earlier, and actually demanded due to the limitations of
hand calculation, modern computer computational abilities allow for much more
detailed and advanced analysis to be performed.

The transducer modeling capabilities contained in EnclosureShop are considerably

more detailed then past conventional methods. In fact EnclosureShop supports
three different transducer models: STD, TSL, LTD. The standard model STD uses
a minimal set of conventional parameters. The TSL model is a continuation from
LEAP-4, and the new LTD model adds numerous parameters for highly accurate
simulation across a large dynamic range. All of the models utilize a new method
for representing the diaphragm and directional behavior.

For some of the parameters and characteristics to be described in the following

sections, it is helpful to employ realistic values from an actual transducer. For these
cases the following transducer parameters will be assumed:

Example Transducer - 10 Inch (250mm )

Revc = 4.0 Ohm
Sd = 0.033 M 2
fo = 40.0
0 Hz
BL = 8.0 T ◊ M
Mmd = 40.0 g
Mms = 43.4 g
Cms = 364.4uM / N
Qms = 5.0

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4.2 References & Standards

The propagation of sound depends on the physical properties of the media and its
operating conditions. For the type of applications covered by this program, the fluid
is always assumed to be air operating with typical ambient room characteristics.

The base units used throughout the program are MKS (Meter-Kilogram-Second).
However most of the editing fields in the dialogs provide automatic unit conversion
simply by clicking a button. Parameters can be entered and/or displayed in a wide
variety of units as appropriate for each type of parameter.

When working with acoustic pressure it is common to use a dB value for

representation. As with any dB value a reference must be applied. The fundamental
reference for acoustic power density (intensity) in air is 10-12 Watts per sq Meter.
This represents the smallest sound perceptible by normal human hearing at 1kHz.
Based on this value and the specific impedance, the reference pressure can be
calculated as 20.35uPa. However since this pressure depends on the air parameters
which can vary, a reference pressure of 20uPa is generally defined as the standard.

To = 22 o C (ambient room temp 72 o F )

Po = 1 atm = 1.013 ◊ 10 5 Pascal[ Pa] ( static air pressure)
r = 1.2 kg / m 3 (density of air )
c = 345 m / s (speed of sound in air )
Rao = r ◊ c = 414 Rayls (specific impedance of air )

1 Pa = 1 N / m 2 = 10 uBar = 10 dyne / cm 2
1 Rayl = 1 kg / m 2 s = 1 N ◊ s / m

Wao ∫ 10 -12 W / m 2 (acoustic intensity reference)

Pao = Rao ◊ Wao = 20.35 ◊ 10 -6 Pa ( acoustic pressure reference)
Pao ∫ 20 ◊ 10 -6 Pa ( acoustic pressure standard )
dBspl ( Pa ) = 20 ◊ log( Pa / Pao )
dBspl (1Pa ) = 94 dB dBspl (1uBar ) = 74 dB dBspl (1atm) = 194 dB

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4.3 Dynamic Analogies

The analysis of electrodynamic transducers involves elements from three

different dynamic systems: electrical, mechanical, and acoustical. Represen-
tation of the complete system as a single equivalent circuit thus demands that
all elements be converted into similar form. System analysis can be performed
in any of the three dynamic systems. EnclosureShop performs all internal
computations using the acoustical representation. This then requires that
elements from the other two systems, electrical and mechanical, be converted
into their acoustical equivalents.

Subscripts are used to denote the representation of a given element. For

example, the parameters describing the voice coil resistance in each system
would be: Revc, Rmvc, and Ravc for the electrical, mechanical, and acoustical
representations respectively. Conversion from one form to another is per-
formed similarly to that of the turns ratio in a transformer.
BL:1 Sd:1

Electrical Electrical Mechanical Acoustical Acoustical

Input Elements Elements Elements Output

The electrical system is coupled to the mechanical system by the BL product.

Note that a current to voltage inversion also takes place, since the mechanical
force results from current rather then voltage. The acoustical system is then
coupled to the mechanical system through the radiating area Sd.

The elements of one system can be represented in another by employing the

impedance relationships shown below. The corresponding analogous driving
and flow definitions are also given for each of the dynamic systems.
2
BL2 Zm 1 Ê BL ˆ
Zm = Za = 2 Za =
Ze Sd Ze ÁË Sd ˜¯

Electrical Mechanical Acoustical

Volts Force Pressure

Current Linear Velocity Volume Velocity

(Mechanical Current) (Acoustical Current)

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4.4 Radiation Impedance

The radiation impedance is the air load for the transducer. This is a complex
impedance consisting of both resistance and reactance. Both are highly frequency
dependent. The radiation impedance is also a function of the geometry of the
source, and the reflected pressure caused by the enclosure diffraction.

The characteristics of a source depend both on its size and the wavelength of sound
it is radiating. For example, a piston of four times the area has the same directivity
if operated at one-half the frequency. Thus both the size and frequency must be
defined together. It is therefore convenient to describe a new variable which defines
the frequency relative to the size of the source. The ka parameter is the product of
the wave number and piston radius and provides this capability. Usage of the ka
parameter is commonplace in acoustics.

The value of ka = 1 has a special significance. It marks the frequency where the
wavelength equals the circumference of a circular source. It is also commonly
thought of as the transition between nondirectional and directional radiation.

For the case of our example 10 Inch transducer, the ka=1 frequency is 535Hz. Using
the ka parameter allows radiation characteristics to be defined in a normalized and
general fashion. The following equations provide definitions and other useful
relationships utilizing ka.

w = 2 ◊ p * f (radian frequency)
w
k= (wave number )
c
Sd
a= on radius)
(circular pisto
p
w Sd
ka = k ◊ a = ◊ (radius frequency)
c p
c ◊ ka c ◊ ka
f (ka ) = = ( frequency translation function)
2 ◊p ◊ a Sd
2 ◊p ◊
p

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Chapter 4 Transducer Modeling

We shall now consider the simple case of single sided

Infinite Baffle
radiation from a circular source with area Sd, mounted on an
infinite baffle. This is shown in the pictorial on the left. The
Source normalized radiation impedance functions vs. ka for this case
Sd are shown in the graph below.

The graph clearly shows a change in behavior for the left and
right halves. The region to the left (ka<1) is the low frequency
nondirectional side, and the region to the right (ka>1) is the
high frequency directional side. The transition occurs in the
ka=1 region. For the example transducer this is 535Hz.

The graph shows the exact functions for resistance, reactance, and total impedance.
These are shown as solid lines. At high frequencies the resistance becomes
constant, and the reactance (mass) decreases towards zero.

In addition there are approximation functions for each shown with dotted lines.
These versions are denoted with ~ (tilde). These are extrapolations of the low
frequency behavior into the mid-high frequency region. They represent the
approximations commonly used in conventional transducer modeling.
Normalized Radiation Impedance
10

0.1

Rar
Rar~
Xar
0.01 Xar~
Zar
Zar~
(divided by ρc/Sd)

0.001
0.1 ka 1 10

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1
Normalized Radiation Mass The equations for the radiation functions
are given below. The reactance functions
can also be written in terms of mass di-
rectly, and those curves are shown here.
0.1
At low frequencies the radiation mass is
nearly constant, but at mid-high frequen-
cies the mass decreases rapidly.
0.01 Mar

Mar~ It should be noted that for actual transduc-

(multiplied by a) ers mounted on an infinite baffle, the air
load on both sides of the diaphragm would
0.001 be included, thus doubling the radiation
0.1 ka 1 10
mass and lowering the fs frequency.

r ◊c Ê J1(2 ◊ ka ) ˆ
Rar (ka ) = ◊ Á1 - ˜¯ (radiation resistance)
Sd Ë ka
r ◊ c Ê M1(2 ◊ ka ) ˆ
Xar (ka ) = ◊ ˜¯ (radiation reactance)
Sd ÁË ka
Zar (ka ) = Rar (ka ) + j ◊ Xar (ka ) (radiation impedance)

r ◊ c ◊ ka 2
Rar~ (ka ) = (approx radiation resistance)
2 ◊ Sd
r ◊ c ◊ ka 8
Xar~ (ka ) = ◊ (approx radiation reactance)
Sd 3p
Zar~ (ka ) = Rar~ (ka ) + j ◊ Xar~ (ka ) (approx rad impedance)

r ◊ M1(2 ◊ ka )
Mar (ka ) = (radiation mass)
ka 2 ◊ p ◊ Sd
8◊r
Mar~ (ka ) = (approx radiation mass)
3p p ◊ Sd
Note: J1 is the 1st order Bessel function of the first kind, and M1 is the 1st
order Struve function.
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Chapter 4 Transducer Modeling

The radiation impedance for a given source depends on the geometry. Ten different
diaphragm shapes are supported in EnclosureShop and are shown below. The
pseudo Point Source is a special shape which has the characteristics of the circular
source approximation functions as given in the preceding pages. Essentially it is
nondirectional at all frequencies.

The top graph on the next page gives the radiation impedance via magnitude and
phase angle for nine different source shapes with identical Sd area. These curves
indicate the efficiency of coupling to the medium by shape. As one would expect
the most effective source is circular, and the least effective is the rectangle with a
1:5 aspect ratio.

The Directivity of the various source shapes is shown in the bottom graph of the
following page as well. These curves are given relative to half-space radiation.

0 - Point 1 - Round 2 - Ellipse 3:2

4 - Triangle
5 -Square
3 - Hexagon

9 - Rect-5:1
6 - Rect-2:1

7 - Rect-3:1 8 - Rect-4:1

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Zar Normalized Radiation Impedance Deg

2 180

144

108

0.5 72

36

0.2 0

-36

0.1

-72

0.05 -108

Round Rectangle 1:3 Elliptical 3:2

Square Rectangle 1:4 Hexagon -144
Rectangle 1:2 Rectangle 1:5 Triangle

0.02 -180
0.1 0.2 0.5 1.0 ka 2.0 5.0 10.0

dB
Directivity Deg
25 180

20 144

Round Rectangle 2:1 Rectangle 5:1

15 108
Elliptical 3:2 Rectangle 3:1 Hexagon
Square Rectangle 4:1 Triangle

10 72

5 36

0 0
0.1 0.2 0.5 1.0 ka 2.0 5.0 10.0

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 Chapter 4 Transducer Modeling

4.5 Acoustic Network Analysis

Ras Cas Mad The response of the previous source mounted on

an infinite baffle can be obtained from the acous-
Mechanical Elements tic circuit shown below. The components are
grouped into three regions denoting the dynamic
Ravc Mar
system of their origin. The two mass elements
Electrical Radiation Mad and Mar are sometimes shown lumped to-
Elements Elements
gether as a single combined mass Mas.
Pag Rar

The component equations are given below. The

Rar and Mar equations are also stated again, but
this time as functions of radian frequency ω rather
than ka.

Note: Ravc is the only electrical impedance component included in this circuit.
There is no representation of mid-high frequency motor impedance (eg. Levc).

Eg Ê Ê 2w Sd ˆ ˆ
i= (blocked voice coil current )
Revc Á J1Á c ◊ p ˜ ˜
r ◊c Á Ë ¯˜
Eg ◊ BL Rar (w ) = ◊ 1-
F = BL ◊ i = ( generator force) Sd Á w Sd ˜
Revc Á ◊ ˜
ÁË c p ˜¯
F Eg ◊ BL
Pag = = ( generator pressure)
Sd Revc ◊ Sd Ê 2w Sd ˆ
r ◊ c 2 ◊ M1 Á ◊
p ˜¯
2
1 Ê BL ˆ Ë c
Ravc = ◊ (voice coil resistance) Mar (w ) =
Revc ÁË Sd ˜¯ Sd
Sd ◊ w 2 ◊
Mmd p
Mad = (diaphram mass)
Sd 2
Mas(w ) = Mad + Mar (w ) ( diaphram + radiation mass)
Cas = Cms ◊ Sd 2 (suspension compliance)
Mas(0)
Rms Cas
Ras = ; (suspension resistance)
Sd 2 Qms

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Transducer Modeling Chapter 4

1
Zas(w ) = Ravc + Ras + Rar (w ) + jw ◊ Mas(w ) +
jw ◊ Cas
Pag
Uas(w ) = (volume velocity)
Zas(w )
Eg ◊ BL
Uas(w ) = Revc ◊ Sd
1
Ravc + Ras + Rar (w ) + jw ◊ Mas(w ) +
jw ◊ Cas
Eg ◊ BL jw
◊
Revc ◊ Sd Mas(w )
Uas(w ) =
1 jw ◊ ( Ravc + Ras + Rar (w ))
-w2 +
Mas(w ) ◊ Cas Mas(w )

The volume velocity (acoustic current) through the circuit can be described using
the generator pressure Pag and the total circuit impedance Zas, as shown in the
equations above. Note that Mas is a function of frequency since it includes the exact
expression for radiation mass Mar. The exact expression for Rar is also included.

Conventional transducer analysis has traditionally made two assumptions which

simplify the expression for Uas. First, that the radiation resistance Rar at low
frequencies is much smaller then Ras + Ravc, and thus can be neglected. Second,
that the radiation mass can be approximated using its low frequency asymptotic
value Mar~ . Consequently Mas~ is no longer a function of frequency. These
assumptions are very reasonable at low frequency (ka<1). The approximate Uas~
function can then be written as follows:

Rar ª 0 ( negligible resistance)

Mas~ = Mad + Mar~ ( diaphram + approx radiation mass)
Eg ◊ BL jw
◊
Revc ◊ Sd Mas~
Uas~ (w ) =
1 jw ◊ ( Ravc + Ras)
-w2 +
Mas~ ◊ Cas Mas~

52 EnclosureShop
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Chapter 4 Transducer Modeling

4.6 Acoustic Current

If we now plug in the values from the example transducer and plot the acoustic
current Uas and Uas~ assuming a drive level of Eg=2V, the graph shown below is
produced. This response has the shape of a Bandpass filter, with a resonance of
fs=40Hz as expected. Both the exact and approximate functions show nearly
identical response with the exception of a slight difference above 1kHz.

The exact function produces the larger output at high frequency. This is due to the
reduction of radiation mass Mar when ka>1. Remember that the ka = 1 value occurs
at 535Hz for this example transducer. At 5kHz the difference between Uas and Uas~
is about 0.71dB.

This small difference reflects the fact that radiation elements comprise a very small
portion of the total acoustical circuit. While this is true for the example given here,
and is typical of most direct radiators, horn loaded systems will contain a much
larger percentage of radiation impedance.

M3/S Volume Velocity (Acoustic Current)

0.010

0.001

Example 10", Eg=2V

Uas

Uas~

0.0001
10 100 f 1k 10k

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Transducer Modeling Chapter 4

4.7 Electrical Impedance

It is now worthwhile to examine the impedance curve of the simple acoustic

network under discussion. Due to the inversion between the electrical and
mechanical/acoustical systems, the electrical elements must removed from Zas
and added directly. This is demonstrated in the equation below.
2
1 Ê BL ˆ
Zes(w ) = Revc +
Zas(w ) - Ravc ÁË Sd ˜¯
The function is plotted using both the exact expressions for the radiation terms,
and with the approximations previously mentioned (Rar=0 & Mar~ ). Virtually
no difference can be observed as viewed from electrical impedance.

The response also shows the classic resonance hump at the expected 40Hz
frequency, but a very unrealistic flat line in the mid-high frequency region. As
mentioned previously, there was no mid-high frequency motor impedance
included with this circuit model.

Most real transducers show substantial impedance rise with increasing fre-
quency. This will cause a corresponding decrease in the acoustic output, and
may produce radical changes in the shape of the response.

Ohm Electrical Impedance

100

Example 10"
Zes

Zes~

10

1
10 100 f 1k 10k

54 EnclosureShop
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Chapter 4 Transducer Modeling

4.8 Acoustic Pressure & Directivity

For the case of our rigid circular source on an infinite baffle with volume velocity
Ua, the exact on-axis pressure at any distance R from zero to infinity is given by the
following equation:
2 rc Èw Ê Sd ˆ˘
Pa(w , R) = Ua(w ) ◊ ◊ sin Í ◊ Á R 2 + - R˜ ˙
Sd ÍÎ 2c Ë p ¯ ˙˚
Using a distance of R=0 gives the near field response at the surface of the
diaphragm. The following graph shows the near field pressure using both the exact
Uas and approximate Uas~ acoustic current functions. These are given as Pan and
Pan~. Likewise the far field pressure for both at 1 Meter is shown in the curves Paf
and Paf~ . A drive level of Eg=2V was employed.

These curves now appear to have a Highpass filter shape. As was the case with
acoustic current, only slight differences between the exact and approximate
response curves appear at the higher frequencies.
Acoustic Pressure
120

110

100

90

Example 10", Eg=2V

80 Paf
Paf~
Pan
70 Pan~

60
10 100 f 1k 10k

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The response curves Paf and Paf~ show the far field axial response of the
source. However, one would expect that at higher frequencies the source
becomes directional and radiates most of its power on-axis. If the axial
response is nearly flat, then we can imagine that the total power radiated by the
source must be falling at higher frequencies.

Power Response is a term commonly used to describe the total power radiated
by the source in all directions. Directivity is the ratio of axial intensity to the
intensity produced from a point source of identical power. This provides a
means to relate axial pressure to a pressure curve representing power response.

Since directivity is a ratio between power quantities, it is proportional to the

square of the pressure ratios. Thus, we can find the power response pressure
curve by applying the square root to the directivity function. Directivity can
also be defined based on full space (4p) or half space (2p) point source
radiation. Since our example source is mounted on an infinite baffle, the half
space definitions will be used. The following equations give some useful
directivity relationships.

I Actual Source (directional )

Dir = (directivity definition)
I Point Source (spherical )
ka 2
Dir4p (ka ) = (directivity of disk relative to full space)
J1(2 ◊ ka )
1-
ka
Sd ◊ w 2
Dir2p (w ) = (directivity relative to half space)
Ê Ê 2w Sd ˆ ˆ
Á c ◊ J1Á c ◊ p ˜ ˜
Ë ¯˜
2p c 2 ◊ Á 1 -
Á Sd ˜
Á w◊ ˜
ÁË p ˜¯

DirPa2p (w ) = Dir2p (w ) ( pressure directivity relative to half space)

PaAxial (w )
PaPwr (w ) = ( pressure power response in half space)
DirPa2p (w )

56 EnclosureShop
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Chapter 4 Transducer Modeling

The first graph below shows the directivity functions for power and pressure. The
lower graph shows the previous on-axis response Paf here as PaAxial, and the new
power response PaPwr for the example transducer. As expected, the power
response shows a rapid decline above the ka=1 frequency of 535Hz. The actual
power radiated from the transducer is much less at higher frequencies and is directed
forward to maintain the on-axis response.
dB Directivity Functions
50

40

30 Dir2π

DirPa2π

20

10

0
10 100 f 1k 10k

dB Axial & Power Response

100

90

80

PaAxial Axial Response

70 PaPwr Power Response

Eg=2V
R=1M

60
10 100 f 1k 10k

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Transducer Modeling Chapter 4

4.9 Acoustic Power & Efficiency

In the previous section, the difference between axial and power response was
introduced. Another way to view these characteristics is through the direct
calculation of acoustic power.

The acoustic power can be computed from the product of radiation resistance
and squared volume velocity. The equivalent acoustic pressure can also be
computed from power by using the specific impedance of the medium.

In previous sections an approximation for the radiation resistance was em-

ployed. It is of interest to show the resulting power using both the true Rar and
Rar~ expressions. The following functions are now defined and graphed on the
next page.

Wa(w ) = Rar (w ) ◊ Uas(w )2 ( acoustic power )

Wa~ (w ) = Rar~ (w ) ◊ Uas(w )2 (approx acoustic power )
Paw = Ra o ◊Wa ( acoustic pressure from power )
Paw ~ = Ra o ◊Wa~ ( approx acoustic pressure from power )

The acoustic power curves in the top graph show that by using the true
expression for Rar, the power response is obtained. However, using the
approximate expression Rar~ produces the axial response. Clearly this is not
an approximation to the true acoustic power at high frequencies, but reflects
that fact that Rar~ is based on nondirectional behavior at all frequencies.

The lower graph gives the same type of information, but here in terms of
acoustic pressure. Comparing this graph to the Axial & Power Response graph
in the previous section show that they are virtually identical.

It should now be clear that the terminology of power response and true acoustic
power are simply two ways of describing essentially the same response.
Likewise axial response or on-axis response are used interchangeably, as is the
case with acoustic current and volume velocity. One may often encounter
different terminology for the same basic quantities when discussing acoustic
systems.

58 EnclosureShop
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Chapter 4 Transducer Modeling

Watt Acoustic Power

0.01

0.001

0.0001 Wa

Wa~

Eg=2V

0.00001
10 100 f 1k 10k

dBspl Acoustic Pressure

100

90

80

Paw

70 Paw~

Eg=2V
R=1M

60
10 100 f 1k 10k

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Transducer Modeling Chapter 4

The efficiency of a transducer is defined as the ratio between acoustical output

power and electrical input power. In reality the electrical power will vary with
frequency, so the blocked impedance is used as the reference. To produce a
simple expression for efficiency the approximations Uas~ and Rar~ are used.

Wa~ (w )
h(w ) = (approx efficiency definition)
We
Eg 2
We = (blocked electrical input power )
Revc
Wa~ (w ) = Rar~ (w ) ◊ Uas~ (w )2 ( approx acoustic power )
2
Ê w ˆ
2
Ê BL ˆ Á ˜
2
r ◊w Mas
h(w ) = ◊ ◊Á ˜
Revc ◊ 2p c ÁË Sd ˜¯ Á 1 2 jw ◊ ( Ravc + Ras)) ˜
ÁË Mas ◊ Cas - w + Mas ˜¯
2
Ê BL ◊ Sd ˆ Ê ˆ
2
r Mas ◊ Cas ◊ w 2
h(w ) = ◊Á ◊ Á ˜
2p c ◊ Revc Ë Mms ˜¯ Ë 1 - Mas ◊ Cas ◊ w 2 + jw ◊ ( Ravc + Ras) ◊ Cas ¯
h(w ) = ho ◊ H (w )2
2
r Ê BL ◊ Sd ˆ
ho = ◊Á (half space reference efficiency)
2p c ◊ Revc Ë Mms ˜¯
ho
dBsplo = 10 ◊ log( ) (half space reference sensitivity @ 1W / 1Meter )
2p ◊ Wao

As shown in the third to last equation, the expression for h(w) consists of two
parts; a fixed constant ho and a transfer function H(w). The fixed constant is
the reference efficiency. Efficiency is also often stated as sensitivity which can
be computed as shown in the last equation.

For our example transducer the values are:

ho = 0.00512 ( 0.512% )
dBsplo = 89.11 dB

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Chapter 4 Transducer Modeling

4.10 Highpass Filter Approximation

The results from the efficiency derivations in the previous section showed two
components, one of which was a transfer function H(w) as shown again below.

2
r Ê BL ◊ Sd ˆ
2 Ê Mas ◊ Cas ◊ w 2 ˆ
h(w ) = ◊Á ◊Á ˜
2p c ◊ Revc Ë Mms ˜¯ 2
Ë 1 - Mas ◊ Cas ◊ w + jw ◊ ( Ravc + Ras) ◊ Cas ¯
h(w ) = ho ◊ H (w )2
2
r Ê BL ◊ Sd ˆ
ho = ◊Á
2p c ◊ Revc Ë Mms ˜¯
Mas ◊ Cas ◊ w 2
H (w ) =
1 - Mas ◊ Cas ◊ w 2 + jw ◊ ( Ravc + Ras) ◊ Cas

By inspection, this transfer function has the form of a 2nd order Highpass filter. By
equating like terms, the corner frequency wo and Q can be determined for the
Highpass filter. As shown in the equations below, the Highpass wo and Q are simply
the ws and Qts of the transducer.
2
Êwˆ
ÁË w ˜¯
o
H (w ) = HPF2 (w ) = 2
Êwˆ jw
1- Á ˜ +
Ë wo ¯ wo ◊ Q
2 2
2 Ê ˆ
Ê BL ◊ Sd ˆ Êwˆ
r ◊Á Á ˜
2 Ë Mmss ˜¯ Á ÁË w ˜¯
o ˜
h(w ) = ho ◊ H (w ) = ◊
2p c ◊ Revc Á Ê w ˆ 2 jw ˜
Á1- Á ˜ + ˜
ÁË Ë w ¯ w ◊ Q ˜¯
o o

Mas
1 Cas = Qts
wo = = ws ; Q=
Mas ◊ Cas Ravc + Ras

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Axial vs. Highpass Response @ 1W/1M

100

90

80

PaAxial

70 PaHPF

Eg=2V
R=1M

60
10 100 f 1k 10k

The graph above shows the Highpass filter approximation plotted against the
true axial pressure response. As expected the response is the same for
frequencies below ka<1 (535Hz) and differs slightly above. The Highpass
filter is simply flat while the actual response rises.

The Highpass filter approximation has been the traditional approach for
modeling transducer systems due to its simplicity and ease of calculation.
Based on the model details described so far, it seems a good approximation.

However the circuit model upon which this axial response was based failed to
include any mid/high frequency motor impedance. Only Revc was used. The
incorporation of those elements will cause a decrease in the mid/high response,
and in some cases even at low frequencies. Other diaphragm effects may or
may not compensate for this, to enable an axial response which can be
reasonably approximated by the Highpass filter method. These issues will be
explored further in the following sections.

62 EnclosureShop
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Chapter 4 Transducer Modeling

4.11 Motor Impedance

All electrodynamic transducers contain a magnetic motor structure comprised of

iron and other conductive materials. These are typically the top plate, back plate,
and center pole piece. The materials combine to form a highly complex impedance
network which is strongly frequency dependent. Accurate modeling of this motor
impedance at mid- high frequencies is significantly complex.

The previous circuit model only included a single electrical system element Revc.
This is a simple fixed resistor with a constant value at all frequencies. The graph
below shows two transducer impedance curves; the previous simple model of the
example transducer, and the measured impedance of an actual 12 Inch woofer.

At frequencies above 100Hz the simple model returns to a flat line value of 4 Ohms.
However, the actual transducer shows a dramatic impedance rise with increasing
frequency. Clearly the single Revc element of the simple model is incapable of
representing realistic motor impedance.

The impedance increase has a direct result on the acoustic output from the
transducer. Since electrodynamic transducers generate mechanical force from the
electrical current, the rising impedance will cause a similar decrease in the voice coil
current. As such there is less mechanical driving force available, and therefore less
acoustic output.

100
Ohm Impedance

50

20 Actual 12 Inch Speaker

10

5 Simple Model, Revc only

1
10 Hz 20 50 100 200 500 1K 2K 5K 10K

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Transducer Modeling Chapter 4

The rising impedance of the actual transducer has the obvious appearance of
inductance. It would seem that adding an additional inductor component Levc
would be a logical approach. The electrical circuit for a free field transducer
is now shown below with the additional component Levc. The relationships for
the mechanical components are also shown in the equations to the left.

The graph below again shows the response of the measured impedance for the
12 Inch woofer, and also the equivalent model impedance of the circuit with
an Levc value of 5.5mH. While the impedance of the model also rises now at
high frequencies, it is a very poor fit.

No matter what value is chosen for Levc, the curves will never match. Note
that the slope of the impedance rise is not the same. This is also indicated in
2 the phase response, where the actual curve reaches 60 degrees and the model
Ê BL ˆ 1 overshoots this to 90 degrees. Note also that some of the worst error occurs
Ze = Á ◊
Ë Sd ˜¯ Za even at very low frequencies near 100Hz.
2 Voice Coil Elements Mechanical Elements
Ê BL ˆ 1 BL2
Res = Á ˜ ◊ = Revc Levc
Ë Sd ¯ Ras Rms
2
Ê Sd ˆ Mms
Ces = Á ˜ ◊ Mas = Res Ces Les
Ë BL ¯ BL2
Eg
2
Ê BL ˆ
Les = Á ◊ Cas = Cms ◊ BL2
Ë Sd ˜¯ Impedance
Ohm Deg
400 180

150

200
120

90

100
60

30
50

-30
Actual 12 Inch Speaker
20
-60

-90

10 Model with Revc & Levc

-120

-150
5

4 -180
10 Hz 20 50 100 200 500 1K 2K 5K 10K

64 EnclosureShop
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Chapter 4 Transducer Modeling

The previous model using Levc corresponds to the STD model in EnclosureShop,
and is the old traditional method for transducer modeling. This model produces an
error of nearly 6dB at 100Hz.

To improve the simulation of the transducer impedance, a more sophisticated

method must be developed to describe the motor impedance. In the previous graph
it was noted that the phase only achieves a maximum of about 60 degrees, rather
than the nearly inductive 90 degrees of the model. This can only be the result from
a substantial increase in resistance. Therefore, an additional element must be
defined to incorporate more resistance into the motor impedance.

The circuit here shows a new arrange-

Voice Coil Motor Elements Mechanical Elements ment for the electrical circuit, and two
Revc Rem Lem new components: Rem and Lem. These
two comprise the motor impedance.
Both are frequency dependent.
Res Ces Les

Eg Revc remains a fixed quantity that rep-

resents the pure voice coil resistance
as measured at DC (0Hz).

The question now at hand is how to define suitable functions for Rem and Lem.
Looking at the previous graph it is noted that the slope of the impedance rise is much
less then what the Levc model could produce. Yet the slope is nearly log-linear.

With this observation we can define some simple functions which allow for this
capability as shown below. These functions permit the log slope to be adjusted for
both the resistance and reactance individually.

The four function coefficients Krm, Kxm, Erm, and Exm can be calculated easily
from the measured impedance data by using both the magnitude and phase of two
points anywhere in the mid-high frequency region. With these four values and the
equations below, the actual component values for Rem and Lem can be found at any
frequency. While the coefficients are fixed constants, the Rem and Lem values
themselves will change with frequency.

Rem = Krm ◊ w Erm

Xem = Kxm ◊ w Exm Lem = Kxm ◊ w Exm -1

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400
Ohm Impedance Deg
180

150

200
120

90

100
60

30
50

-30

20 Model with Rem & Lem -60

-90

10
-120

Actual 12 Inch Speaker

-150
5

4 -180
10 Hz 20 50 100 200 500 1K 2K 5K 10K

The graph above now shows the results using the new motor impedance model.
There is substantial improvement. Both the magnitude and phase match very
well across the entire three decades of frequency. The maximum error of 1.1dB
occurs near 60Hz. The four coefficient values used are:

Krm = 55.5m Ohm Erm = 0.66

Kxm = 175.0m Henry Exm = 0.58

The Rem and Lem functions are graphed on the next page. The resistance
increases with frequency while the inductance decreases. These are typical
results for iron based magnetic systems. They reflect the losses and magnetic
permeability changes across frequency.

Note that the resistance Rem varies from approximately 1 Ohm to 100 Ohms
between 10Hz and 10kHz. Also that the inductance Lem declines from 30mH
at 10Hz to 1.7mH at 10kHz. These are not trivial changes.

This motor impedance modeling approach corresponds to the TSL model

utilized by EnclosureShop. The Transducer Model Derivation dialog utilizes
an optimization technique to determine the four coefficients based on a best fit
to the measured data across the entire frequency range.

66 EnclosureShop
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Chapter 4 Transducer Modeling

Compare this method to the previous conventional STD model. To give an

equivalent fixed Levc value in light of the Lem curve data presents a clear problem.
A single fixed inductance cannot possibly represent this function adequately. The
general method is to quote the value at 1kHz, but it should be understood that this
approach is an extremely crude approximation, and in reality is virtually meaning-
less. It also fails to account for the important contribution of Rem altogether.

100
Ohm Resistance (Rem)

50

20

10

1
10 Hz 20 50 100 200 500 1K 2K 5K 10K

50
mH Inductance (Lem)
40

30

20

10
9
8
7
6
5

1
10 Hz 20 50 100 200 500 1K 2K 5K 10K

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Transducer Modeling Chapter 4

Voice Coil Motor Elements Blocked Impedance

Revc Rem Lem
All of the previous impedance curves included both the
mechanical and electrical portions of the circuit. However,
another useful technique is to isolate the electrical imped-
ance by itself. If the diaphragm is held motionless while
being driven, the compliance goes to zero, and along with it
Eg
the electrical circuit value of Les. This effectively shorts out
the mechanical elements leaving only the electrical portion.
This is known as the blocked impedance and is shown here
in the schematic.

One way of blocking a transducer is to remove or cut a hole in the dust cap, and
glue the inside of the former to the center pole piece with epoxy. Note: the
transducer will no longer be usable.

While it may be somewhat possible to block a transducer by some sort of

clamping, eliminating all motion at all frequencies is extremely difficult. Such
is the need for the epoxy method. Even when using epoxy one may still hear
a small amount of high frequency sound during a sweep. Other parts of the
voice coil can still flex under the strong magnetic field.

The graph below shows the blocked impedance of the transducer. Note that
there is substantial increase over Revc (4.7 Ohms) even at very low frequencies.

200
Ohm Impedance (Zeb) Deg
180

150

100
120

90

50
60

30

20 0

-30

10
-60

-90

5
-120

-150

2 -180
10 Hz 20 50 100 200 500 1K 2K 5K 10K

68 EnclosureShop
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Chapter 4 Transducer Modeling

The previous TSL model was a considerable improvement over the conventional
STD model. However, there was still significant error remaining in the low
frequency region near 60Hz. This outcome is often seen in many transducers. If
the simulation accuracy is to be improved further, additional advancements must
be made to the Rem and Lem functions.

While the shape of the mid-high frequency impedance curve is nearly log-linear,
there is some curvature. Actual measurements of many different transducers have
shown a noticeable break-point and slope change across frequency. One way to
improve the motor impedance model is to provide for dual slopes with a transition
frequency between them. This is the method employed in the LTD model used by
EnclosureShop.

Rem = RemLTD (w , Ve, Ta) ; ( Krm, Frm, Drm, Erm, Vrm, Trm)
Xem = XemLTD (w , Ve, Ta ) ; ( Kxm, Fxm, Dxm, Exm, Vxm, Txm)
The graph below shows the comparison of the measured data and the LTD model
simulation. The curves are nearly identical, with a difference of only a fraction of
a dB at any frequency. The advanced LTD motor impedance model utilizes 12
parameters. It also incorporates the ability to simulate motor impedance variations
due to changes in temperature and drive level. The Transducer Model Derivation
dialog employs optimization to determine the parameters for a best fit solution.

200
Ohm Impedance Deg
180

150

100
120

90

50
60

30

20 0

LTD Model
-30

10
Actual 12 Inch Speaker -60

-90

5
-120

-150

2 -180
10 Hz 20 50 100 200 500 1K 2K 5K 10K

EnclosureShop 69
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Transducer Modeling Chapter 4

Since the acoustic response is very much dependent on the impedance

response, the improvements in the motor impedance model should facilitate
similar improvements for the simulation of acoustic response.

To compare the performance of the various models against actual measure-

ments, the 12 Inch woofer was mounted in a 36 Liter sealed enclosure, and
recessed in a very large plane to approximate an infinite baffle. The graphs on
the following pages show the comparisons for each model.

It should be noted that the diaphragm breakup effects at higher frequencies can
also be represented using additional features in the EnclosureShop transducer
models. This will be discussed in the following sections. However, the focus
here is to compare the performance between 10Hz - 400Hz (ka<1).

• Simple Model (Revc) [Highpass Approximation] Comparison

The simple model is merely a degenerated form of the STD model by using a
zero value for Levc. This model is also well known as the common Highpass
filter approximation. As shown previously the impedance fails to replicate any
part of the real transducer behavior, with the exception of the basic mechanical
resonance hump. The SPL response shows substantial differences as well, with
errors of 10dB beginning at 200Hz. Surprisingly, even at very low frequencies
of 10-30Hz there are noticeable differences in the response of nearly 5dB.

• Standard STD Model (Revc, Levc) Comparison

The standard STD model adds a fixed Levc. The impedance curve now has a
rising impedance, but it does not replicate the measurement. The worst error
occurs near 100-200Hz. The SPL response now decreases due to Levc, but
again the shape does not match that of the actual measurement. As with the
impedance curve, some of the worst error occurs in the range of 100-200Hz.
Also, the differences at very low frequencies have not been improved.

• LEAP-4 TSL Model Comparison

By use of the Rem, Lem motor impedance model there is dramatically superior
replication of the impedance measurement. Likewise the SPL response curve
is also greatly improved, both in the 80-300Hz and 10-30Hz regions.

• LEAP-5 LTD Model Comparison

The additional motor modeling improvements here produce an impedance
curve virtually identical to the measurement everywhere. The SPL response
also shows significant improvement across the entire 10-200Hz region.

70 EnclosureShop
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Chapter 4 Transducer Modeling

• Simple Model (Revc) [Highpass Approximation] Comparison

200
Ohm Impedance Deg
180

150

100
120

90

50
60

30

20 0

-30

10 Measurement -60

-90
Simple Model (Revc)
5
-120

-150

2 -180
10 Hz 20 50 100 200 500 1K 2K 5K 10K

95
dBSPL SPL
Simple Model (Revc)
90
Highpass Approximation

85

80

75 Measurement

70

65

60

55

50

45
10 Hz 20 50 100 200 500 1K 2K 5K 10K

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• Standard STD Model (Revc,Levc) Comparison

Ohm
Impedance Deg
200 180

150

100
120

90

50
60

30

20 0
Measurement
-30

10
-60
STD Model (Revc & Levc)
-90

5
-120

-150

2 -180
10 Hz 20 50 100 200 500 1K 2K 5K 10K

95
dBSPL SPL

90 STD Model (Revc & Levc)

85

80

75
Measurement

70

65

60

55

50

45
10 Hz 20 50 100 200 500 1K 2K 5K 10K

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Chapter 4 Transducer Modeling

• LEAP-4 TSL Model Comparison

Ohm
Impedance Deg
200 180

150

100
120

90

50
60

30

20 0

-30
TSL Model
10
-60

Measurement
-90

5
-120

-150

2 -180
10 Hz 20 50 100 200 500 1K 2K 5K 10K

95
dBSPL SPL

90

85

TSL Model
80
Measurement

75

70

65

60

55

50

45
10 Hz 20 50 100 200 500 1K 2K 5K 10K

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• LEAP-5 LTD Model Comparison

200
Ohm Impedance Deg
180

150

100
120

90

50 Measurement
60

30

20 0

-30

10
-60

LTD Model
-90

5
-120

-150

2 -180
10 Hz 20 50 100 200 500 1K 2K 5K 10K

95
dBSPL SPL

90
LTD Model

85

80
Measurement

75

70

65

60

55

50

45
10 Hz 20 50 100 200 500 1K 2K 5K 10K

74 EnclosureShop
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Chapter 4 Transducer Modeling

4.12 Diaphragm Structure

The structure of a transducer diaphragm controls the essential high frequency

(ka>1) directional characteristics. The primary structural parameter is the dia-
phragm shape. Most transducers contain circular diaphragms, but some have also
been produced with square, triangular, and hexagon shapes. Ribbon tweeters are
an example of a rectangular diaphragm with high aspect ratio.

Probably the next most important criteria is the profile of the diaphragm. Low
frequency transducers often have a recessed profile resembling a truncated cone.
High frequency transducers often have a dome profile. Some may also have a flat
profile such as in the case of ribbon devices.

These two parameters Shape and Profile are used by the transducer models of
EnclosureShop to determine the essential high frequency characteristics for the
transducer. They directly control radiation impedance, directivity, and off-axis
response for the transducer.

These parameters greatly affect the diffraction modeling of enclosures. For

transducers which are surface mounted, the sound wave radiating towards
the edge of the enclosure results from the 90 degree off-axis radiation of the
Source Wave
transducer as shown here in the pictorial.
0o On-Axis
All of the acoustic pressure diffracting around an enclosure has its origin in
the 90 degree off-axis response of the transducer. Errors in the simulated
90o Off-Axis
off-axis behavior can produce errors in the entire simulated field around an
enclosure. This is especially significant for the response at the sides and rear
of an enclosure, where all sound arrives solely from diffraction. Therefore,
Diffraction Wave
realistic diffraction analysis demands that realistic models be utilized for the
directional behavior of the transducers.

The directional behavior of any specific transducer is entirely unique. It is very

much like that of a human fingerprint. No two are alike, and the off-axis simulations
provided by EnclosureShop will never perfectly match any particular transducer.
However the fundamental directional behavior of the transducer relative to its shape
and profile can be simulated very effectively.

The directional models used by EnclosureShop were developed through extensive

measurements on many different transducers, and represent an average behavior for
devices of similar shape and profile.

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In order to simulate the behavior of all possible structural variations in a

generalized fashion, a methodology of small source arrays was developed.
The small sources embody their own directional characteristics. Additional
transfer functions are also applied to the array elements which enable a wide
variety of directional characteristics to be emulated.

Each transducer is modeled by a group of sources arranged in the required

geometry as shown in the drawing below. Between two and three dozen array
elements are used in each shape model. These sources are driven by a suitable
group of transfer functions as dictated by the shape and profile parameters. The
pseudo Point source model is a special shape with no directionality.

0 - Point 1 - Round 2 - Ellipse 3:2

3 - Hexagon 4 - Triangle 5 -Square

9 - Rect-5:1
6 - Rect-2:1

7 - Rect-3:1 8 - Rect-4:1
Diaphragm Shapes

76 EnclosureShop
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Chapter 4 Transducer Modeling

There are three possible profiles available for use as shown below. They are largely
self explanatory. The Flat profile is sometimes needed for ribbon tweeters and
possibly other special devices, but the Cone and Dome profiles are most common.

0-Flat 1-Cone 2-Dome

Diaphragm Profiles

The transducer will appear in the 3D Layout Editor with a realistic portrayal of the
shape and profile in use. This visual feedback is useful for confirming the type of
selections currently operating with the transducer model. The following graphs
show some examples of a few characteristics for the various shapes and profiles.

dB
Directivity Deg
25 180

20 144

Round Rectangle 2:1 Rectangle 5:1

15 108
Elliptical 3:2 Rectangle 3:1 Hexagon
Square Rectangle 4:1 Triangle

10 72

5 36

0 0
0.1 0.2 0.5 1.0 ka 2.0 5.0 10.0

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Zar Normalized Radiation Impedance Deg

2 180

144

108

0.5 72

36

0.2 0

-36

0.1

-72

0.05 -108

Round Rectangle 1:3 Elliptical 3:2

Square Rectangle 1:4 Hexagon -144
Rectangle 1:2 Rectangle 1:5 Triangle

0.02 -180
0.1 0.2 0.5 1.0 ka 2.0 5.0 10.0

Round Flat
dBSPL 90 Curve KA BW Q DI
5 105 75
0.1 180 2.0 3.0
0 120 60
1.0 180 2.0 3.0

-5 2.0 180 2.0 3.0

135 45
3.0 100 3.6 5.6
-10
4.0 68 5.3 7.2
-15 150 30 5.0 56 6.4 8.1
7.0 40 9.0 9.5
-20
10.0 28 12.9 11.1
-25 165 15

-30

-35 -180
180 0 Deg

-30

-25
-165 -15
-20

-15
-150 -30
-10

-5 -135 -45

0
-120 -60
5 -105 -75
-90

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Round Cone
dBSPL 90
5 105 75 Curve KA BW Q DI
0.1 180 2.0 3.0
0 120 60
1.0 180 2.0 3.0
-5 2.0 180 2.0 3.0
135 45
3.0 100 3.6 5.6
-10
4.0 72 5.0 7.0
-15 150 30
5.0 56 6.4 8.1

-20 7.0 44 8.2 9.1

10.0 32 11.3 10.5
-25 165 15

-30

-35 -180
180 0 Deg

-30

-25
-165 -15
-20

-15
-150 -30
-10

-5 -135 -45

0
-120 -60
5 -105 -75
-90

Round Dome
dBSPL 90
5 105 75
Curve KA BW Q DI
0 120 60
0.1 180 2.0 3.0
-5 1.0 180 2.0 3.0
135 45
2.0 180 2.0 3.0
-10
3.0 96 3.8 5.7
-15 150 30
4.0 68 5.3 7.2

-20 5.0 52 6.9 8.4

7.0 36 10.0 10.0
-25 165 15
10.0 28 12.9 11.1

-30

-35 -180
180 0 Deg

-30

-25
-165 -15
-20

-15
-150 -30
-10

-5 -135 -45

0
-120 -60
5 -105 -75
-90

EnclosureShop 79
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80 EnclosureShop
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Chapter 4 Transducer Modeling

4.13 Diaphragm Breakup

Diaphragm breakup is a general term used to describe the high frequency behavior
of a nonrigid radiator. At these frequencies the motion of the diaphragm is not
uniform and varies across the entire surface. There will be portions of the
diaphragm which are vibrating out of phase with other portions. There will be many
resonance modes with varying degrees of damping.

In this frequency range many design factors play a critical role such as: center drive,
rim drive, cone angle, dome curvature, and phasing plugs just to name a few. Other
factors such as the materials used, their shape, and even how they are glued together
all combine to define and control this region of operation.

The result is an exceedingly complex mechanical system whose behavior cannot

easily be predicted by any simple set of parameters. Finite element methods have
been attempted for many years, but these require tremendous amounts of detailed
information about the materials and construction of the device. The majority of
users would not be able to obtain this kind of information. Moreover, even these
techniques often fail to predict the high frequency response with the expected
degree of accuracy and reliability.

Therefore, the approach taken by EnclosureShop is to offer the user additional tools
which modify the simulated high frequency response to fit known behavior. Using
these tools the user can shape the high frequency response as desired to match the
essential features of the actual transducer.

The requirement for this is entirely determined by the user and their application. In
some cases the user may have little need for accurate high frequency response
representation. In other cases the user may wish to adjust these parameters in detail
for the best possible match.

There are two fundamental effects controlled by four parameters:

• Diaphragm Mass Reduction (boost) [ Fmd, Qmd ]

• Lowpass Filtering (roll-off) [ Flp, Qlp ]

The first effect causes an increase in the response, while the second causes a
decrease. By blending these functions together and adjusting their parameters, a
wide variety of high frequency response shapes can be produced. This is largely a
trial and error process to find the optimum parameters which fit the transducer.

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Diaphragm Mass Reduction [ Fmd, Qmd ]

At low frequencies all portions of the diaphragm vibrate with uniform motion.
Thus the mass value Mmd represents all of the diaphragm's operating area.
However as frequency increases, the outer portions of the diaphragm uncouple
from the voice coil former causing a decrease in the effective Mmd value.

Tests on many different transducers have shown that this decrease is roughly
50% on average of the low frequency Mmd value. This is confirmed by actual
physical measurements of many diaphragm assemblies. The mass of the voice
coil and former is roughly equal to that of the attached cone portion.

However, the rate and frequency where this mass reduction takes place is
highly variable and solely dependent on the materials and design of the
diaphragm. In some cases the reduction may take place very abruptly along
with a strong resonance mode. In other cases, it may occur gradually over a
wide frequency range.

A suitable function Hmd(ka) was devised to produce an adjustable transfer

function with two degrees of freedom. These parameters are Fmd and Qmd.
The Fmd parameter is given in units of normalized frequency ka, and is the
center (transition) frequency. The Qmd parameter controls the stiffness or rate
of change. The equations below illustrate the formulations. The diaphragm
mass Mmd now becomes a function of frequency, with the low frequency mass
given as Mmdo.
Qmd
j Ê ka ˆ
1+ ◊Á ˜
2 Ë Fmd ¯
Hmd (ka ) = Qmd
Ê ka ˆ
1+ j 2 ◊Á
Ë Fmd ˜¯
Qmd
j Ê w Sd ˆ
1+ ◊Á ◊
2 Ë c ◊ Fmd p ˜¯
Hmd (w ) = Qmd
Ê w Sd ˆ
1+ j 2 ◊Á ◊
Ë c ◊ Fmd p ˜¯
Mmd (w ) = Mmdo ◊ Hmd (w )

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The Hmd function is now graphed below showing variations in Qmd from 0.5 to
16.0 for a fixed Fmd value of 1.0. The function produces a maximum decrease of
6dB at high frequencies following the 50% mass reduction requirement. The center
of the transition (-3dB) is always given by the Fmd value. The Qmd value controls
the transition sharpness as shown below.

The decrease in diaphragm mass will cause an increase in the acoustic response of
the transducer. However, since the total mass also includes the radiation mass Mmr
the total boost in SPL response will be slightly less then 6dB.

The two graphs on the following page show the effect of Hmd on the response
simulation of a transducer. The first graph shows variations of Qmd for a fixed
Fmd=1 which corresponds to 535Hz for this 10 Inch transducer. The second graph
shows variations of Fmd for a fixed Qmd=2.

Using these two simple parameters, the Hmd function can be adjusted to provide a
wide variety of boost shapes in the high frequency response of the transducer.
Adjustment can be made based on a measured SPL response of the transducer on
a trial & error basis. These parameters also work together with the Lowpass filter
(described in the next section) to control the total high frequency response.

Note: To effectively remove the Hmd function, set Fmd to a high value such as 100.
You should also set the Qmd value to a stiffer value such as 10.
dB Hmd
0

2
Qmd
3
0.5
4
1
5 2
4
6
16 8

10
0.1 ka 1 10

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100
dBSPL SPL
Qmd=1 Qmd=2 Qmd=4 Qmd=8
95

90

85

Hmd Function
80 Qmd variations
Fmd= 1.0
75 ka=1 @ 535Hz

70

65

60

55

50
10 Hz 20 50 100 200 500 1K 2K 5K 10K

100
dBSPL SPL

95
Fmd=1 Fmd=2 Fmd=4 Fmd=8

90

85

Hmd Function
80
Fmd variations
Qmd= 2.0
75 ka=1 @ 535Hz

70

65

60

55

50
10 Hz 20 50 100 200 500 1K 2K 5K 10K

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Chapter 4 Transducer Modeling

Lowpass Filtering [ Flp, Qlp ]

Another phenomenon which occurs at high frequencies is the diaphragm resonance
and cancellation which creates additional attenuation. Since the effective size of the
Sd value at these frequencies is highly variable, the corner frequency of this roll-
off cannot be predicted. Furthermore, the damping may be large or small, creating
highly variable peaking as the response begins to decay.

Thus the location and sharpness of the roll-off will vary with different transducers.
To replicate the fundamental characteristics of this roll-off, a 2nd order Lowpass
filter is used. This provides two degrees of freedom in the parameters Flp and Qlp.

The Flp parameter is given in units of normalized frequency ka and is the corner
frequency. The Qlp parameter controls the peaking at the corner. The equations
below illustrate the formulations.

1
Hlp(ka ) = 2
Ê ka ˆ jka
1- Á ˜ +
Ë Flp ¯ Flp ◊ Qlp
1
Hlp(w ) = 2
Ê w Sd ˆ jw Sd
1- Á ◊ ˜ + ◊
Ë c ◊ Flp p ¯ c ◊ Flp ◊ Qlp p
PaAxial (w ) = PaAxialo (w ) ◊ Hlp(w )

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The Hlp function is now graphed below showing variations in Qlp from 0.5 to
8.0 for a fixed Flp value of 1.0. This is a standard 2nd order Lowpass filter.

The two graphs on the following page show the effect of Hlp on the response
simulation of a transducer. The first graph shows variations of Qlp for a fixed
Flp=1 which corresponds to 535Hz for this 10 Inch transducer. The second
graph shows variations of Flp for a fixed Qlp=4.

Using these two simple parameters, the Hlp function can be adjusted to provide
a wide variety of attenuation shapes in the high frequency response of the
transducer. Adjustment can be made based on a measured SPL response of the
transducer, on a trial & error basis. These parameters also work together with
the mass reduction Hmd function (described in the previous section) to control
the total high frequency response.

An example of high frequency response shaping using the Hmd and Hlp
functions is given on the following page.

Note: To effectively remove the Hlp function, set Flp to a high value such as
100. You should also set the Qlp value to a flat type response value such as 1.

dB Hlp
20

15
8
10 4
Qlp
5 2
1
0
0.7
5
0.5
10

15

20

25

30

35

40
0.1 ka 1 10

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Chapter 4 Transducer Modeling

100
dBSPL SPL
Qlp=8
95
Qlp=4
Qlp=2
90

85

Qlp=0.5 Qlp=0.7 Qlp=1

80

75

70

Hlp Function
65 Qlp variations
Flp= 1.0
60
ka=1 @ 535Hz

55

50
10 Hz 20 50 100 200 500 1K 2K 5K 10K

100
dBSPL SPL
Flp=1 Flp=2 Flp=4 Flp=8
95

90

85

Hlp Function
80 Flp variations
Qlp= 4.0
75
ka=1 @ 535Hz

70

65

60

55

50
10 Hz 20 50 100 200 500 1K 2K 5K 10K

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The graphs below provide an example and comparison of high frequency

response shaping using the Hmd [Fmd,Qmd] and Hlp [Flp,Qlp] functions. The
test case features a 12 Inch woofer in a sealed enclosure on an infinite baffle.

The first graph shows a simulation without high frequency shaping. The
second graph includes Hmd and Hlp response shaping using the parameter
values listed in the graph. The shaping provides a much improved represen-
tation of the fundamental high frequency characteristics.

95
dBSPL SPL

90
LTD Model

85

80
Measurement

75

70

65

60

55

50

45
10 Hz 20 50 100 200 500 1K 2K 5K 10K

95
dBSPL SPL
LTD Model
90

85

80
Measurement

75

70

65

High Frequency Response Control

60
Hmd: Fmd = 1.4, Qmd = 2.8
Hlp: Flp = 1.2, Qlp = 8.0

55

50

45
10 Hz 20 50 100 200 500 1K 2K 5K 10K

88 EnclosureShop
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Chapter 4 Transducer Modeling

4.14 Diaphragm Suspension

The diaphragm of a transducer is generally suspended by two Surround

members: the spider and the surround. In some cases large Spider
woofers may have double spiders. Rim driven devices such
as tweeters typically have no surround. These flexible
elements comprise the suspension system, and define the
suspension resistance and compliance. The acoustic circuit
elements are Ras and Cas. The mechanical circuit equivalent
elements are of course Rms and Cms.

In conventional modeling these parameters are assumed to be

fixed constants. This simple approach is utilized by the STD
and TSL transducer models in EnclosureShop. Suspension

However, the LTD model employs sophisticated formula-

tions for both the suspension resistance and compliance.

These formulations produce Rms and Cms values which are functions of frequency,
excursion, and temperature. Six control coefficients are required for each of the two
Rms and Cms functions as shown below.

Rms = RmsLTD (w , Xms, Ta) ; ( Krs, Xrs, Drs, Ers, Grs, Trs)
Cms = CmsLTD (w,, Xms, Ta ) ; ( Kcs, Xcs, Dcs, Ecs, Gcs, Tcs)

The full characterization of these coefficients require multiple impedance curves

measured under different drive levels and temperatures. While temperature
characterization is optional, drive level characterization is mandatory.

Due to the internal complexity of these functions, and the volume of data process-
ing, accurate determination requires use of the Transducer Model Derivation
dialog. Manual computation is not practical.

The following pages provide examples of actual Rms and Cms behavior taken at
different drive levels on two different transducers. These curves were computed
based on precision measurements of blocked impedance, free-air impedance, and
excursion using complex data. A multichannel GPIB system was constructed to
obtain all of the data simultaneously in a single sweep to maximize correlation.

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The impedance and excursion curves below show the behavior of an 8 Inch
woofer at four different drive levels. The data is plotted from 10Hz-100Hz for
improved detail at low frequencies. The impedance curves show the resonance
frequency changing with drive. In fact as drive increases the compliance also
increases until the highest drive level is reached, and then begins to decrease.

The excursion curves have much the same shape, except at the highest drive
level where the response becomes slightly flatter as it approaches 10Hz.

400
Ohm Impedance (Zes) Deg
180

AT 8 Inch Woofer 150

Zes @ 10.00 V
200 Zes @ 5.00 V 120
Zes @ 2.00 V
Zes @ 1.00 V
90

100
60

30
50

-30

20
-60

-90

10
-120

-150
5

4 -180
10 Hz 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

M
Excursion (Xms) Deg
10m 180

5m 144

108
2m

72
1m

36
500u

200u AT 8 Inch Woofer

-36
Xms @ 10.00 V
100u Xms @ 5.00 V
Xms @ 2.00 V -72
Xms @ 1.00 V
50u
-108

20u -144

10u -180
10 Hz 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

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The suspension resistance Rms and compliance Cms are plotted below. The Rms
curves show a consistent downward slope relative to frequency, while the Cms
curves are nearly flat. The resistance increases slightly with drive level until the
highest level is reached with a larger increase. Compliance also increases slightly
with drive level until the highest curve where it begins to decrease. These are fairly
typical results. When the excursion reaches a high enough level, the suspension
system becomes stretched out and Rms increases while Cms decreases.

5
Ohm Suspension Resistance (Rms)

500m

AT 8 Inch Woofer

Rms @ 10.00 V
200m Rms @ 5.00 V
Rms @ 2.00 V
Rms @ 1.00 V

100m

50m
10 Hz 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

2m
uM/N Suspension Compliance (Cms)
AT 8 Inch Woofer

Cms @ 10.00 V
Cms @ 5.00 V
Cms @ 2.00 V
Cms @ 1.00 V

1m
900u

800u

700u

600u

500u

400u

300u

200u
10 Hz 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

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The impedance and excursion curves below show the behavior for a 5 Inch mid/
woofer. Note that at the highest drive level there is a dramatic change in the
impedance and excursion from resonance (45Hz) down to 10Hz. The imped-
ance drops below previous levels, and the excursion curve flattens out. These
are the results from a significant decrease in BL, due to excursion well beyond
the linear range of the magnetic system. Again, these are typical results.

100
Ohm Impedance (Zes) Deg
180

150

50
120

90

60
20

30

10 0

-30

5
-60

Peerless 5" -90

Re=6.05, Sd=0.00888
Xg=5.7mm, Xc=10.3mm
-120
2 Zes Eg=1.00V
Zes Eg=2.00V
Zes Eg=5.00V -150

1 -180
10 Hz 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 200 300

10m
M Excursion (Xms) Deg
180

5m 144

108
2m

72
1m

36
500u

200u
-36

100u
-72
Peerless 5"
50u Re=6.05, Sd=0.00888
Xg=5.7mm, Xc=10.3mm -108

Xms Eg=1.00V
Xms Eg=2.00V
20u -144
Xms Eg=5.00V

10u -180
10 Hz 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 200 300

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Chapter 4 Transducer Modeling

The suspension resistance Rms and compliance Cms are both plotted below. Again
we see that the Rms curves show a consistent downward slope relative to frequency.
However, for this transducer the compliance curves are not flat. The suspension
characteristics are entirely dependent on the materials and design.

At the highest drive level the resistance increases significantly below resonance and
likewise the compliance decreases.

Ohm
Suspension Resistance (Rms)
10

500m

Peerless 5"
Re=6.05, Sd=0.00888
Xg=5.7mm, Xc=10.3mm
200m Rms Eg=1.00V
Rms Eg=2.00V
Rms Eg=5.00V

100m
10 Hz 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 200 300

3m
uM/N Suspension Compliance (Cms)
2m

1m

500u

200u

Peerless 5"
100u
Re=6.05, Sd=0.00888
Xg=5.7mm, Xc=10.3mm

Cms Eg=1.00V
Cms Eg=2.00V
50u Cms Eg=5.00V

30u
10 Hz 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 200 300

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Numerous types and shapes of Rms and Cms curves can be obtained from
transducers. The behavior of these parameters depends entirely on the
materials and design used in the suspension system. Since transducers are
produced today with a wide variety of materials and construction, many
different kinds of characteristics can be expected for these parameters.

Deriving the mechanical terms from the electrical impedance is most accurate
in the vicinity of the resonance frequency. This is where the mechanical
impedance comprises the largest part of the total impedance. As the total
impedance decreases, the difference between it and the blocked impedance
becomes small. As such the ability to resolve the mechanical terms accurately
declines. This is the reason why the Rms and Cms curves become more noisy
near 100-200Hz, and in some cases at very low frequencies.

It should also be mentioned that the data and analysis provided here are based
on the assumption of sinusoidal waveforms. This is necessary to perform the
separation of complex quantities into their resistive and reactive portions.

In most cases, this assumption is valid. However, when drive levels reach a
sufficiently high level, the BL product will eventually become extremely
nonlinear. This results in nonsinusoidal waveforms between the transducer
current and excursion. Since the transducer current is used to compute the
impedance Zes, this impedance is also then nonlinear.

Determining and/or separating the mechanical elements from the electrical

measurements presents a problem under the condition of nonsinusoidal wave-
forms. It should be expected that obtaining accurate Rms and Cms data in this
region of operation will be problematic. Since these parameters become highly
nonlinear themselves, representing them here by equivalent RMS values can
only be considered an approximation.

94 EnclosureShop
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4.15 Magnetic Gap

The magnetic gap of an electrodynamic transducer is the source of the conversion

of electrical energy to mechanical energy. The diaphragm area Sd couples the
mechanical force generated to the acoustical load by producing air pressure.

The cross-sectional view in the pictorial below gives the essential elements of a
typical electrodynamic transducer. The magnetic gap is a small air space in the path
of the magnetic circuit where high flux density is produced. The voice coil travels
vertically up and down in this gap driven by the forces created between the current
flowing in the voice coil and the static field created by the permanent magnet.

The strength of the magnetic motor can be expressed simply as the product of the
flux density and the length of voice coil wire in that field - BL. As the drawing shows
the flux is highly concentrated across the gap, with little flux crossing the upper and
lower portions of the voice coil outside the gap. Ideally, the field density inside the
gap should be uniform and the flux outside the gap near zero.

As the voice coil moves, a maximum displacement is reached where the end of the
coil goes into the gap. At that point the number of turns (or length of wire) in the
field will decrease. This causes a reduction in the BL and therefore nonlinearity.
This point is commonly referred to as Xmax and gives the linear excursion limit.

Voice Coil
Former
Coil Height (Xcoil)
Magnetic Gap Xmax Gap Height (Xgap)
Top Plate Top Plate

Center
Magnet Pole Magnet

Bottom Plate

Xmax = | Xcoil-Xgap | / 2

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However, the actual flux density profile of a typical transducer is far more
complex. The field across the gap is not uniform and there is also substantial
flux leakage outside the gap. This will vary with any particular magnetic
design, and many designs are carefully optimized to produce maximum BL
linearity. Thus producing lower signal distortion.

The pictorials below show the finite element analysis of the flux density of a
standard motor design. The flux density vs. field location is shown in the
graph. The flux is not uniform even across the width of the top plate, and the
flux leakage outside the gap is very evident.

It is difficult to determine any clear threshold where the flux drops dramati-
cally. Rather, the flux density progressively decreases from the center.

Voice
Coil

TOP CENTER

MAGNET

BOTTOM

Top Plate Pole

1Tesla
Magnetic Field Density of Standard Pole Design
Inside Outside Voice
Coil

-15 -10 -5 0 mm +5 +10 +15

Field Density CENTER
TOP
Top Plate Pole

Magnet
MAGNET
Bottom

+
-

Field Location

Center Pole

BOTTOM

Magnetic Gap Field Density of Standard Pole Design

96 EnclosureShop
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Chapter 4 Transducer Modeling

The figures below show an improved extended pole design. Here the center pole
is extended to provide a similar steel path above the top plate. The flux density
profile shows better symmetry of the leakage fields outside the gap on both sides.
However, there is still substantial leakage.

Voice
Coil
CENTER

TOP

MAGNET

BOTTOM

Magnetic Field Density of Extended Pole Design

Top Plate Pole

CENTER
1Tesla
Voice
Coil
Inside Outside

-15 -10 -5 0 mm +5 +10 +15 TOP

Field Density
Top Plate Pole

Magnet
MAGNET
Bottom

Field Location
+
-

Center Pole

Magnetic Gap Field Density of Extended Pole Design

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The figures below show a superior symmetrical pole design. Here the center
pole has a T shape which provides symmetrical air space around the gap. As
before, the flux density graph shows a symmetrical profile, but also much
improved leakage. Note how the fringing fields decrease rapidly from 5-7mm,
and beyond 7mm the field is notably reduced. Comparing this design to the
previous also shows a higher and more uniform field across the top plate.

Voice
Coil

TOP

CENTER
MAGNET

BOTTOM

Top Plate Pole

Magnetic Field Density of Symmetrical Pole Design
1Tesla

Inside Outside
Voice
Coil

-15 -10 -5 0 mm +5 +10 +15

Field Density

TOP
Top Plate Pole

Magnet
CENTER
Bottom

Field Location BOTTOM

MAGNET
+
-

Center Pole

Magnetic Gap Field Density of Symmetrical Pole Design

98 EnclosureShop
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Chapter 4 Transducer Modeling

The field analysis of these various motor designs show that the flux density profile
is very different than what the ideal assumptions would suggest. There is
considerable field strength outside the gap. This shows that the simple calculation
of Xmax by physical dimensions is not very accurate and of questionable value.

The progressively decreasing field makes it extremely difficult to judge the linear
performance limit. It is entirely possible that two different transducers, with the
same basic Xmax specification, could have very different linear performance limits
due to other aspects of their magnetic circuit design.

Thus modeling the nonlinear BL behavior is highly complex, and cannot be

performed accurately by relying on physical coil and gap height dimensions alone.
Many structural design factors also play a significant role.

The STD transducer model used by EnclosureShop does not provide for BL
nonlinearity. It assumes a fixed constant value under all drive conditions. The TSL
model does include functionality for nonlinear BL, but only by using the Xgap and
Xcoil dimensions. This provides a rough approximation to the nonlinearity.

The LTD model utilizes a sophisticated representation for nonlinear BL. In addition
to the Xcoil and Xgap parameters, it also uses three other parameters namely Xfrg,
Efrg, and BLo. These fringe field parameters are determined using the Transducer
Model Derivation dialog. This routine performs a special curve optimization to find
the effective values needed to simulate the nonlinear BL behavior.

The following page demonstrates some examples of various flux density profiles
as simulated by the formulations utilized in the LTD model. The first graph shows
variations of fringe field width while other parameters are held constant. The second
graph shows variations of the fringe field slope. The third graph shows additional
combined parametric variations.

The next following page shows the effective measured RMS BL for the two
previous transducers at various power levels vs. frequency. At higher drive levels
(higher excursions) the BL is seen to decrease.

The LTD model provides advanced and very effective simulation of nonlinear BL
by simulating realistic flux density profiles. However, when operating in a highly
nonlinear region the basic approach of equivalent RMS values cannot represent the
complex nonlinear system accurately and can only be rough approximations.

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Flux Density Profile, Fringe Width Variations (LTD Model)

1

0.9

0.8

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Flux Density Profile, Fringe Slope Variations (LTD Model)

1

0.9

0.8

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Flux Density Profile Examples (LTD Model)

1

0.9

0.8

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

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Chapter 4 Transducer Modeling

TM
BL
16
AT 8 Inch Woofer
Cms @ 10.00 V
Cms @ 5.00 V
14
Cms @ 2.00 V
Cms @ 1.00 V

12

10

0
10 Hz 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

8
TM BL

7.2

6.4

5.6

4.8

3.2

Peerless 5"
2.4 Re=6.05, Sd=0.00888
Xg=5.7mm, Xc=10.3mm

BL Eg=1.00V
1.6
BL Eg=2.00V
BL Eg=5.00V

800m

0
10 Hz 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 200 300

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The significance of operation in the heavily nonlinear region can be illustrated

by the following oscilloscope photographs. These photos show the actual
current and excursion waveforms measured on a 15 Inch woofer. The first
photo shows a normal sinusoid taken at a low drive level. Both the transducer
current and excursion have this waveform. However at higher drive levels we
see that both the current through the device and the diaphragm excursion
become nonlinear. Furthermore the waveforms of the current and excursion
are not the same and in fact change at different frequencies.

Current/Excursion @ Eg=1V f=30Hz Current @ Eg=10V f=30Hz

Excursion @ Eg=10V f=15Hz Excursion @ Eg=20V f=11Hz

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Chapter 4 Transducer Modeling

4.16 Temperature & Power Compression

Temperature plays an important role for many transducer parameters. There are
two different temperatures used by EnclosureShop during simulations: the ambient
temperature Ta, and the voice coil temperature Tvc. Ambient temperature is defined
by the user. The voice coil temperature is computed internally based on the thermal
resistance of the transducer's voice coil and the operating power.

The ambient temperature affects elements such as suspension resistance, suspen-

sion compliance, motor impedance, and voice coil resistance. Some of these effects
are only supported when using the LTD or TSL transducer model. The only ambient
temperature effect supported by the STD model is voice coil resistance.

The voice coil temperature is the sum of ambient temperature rise along with the
temperature rise due to power dissipation. This effect is present in all models. This
temperature affects the Revc value in all models.

When a transducer is operating at high power, the voice coil becomes heated and
the DC coil resistance Revc rises. Voice coils can become very hot, and Revc values
can rise dramatically over their room temperature value. The increased resistance
causes a decrease in the operating efficiency of the transducer. This is commonly
known as power compression.

The graphs on the following page show an 8 Inch woofer simulated at three power
levels: 1W, 30W, and 100W. The SPL graph also shows the 30W and 100W
responses scaled down by their drive level relative to 1W. These appear as the
dotted lines in the graph, and directly give the power compression. At 30W the loss
is 1dB of mid band efficiency. At 100W the reduction is 3dB.

The second graph shows the changes in impedance. The 30W and 100W curves
show higher impedance. This is especially noticeable in the lower regions where
Revc dominates.

Note: The LTD model was used in this example, which also simulates the changes
in suspension due to the associated drive level changes in excursion. This results
in the shifts shown in the resonance region.

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105
dBSPL SPL

100

95

90

85

80

75
AT 8 Inch Woofer

70
1W Response
30W Response
100W Response
65 30W Response, scaled to 1W
100W Response, scaled to 1W

60

55
10 Hz 20 50 100 200 500 1K 2K 5K 10K

300
Ohm Impedance Deg
180

200 150

120

100 90

60

50
30

20 -30

-60
AT 8 Inch Woofer
10 -90
1W Response
30W Response
100W Response -120

5
-150

3 -180
10 Hz 20 50 100 200 500 1K 2K 5K 10K

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Chapter 4 Transducer Modeling

4.17 Model Performance & Comparison

Ideally, a transducer model should be capable of representing the behavior of a real

device operating under any condition. Unfortunately, any practical model can only
approximate this goal based on its sophistication and complexity.

The more complex a model becomes, the larger the group of parameters and/or
information needed to characterize it. This will always be the case. The standard
(STD) model requires few parameters and provides only the most basic modeling
capabilities. The LEAP-4 (TSL) model adds much improved motor impedance
representation with only a few additional parameters. The LEAP-5 (LTD) model
represents a substantial departure from existing methods and requires many
additional parameters.

The impedance curve of a transducer contains both the electrical and mechanical
elements. The effects of which can be clearly seen in this single curve. Changes
to any of the parameters are readily visible in the impedance data, and this makes
it an ideal function to view model comparisons.

The graphs on the following pages compare the measured impedance to the
simulated impedance for over a dozen different transducers, ranging from 15 Inch
woofers to ferrofluid filled tweeters. All quantities measured contain both magni-
tude and phase. These measurements were taken with the transducer clamped in a
vise mounted to an engine stand. Additional modifications were also made to
produce a nonresonant fixture across the entire measurement frequency range.

The transducers are measured at different drive levels, in some cases with added
delta mass, and in other cases with different ambient temperatures. Since the
standard (STD) and LEAP-4 (TSL) models do not have the ability to show
temperature and/or drive level variations, those comparisons can only show static
model simulations against actual device variations. The LEAP-5 (LTD) simula-
tions are capable of reproducing all of these variations.

The following pages contain over 300 graphs comparing the actual transducer
impedance measurements with model simulations. All models were derived using
the Transducer Model Derivation dialog.

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Transducer Model Comparison Date: July 23, 2002

Device: Atlantic Tech Desc: 8” Woofer By: C. Strahm
Measured Data
Domain: Free Air Test System: Tek/HP GPIB Imp Range: 8-200 Ohm
Fixture: Engine Vise Freq Range: 10Hz-10kHz Phs Range: ±180
Model Simulation Computer Aided Engineering & Measurement Systems

Conditions Model: Standard (STD) Model: LEAP-4 (TSL) Model: LEAP-5 (LTD)

TEST-1

Drv = 1V
dM = 0g
Ta = 22C

TEST-2

Drv = 2V
dM = 0g
Ta = 22C

TEST-3

Drv = 5V
dM = 0g
Ta = 22C

TEST-4

Drv = 10V
dM = 0g
Ta = 22C

TEST-5

Drv = 1V
dM = 25g
Ta = 22C

TEST-6

Drv = 2V
dM = 25g
Ta = 22C

TEST-7

Drv = 5V
dM = 25g
Ta = 22C

TEST-8

Drv = 10V
dM = 25g
Ta = 22C

106 EnclosureShop
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Transducer Model Comparison Date: July 23, 2002

Device: Bravox-10 Desc: 10” Woofer By: C. Strahm
Measured Data
Domain: Free Air Test System: Tek/HP GPIB Imp Range: 3-400 Ohm
Fixture: Engine Vise Freq Range: 10Hz-10kHz Phs Range: ±180
Model Simulation Computer Aided Engineering & Measurement Systems

Conditions Model: Standard (STD) Model: LEAP-4 (TSL) Model: LEAP-5 (LTD)

TEST-1

Drv = 1V
dM = 0g
Ta = 25C

TEST-2

Drv = 2V
dM = 0g
Ta = 25C

TEST-3

Drv = 5V
dM = 0g
Ta = 25C

TEST-4

Drv = 10V
dM = 0g
Ta = 25C

TEST-5

Drv = 1V
dM = 50g
Ta = 25C

TEST-6

Drv = 2V
dM = 50g
Ta = 25C

TEST-7

Drv = 5V
dM = 50g
Ta = 25C

TEST-8

Drv = 10V
dM = 35g
Ta = 25C

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Transducer Model Comparison Date: July 23, 2002

Device: BlackBox-4 Desc: 4½” woof/mid By: C. Strahm
Measured Data
Domain: Free Air Test System: Tek/HP GPIB Imp Range: 3-30 Ohm
Fixture: Engine Vise Freq Range: 10Hz-10kHz Phs Range: ±180
Model Simulation Computer Aided Engineering & Measurement Systems

Conditions Model: Standard (STD) Model: LEAP-4 (TSL) Model: LEAP-5 (LTD)

TEST-1

Drv = 0.1V
dM = 0g
Ta = 21C

TEST-2

Drv = 3V
dM = 0g
Ta = 21C

TEST-3

Drv = 10V
dM = 0g
Ta = 21C

TEST-4

Drv =
dM =
Ta =

TEST-5

Drv =
dM =
Ta =

TEST-6

Drv =
dM =
Ta =

TEST-7

Drv =
dM =
Ta =

TEST-8

Drv =
dM =
Ta =

108 EnclosureShop
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Transducer Model Comparison Date: July 23, 2002

Device: Massive CW12 Desc: 12” Sub Woofer By: C. Strahm
Measured Data
Domain: Free Air Test System: Tek/HP GPIB Imp Range: 5-200 Ohm
Fixture: Engine Vise Freq Range: 10Hz-5kHz Phs Range: ±180
Model Simulation Computer Aided Engineering & Measurement Systems

Conditions Model: Standard (STD) Model: LEAP-4 (TSL) Model: LEAP-5 (LTD)

TEST-1

Drv = 0.1V
dM = 0g
Ta = 16.5C

TEST-2

Drv = 1V
dM = 0g
Ta = 16.5C

TEST-3

Drv = 1V
dM = 100g
Ta = 16.5C

TEST-4

Drv = 10V
dM = 0g
Ta = 16.5C

TEST-5

Drv = 1V
dM = 0g
Ta = 22C

TEST-6

Drv = 10V
dM = 0g
Ta = 22C

TEST-7

Drv = 1V
dM = 0g
Ta = 27C

TEST-8

Drv = 1V
dM = 100g
Ta = 27C

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Transducer Model Comparison Date: July 23, 2002

Device: Vifa D27TG-75-06-701 Desc: Dome Tweeter (FF) By: C. Strahm
Measured Data
Domain: Free Air Test System: Tek/HP GPIB Imp Range: 2-20 Ohm
Fixture: Engine Vise Freq Range: 100Hz-40kHz Phs Range: ±180
Model Simulation Computer Aided Engineering & Measurement Systems

Conditions Model: Standard (STD) Model: LEAP-4 (TSL) Model: LEAP-5 (LTD)

TEST-1

Drv = 0.1V
dM = 0g
Ta = 15.5C

TEST-2

Drv = 0.3V
dM = 0g
Ta = 15.5C

TEST-3

Drv = 1V
dM = 0g
Ta = 15.5C

TEST-4

Drv = 3V
dM = 0g
Ta = 15.5C

TEST-5

Drv = 0.1V
dM = 0g
Ta = 27C

TEST-6

Drv = 1V
dM = 0g
Ta = 27C

TEST-7

Drv =
dM =
Ta =

TEST-8

Drv =
dM =
Ta =

110 EnclosureShop
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Transducer Model Comparison Date: July 23, 2002

Device: Eclipse 15 Desc: 15” Sub Woofer By: C. Strahm
Measured Data
Domain: Free Air Test System: Tek/HP GPIB Imp Range: 9-90 Ohm
Fixture: Engine Vise Freq Range: 10Hz-2kHz Phs Range: ±180
Model Simulation Computer Aided Engineering & Measurement Systems

Conditions Model: Standard (STD) Model: LEAP-4 (TSL) Model: LEAP-5 (LTD)

TEST-1

Drv = 0.1V
dM = 0g
Ta = 16.5C

TEST-2

Drv = 1V
dM = 0g
Ta = 16.5C

TEST-3

Drv = 10V
dM = 100g
Ta = 16.5C

TEST-4

Drv = 1V
dM = 100g
Ta = 16.5C

TEST-5

Drv = 1V
dM = 0g
Ta = 27C

TEST-6

Drv = 1V
dM = 100g
Ta = 27C

TEST-7

Drv =
dM =
Ta =

TEST-8

Drv =
dM =
Ta =

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Transducer Model Comparison Date: July 23, 2002

Device: Earthquake-12 Desc: 12” Sub Woofer By: C. Strahm
Measured Data
Domain: Free Air Test System: Tek/HP GPIB Imp Range: 8-200 Ohm
Fixture: Engine Vise Freq Range: 10Hz-5kHz Phs Range: ±180
Model Simulation Computer Aided Engineering & Measurement Systems

Conditions Model: Standard (STD) Model: LEAP-4 (TSL) Model: LEAP-5 (LTD)

TEST-1

Drv = 2V
dM = 0g
Ta = 25C

TEST-2

Drv = 5V
dM = 0g
Ta = 25C

TEST-3

Drv = 10V
dM = 0g
Ta = 25C

TEST-4

Drv = 20V
dM = 0g
Ta = 25C

TEST-5

Drv = 2V
dM = 75g
Ta = 25C

TEST-6

Drv = 5V
dM = 75g
Ta = 25C

TEST-7

Drv = 10V
dM = 75g
Ta = 25C

TEST-8

Drv = 20V
dM = 75g
Ta = 25C

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Transducer Model Comparison Date: July 23, 2002

Device: Audax HP170Z2 Desc: 6½” Woofer
o By: C. Strahm
Measured Data
Domain: Free Air Test System: Tek/HP GPIB Imp Range: 3-30 Ohm
Fixture: Engine Vise Freq Range: 10Hz-10kHz Phs Range: ±180
Model Simulation Computer Aided Engineering & Measurement Systems

Conditions Model: Standard (STD) Model: LEAP-4 (TSL) Model: LEAP-5 (LTD)

TEST-1

Drv = 0.1V
dM = 0g
Ta = 25C

TEST-2

Drv = 0.3V
dM = 0g
Ta = 25C

TEST-3

Drv = 1V
dM = 0g
Ta = 25C

TEST-4

Drv = 3V
dM = 0g
Ta = 25C

TEST-5

Drv = 6V
dM = 0g
Ta = 25C

TEST-6

Drv = 10V
dM = 0g
Ta = 25C

TEST-7

Drv =
dM =
Ta =

TEST-8

Drv =
dM =
Ta =

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Transducer Model Comparison Date: July 23, 2002

Device: Klipsch-8 Desc: 8” Woofer By: C. Strahm
Measured Data
Domain: Free Air Test System: Tek/HP GPIB Imp Range: 3-30 Ohm
Fixture: Engine Vise Freq Range: 10Hz-10kHz Phs Range: ±180
Model Simulation Computer Aided Engineering & Measurement Systems

Conditions Model: Standard (STD) Model: LEAP-4 (TSL) Model: LEAP-5 (LTD)

TEST-1

Drv = 1V
dM = 0g
Ta = 25C

TEST-2

Drv = 2V
dM = 0g
Ta = 25C

TEST-3

Drv = 5V
dM = 0g
Ta = 25C

TEST-4

Drv = 10V
dM = 0g
Ta = 25C

TEST-5

Drv = 1V
dM = 25g
Ta = 25C

TEST-6

Drv = 2V
dM = 25g
Ta = 25C

TEST-7

Drv = 5V
dM = 25g
Ta = 25C

TEST-8

Drv = 10V
dM = 25g
Ta = 25C

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Transducer Model Comparison Date: July 23, 2002

Device: Memphis HPO104 Desc: 10” Woofer By: C. Strahm
Measured Data
Domain: Free Air Test System: Tek/HP GPIB Imp Range: 4-100 Ohm
Fixture: Engine Vise Freq Range: 10Hz-10kHz Phs Range: ±180
Model Simulation Computer Aided Engineering & Measurement Systems

Conditions Model: Standard (STD) Model: LEAP-4 (TSL) Model: LEAP-5 (LTD)

TEST-1

Drv = 0.3V
dM = 0g
Ta = 20C

TEST-2

Drv = 1V
dM = 0g
Ta = 20C

TEST-3

Drv = 3V
dM = 0g
Ta = 20C

TEST-4

Drv = 10V
dM = 0g
Ta = 20C

TEST-5

Drv = 20V
dM = 0g
Ta = 20C

TEST-6

Drv = 30V
dM = 0g
Ta = 20C

TEST-7

Drv =
dM =
Ta =

TEST-8

Drv =
dM =
Ta =

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Transducer Model Comparison Date: July 23, 2002

Device: Vifa PL11WG09-08-508 Desc: 4½” woof/mid By: C. Strahm
Measured Data
Domain: Free Air Test System: Tek/HP GPIB Imp Range: 3-30 Ohm
Fixture: Engine Vise Freq Range: 10Hz-10kHz Phs Range: ±180
Model Simulation Computer Aided Engineering & Measurement Systems

Conditions Model: Standard (STD) Model: LEAP-4 (TSL) Model: LEAP-5 (LTD)

TEST-1

Drv = 0.1V
dM = 0g
Ta = 16C

TEST-2

Drv = 0.3V
dM = 0g
Ta = 16C

TEST-3

Drv = 1V
dM = 0g
Ta = 16C

TEST-4

Drv = 3V
dM = 0g
Ta = 16C

TEST-5

Drv = 0.1V
dM = 5g
Ta = 16C

TEST-6

Drv = 1V
dM = 5g
Ta = 16C

TEST-7

Drv = 1V
dM = 0g
Ta = 26C

TEST-8

Drv = 1V
dM = 5g
Ta = 26C

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Transducer Model Comparison Date: July 23, 2002

Device: Vifa PL11WH09-08-508 Desc: 4½” woof/mid By: C. Strahm
Measured Data
Domain: Free Air Test System: Tek/HP GPIB Imp Range: 3-30 Ohm
Fixture: Engine Vise Freq Range: 10Hz-10kHz Phs Range: ±180
Model Simulation Computer Aided Engineering & Measurement Systems

Conditions Model: Standard (STD) Model: LEAP-4 (TSL) Model: LEAP-5 (LTD)

TEST-1

Drv = 0.1V
dM = 0g
Ta = 23C

TEST-2

Drv = 0.3V
dM = 0g
Ta = 23C

TEST-3

Drv = 1V
dM = 0g
Ta = 23C

TEST-4

Drv = 3V
dM = 0g
Ta = 23C

TEST-5

Drv = 6V
dM = 0g
Ta = 23C

TEST-6

Drv =
dM =
Ta =

TEST-7

Drv =
dM =
Ta =

TEST-8

Drv =
dM =
Ta =

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Transducer Model Comparison Date: July 23, 2002

Device: TAD TL-1603 Desc: 15” woofer By: C. Strahm
Measured Data
Domain: Free Air Test System: Tek/HP GPIB Imp Range: 7-200 Ohm
Fixture: Engine Vise Freq Range: 10Hz-10kHz Phs Range: ±180
Model Simulation Computer Aided Engineering & Measurement Systems

Conditions Model: Standard (STD) Model: LEAP-4 (TSL) Model: LEAP-5 (LTD)

TEST-1

Drv = 0.1V
dM = 0g
Ta = 16.5C

TEST-2

Drv = 1V
dM = 0g
Ta = 16.5C

TEST-3

Drv = 10V
dM = 0g
Ta = 16.5C

TEST-4

Drv = 1V
dM = 100g
Ta = 16.5C

TEST-5

Drv = 1V
dM = 0g
Ta = 28C

TEST-6

Drv = 10V
dM = 0g
Ta = 28C

TEST-7

Drv = 1V
dM = 100g
Ta = 28C

TEST-8

Drv = 10V
dM = 100g
Ta = 28C

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Transducer Model Comparison Date: July 23, 2002

Device: Sunfield-10 Desc: 10” Woofer By: C. Strahm
Measured Data
Domain: Free Air Test System: Tek/HP GPIB Imp Range: 8-90 Ohm
Fixture: Engine Vise Freq Range: 10Hz-3kHz Phs Range: ±180
Model Simulation Computer Aided Engineering & Measurement Systems

Conditions Model: Standard (STD) Model: LEAP-4 (TSL) Model: LEAP-5 (LTD)

TEST-1

Drv = 2V
dM = 0g
Ta = 25C

TEST-2

Drv = 5V
dM = 0g
Ta = 25C

TEST-3

Drv = 10V
dM = 0g
Ta = 25C

TEST-4

Drv = 20V
dM = 0g
Ta = 25C

TEST-5

Drv = 2V
dM = 50g
Ta = 25C

TEST-6

Drv = 5V
dM = 50g
Ta = 25C

TEST-7

Drv = 10V
dM = 50g
Ta = 25C

TEST-8

Drv = 20V
dM = 50g
Ta = 25C

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Enclosure Modeling 5

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5.1 Introduction

This chapter will define and explain some of the modeling techniques used by
EnclosureShop to simulate transducer enclosures. A detailed treatment of the
multiple subjects discussed here would be far beyond the scope and intent of this
chapter. Rather, the information provided in the following sections should help the
user understand the issues involved, terminology, and the advanced capabilities.

Traditional enclosure modeling has relied on representation of the enclosure

elements as simple lumped constants. Many elements were approximated in this
way to produce simplified analysis and facilitate easy computation. However, real
acoustic elements are invariably frequency dependent, and in many cases pressure
or volume velocity dependent. EnclosureShop contains sophisticated models for
many of these enclosure elements and performs true acoustical circuit analysis. A
proprietary circuit simulator is employed to specifically handle the unique require-
ments of electroacoustic system analysis.

Analysis of both standard and arbitrary enclosure structures is supported. Multiple

chambers, ports, and transducers can be arranged in nearly any configuration. The
enclosure can be simulated in a variety of domains, both free field and closed space,
and may also include boundary reflections.

EnclosureShop features an ultra high performance diffraction engine. This revo-

lutionary diffraction analyzer provides detailed and accurate simulation of external
enclosure behavior. Considerable advancements were made in the methods of
numerical diffraction computation, resulting in several orders magnitude speed
increase and practical high order analysis . All analysis is performed in true 3D
space with full 360° field simulation around any arbitrary enclosure shell.

The realistic and highly detailed analysis provided by EnclosureShop demands 3D

realization of all objects in the simulation. Therefore a proprietary 3D Layout
Editor is provided to permit easy manipulation of the enclosure elements. Pre-built
3D objects are also provided for the various types of elements, along with many
specialized editing features ideally suited to enclosure simulation.

The advanced capabilities offered by EnclosureShop will require many users to

view enclosure modeling from a new perspective and with much more detail then
they had in the past. This places more demands on the part of the user. For example,
it is no longer possible to simulate an enclosure simply by entering a single Vab
value. The entire shape and dimensions of the enclosure must now be defined, along
with the spatial locations of all transducers and ports on the enclosure.

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5.2 Models & Structures

The structure of an enclosure refers to the number of elements and how they are
arranged. There are four types of elements which can comprise an enclosure: Shell,
Chambers, Transducers, and Ports. There is always a single shell definition for any
enclosure but possibly multiple chambers, transducers, and ports.

EnclosureShop provides ten predefined enclosure models and also provides the
ability to create custom structures. The standard models are shown below.

Reference Models
Free Air Infinite Baffle

Infinite Tube IEC Baffle

Flat Baffle Sealed Highpass

Ported Highpass Sealed Bandpass

Ported Bandpass Double Bandpass

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Custom enclosures are designed using the Custom Multipass Enclosure dialog.
This dialog allows chambers to be placed in any arrangement, and connected
with any transducers and/or ports between them.

The enclosure structure is displayed in a generalized format numbering all

chambers, transducers, and ports as shown in the pictorial below. The polarity
of each transducer can be controlled by flipping it from one side to the other
across a partition. The chamber to be tuned with a particular port is defined in
a similar fashion.

Both the standard and custom enclosures employ a generalized definition for
each transducer or port location. Each transducer or port specified can actually
be a cluster of multi-speakers or multi-ports.

For example, the transducer #1 in the above drawing could be a single unit or
perhaps four transducers. Ports operate in the same way. Thus, each transducer
or port location can be multiple units, but they must be of the same type.

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5.3 Shell

The concept of an external enclosure definition will probably be new to most users.
The shell of an enclosure specifies the external shape and dimensions. This
specification is necessary for diffraction analysis.

The shell of an enclosure may or may not be the same as a chamber. For example,
consider the two enclosure models shown below. The Sealed Highpass model has
a single chamber. The shell for this enclosure is simply defined from the single
chamber. However, the Sealed Bandpass model has two chambers. Enclosure
models with multiple chambers require a separate specification for the shell.

Sealed Highpass Sealed Bandpass

EnclosureShop provides a catalog of predefined volume shapes with automatic

volume calculation. The standard volume shapes are shown on the following page.
The dimensional variables for these shapes are given in the drawing, and can be
assigned values by the user. The program will compute the internal net volume,
including compensation for finite wall thickness.

It is also possible to import 3D definitions for the shell of any enclosure. In this case
the volume cannot be calculated by the program, but this is unimportant and
unnecessary for shell definitions. Only chambers require volume calculation.

Transducers and ports are sources of radiation. Sources may be internal or external.
The position of internal sources is not important for pressure analysis, but the
position of external sources is very important for accurate diffraction analysis.
External sources must be positioned on one or more of the external faces of the shell.

The 3D Layout Editor provides the ability to move sources around on the faces of
the enclosure. Sources can be positioned on any face. Several examples of various
source locations are shown on the next following page.

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Standard Volume Shape Definitions

D2 D2
W1 W1

H1

H1 H1

W1 W1 D1 W2
D1 D1

0 - Infinite 1 - Cube 2 - Box 3 - VBox 4 - UBox

D2 W1
W2 D2 D2 W1
W2 R1
H1 H1 H2
H1
H2
H1
H1

W1 D1 W1 W2 D1
D1 D1
R2

5 - TrapBox 6 - SlantBox 7 - BevelBox 8 - Wedge 9 - Cone

R1
R1 R1
N N
H1 H1
H1

H2

R2 R2 R1
W1
10 - Pryamid 11 - Diamond 12 - Sphere 13 - Ellipsoid

R1 R1 R1
H1

H2

R1

14 - Eggoid 15 - Icosahedron 16 - Dodecahedron 17 - Buckyball

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5.4 Chambers

An enclosure may contain no chambers (in the case of reference and flat enclo-
sures), may contain a single chamber, or may contain multiple chambers. Each
model dialog has a section which defines the chamber properties.

Chambers can be represented using either a non-

reflective lumped parameter model or a transmis-
sion line model which includes reflections. The
primary parameter of importance here is Vab. A
shape is always involved to facilitate the computa-
tion of the chamber volume.

A chamber can also include a portion of its volume occupied by a fibrous filling
material. Parameters are provided for the type of media, density of media, and the
percentage of volume filled. The material is used to absorb internal reflections.

Analysis of an enclosure produces a pressure response curve for each chamber in

the enclosure, as shown in the System Curve Library listing below. Each curve may
be enabled/disabled for display depending on the interests of the user. Examples
of a chamber pressure curves are shown on the following page.

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Two pair of typical on-axis and chamber response curves are shown in the
graph below, with 50% fill of fiberglass and 0% respectively. Chamber
response curves are always much higher than free field curves, since the
radiation into the chamber is confined.

50% fill with

1lb Fiberglass.
Internal Chamber

On-Axis Response

0% fill, or Air
media only.
Internal Chamber

On-Axis Response

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5.5 Transducers

An enclosure will always contain at least one transducer, and may often contain
multiple transducers. Each model dialog has a section which defines the
transducer properties for a particular location.

A transducer definition actually specifies one or more transducers to be used

as a cluster or set in a particular enclosure location. The transducers in the
cluster have both an acoustical and electrical configuration. They may be
mounted in parallel, series, or both, and may be wired in either parallel,
series, or series/parallel. They also have a network specification.

Analysis of an enclosure produces six curves for each transducer location in the
enclosure, as shown in the System Curve Library listing below. These include:
Near Field Pressure, Impedance, Excursion, Linear Velocity, Acceleration,
and Volume Velocity. Each curve may be enabled/disabled for display
depending on the interests of the user.

The data of a transducer is not necessarily the same as that of the entire
enclosure, and is generally not when multiple transducers are involved. The
following pages demonstrate some examples of the various transducer curves.
Two typical on-axis and near field transducer response curves are shown in the
top graph below.

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Transducer near field pressure response curves are always much higher than free
field curves, since the response is given at the surface of the diaphragm. In fact
smaller transducers will have higher pressure for the same free field response. A
cancellation also occurs in the near response at the higher frequencies due to the
wavelength and size of the diaphragm. The lower graph shows a typical transducer
impedance curve.

120
dBSPL SPL vs Freq

115

110

SPL-Near Spkr
105

100

95

90

SPL-0H,0V Enc
85

80

75

70
10 Hz 20 50 100 200 500 1K 2K 5K 10K

30
Ohm Impedance vs Freq Deg
180

150

20 120

90

60

30

10
0
9

8 -30

7
-60
6

-90
5

-120
4
-150

3 -180
10 Hz 20 50 100 200 500 1K 2K 5K 10K

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The transducer excursion and acceleration data are shown below for a ported
enclosure. These are displayed here on vertical Log scales, but any data curve can
be displayed on Linear, Log, or dB scales.

5m
M Excursion vs Freq Deg
180

144

2m 300
M/S† Acceleration vs Freq
108
Deg
180

200
72 144

1m

36 108
100

500u 0 72

50 36
-36

200u -72 0

20
-108 -36

100u

-144 -72
10

50u -180 -108

10 Hz 20 50 100 200 500 1K 2K 5K 10K

5 -144

3 -180
10 Hz 20 50 100 200 500 1K 2K 5K 10K

The transducer linear and volume velocity data are also shown below for a ported
enclosure. These curves are related by the Sd value of the transducer. They
represent the mechanical and acoustical current through the transducer respec-
tively. Graph units are always MKS.

M/S
Linear Velocity vs Freq Deg
500m 180

144

cuM/S
Volume Velocity vs Freq Deg
10m 180
200m 108

144
72
5m
100m
108
36

72
50m 0
2m

36
-36

1m 0
20m -72

-36
-108
500u
10m
-72
-144

-108
5m -180
10 Hz 20 50 100 200 500 200u 1K 2K 5K 10K

-144

100u -180
10 Hz 20 50 100 200 500 1K 2K 5K 10K

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A small button is also located in each transducer

section and is labeled Net. When this button is
clicked the Transducer Network dialog is dis-
played as shown here.

Each transducer set is connected to the generator

system through the network described in this
dialog. This is a two port network with four
preassigned node values. Network components
are entered into the net list with additional node
values created by the user as needed.
R1
The default net- 1 3
work is a pair of 1.0u

Transducer
Generator
low value resistors
which short the
R2
transducer directly 4
2
to the generator. 1.0u

The user can create many different types of net-

works for each transducer location in an enclo-
sure. This can be useful for passive crossover
modeling, or other special effects.

Since the transducer side of the network is float-

ing, phase reversal and lattice delay networks can
be utilized as well. The transducer need not even
be connected to the generator at all.

The example here shows a six component net-

work with an additional node (5) added. Compo-
nents must begin with R, L, or C and must have
unique names with non zero values.
R1 5 L2
1 3
10 15.0m
Transducer
Generator

100.0u

500.0u
20.0m
C2

L1

C1

R2
2 4
1.0m

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5.6 Ports

An enclosure may contain one or more ports, and each may represent either an air
vent or drone passive radiator. Each model dialog has a section which defines the
port properties for a particular location.

A port definition actually specifies one or more ports

to be used as a cluster or set in a particular location.
The ports in the cluster are always assumed to be
mounted in acoustic parallel. The primary specifica-
tion is the resonance frequency.

When the Fp field is clicked another dialog will open to

define the detailed parameters of the port as shown here.
Different fields will appear depending on the choice of a
vent or drone. The possible shapes are shown below.

Vents can also include a fibrous filling material for extra

damping control, and to absorb reflections. These are
similar to the chamber filling parameters. Ports can be
represented with either a lumped parameter or transmis-
sion line model.
Standard Area Shape Definitions

W2

H1
H1 H1
N

W1 R
W1 W1 W1

1 - Square 2 - Rectangle 3 - Trapezoid 4 - Triangle 5 - Polygon

R R
N H1
H1

H2
R
R R

6 - Pie 7 - Circle 8 - Ellipse 9 - Egg 10 - Drone

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Analysis of an enclosure produces five curves for each port location in the
enclosure, as shown in the System Curve Library listing below. These include:
Near Field Pressure, Excursion, Linear Velocity, Acceleration, and Volume
Velocity. Each curve may be enabled/disabled for display depending on the
interests of the user. The near field port pressure SPL curve is shown below.

130
dBSPL SPL vs Freq
The analysis of port
120
behavior can also in-
110
clude the effects of
standing wave reflec-
100

SPL-Near Port, no standing waves

tions inside the port.
90
SPL-0H,0V Enc
This is shown by the
80
two near field port
curves in the graph.
70

60
SPL-Near Port, with standing waves These reflections may
or may not show up in
50
the overall enclosure
40 response, depending on
30
the chamber and port.
10 Hz 20 50 100 200 500 1K 2K 5K 10K

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The port excursion and acceleration data are shown below. In the case of an air vent
type port there is, of course, no diaphragm. Nevertheless, these curves describe the
motion of the air inside the port. These curves are displayed here on vertical Log
scales, but any data curve can be displayed on Linear, Log, or dB scales.

10m
M Excursion vs Freq Deg
180

144

5m

108

72

2m

36

1m 0

-36

500u

-72

-108

200u

-144

100u -180
10 Hz 20 50 100 200 500 1K 2K 5K 10K

400
M/S† Acceleration vs Freq Deg
180

144

200

108

100 72

36

50

-36

20

-72

10 -108

-144

4 -180
10 Hz 20 50 100 200 500 1K 2K 5K 10K

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The port linear and volume velocity data are shown below. These curves are
related by the Sp value of the vent or drone. They represent the mechanical and
acoustical current through the port respectively. Units are always MKS.

M/S
Linear Velocity vs Freq Deg
2 180

1 144

500m 108

72
200m

36
100m

0
50m

-36

20m
-72

10m
-108

5m
-144

2m -180
10 Hz 20 50 100 200 500 1K 2K 5K 10K

cuM/S
Volume Velocity vs Freq Deg
20m 180

10m 144

5m 108

72
2m

36
1m

0
500u

-36

200u
-72

100u
-108

50u
-144

20u -180
10 Hz 20 50 100 200 500 1K 2K 5K 10K

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5.7 Domain Space

EnclosureShop provides several different types of acoustic domains in which the

loudspeaker enclosure can be simulated. These include: Infinite Baffle, Full Space,
Half Space, Quarter Space, and Eighth Space. The differences between these
domains are defined by their boundary reflections, and in some cases the restricted
location of the enclosure. The response of an enclosure will change when simulated
in the various domains.

Infinite Baffle
In this domain the enclosure is recessed into an 0o On-Axis
infinite plane with the baffle board flush with
the plane. Radiation is only produced into a Infinite Baffle
half space (2p) field above the plane, as shown
here in the pictorial.
Enclosure
Since the sides and rear of the enclosure are
outside the radiation field, there is no diffrac-
tion involved. Analysis is therefore very fast.

The 3D Layout Editor (below) shows the setup both from the front and rear. The
baffle board of the enclosure is fixed in the plane of the infinite baffle, with the rest
of the enclosure shown behind it.

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The graphs below demonstrate the response of an enclosure simulated in the

Infinite Baffle domain. It should be noted that the horizontal and vertical polar
patterns would be identical, since there is only a single transducer in this
example centered on the Z axis. Moreover, acoustic response is only produced
in the front half of the domain between ±90 degrees.

95
dBSPL SPL vs Freq

90

85

80

75

70

65

60

55

50

45
10 Hz 20 50 100 200 500 1K 2K 5K 10K

SPL vs Angle
dBSPL 90
95 105 75
90 Curve Polar Freq BW Q DI
120 60
10.00 184 2.0 2.9
85
135 45 80.00 184 2.0 2.9
80
160.00 184 2.0 2.9
75
320.00 184 2.0 2.9
70 150 30
640.00 184 2.0 2.9
65 1.28K 184 2.0 2.9

60 2.56K 76 4.7 6.8

165 15
3.84K 52 6.9 8.4
55
5.12K 40 9.0 9.5
50
6.40K 32 11.3 10.5
45 -180
180 0 Deg
12.80K 24 15.0 11.8
50

55

60 -165 -15

65

70
-150 -30
75

80
-135 -45
85

90 -120 -60
95 -105 -75
-90

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Full Space
In this domain the enclosure has no boundaries surrounding it whatsoever. Radia-
tion is produced into a full space (4p) field in all directions. This domain is often
described as anechoic since there are no reflections from any direction.

Since all sides of the enclosure are within the radiation

field, diffraction takes place around the entire shell of the
enclosure.

The 3D Layout Editor (below) shows this domain in the

context of an anechoic chamber, as indicated by the room
walls covered with wedges. This provides realistic
visualization and optical reflection for the enclosure
surfaces, rather than an empty white background.

It should be noted that several curved arrows are drawn into the 3D display which
illustrate the location of the polar simulation paths. The target object indicates the
location of the primary simulation point. The x, y, z axis are also displayed.

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The graph below shows the on-axis response for both the Full Space simulation
as well as the previous Infinite Baffle simulation. Above 1kHz there is little
difference in the response. At these high frequencies the transducer itself
becomes directional and the changes between the domains are irrelevant.

Note that at 600Hz there is a rise or bump in the response. This is where the
directivity of the enclosure itself begins to act as a baffle, causing the response
to approach the same levels as seen in the Infinite Baffle simulation. The shape,
size, and location of the transducers on the enclosure will control the response
in this region.

However, at lower frequencies there is now a substantial reduction in the Full

Space response. The low frequency radiation is spreading out around the box
into twice the available space.

Comparing these two simulations shows that the shape of the response curve
is very much dependent on the environment. The relative level difference
between low and high frequency regions are directly affected by the domain.

95
dBSPL SPL vs Freq
Infinite Baffle
90

85

80 Full Space

75

70

65

60

55

50

45
10 Hz 20 50 100 200 500 1K 2K 5K 10K

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The horizontal and vertical polar graphs are shown below, for the Full Space
domain. There is now radiation 360° around the enclosure. It is clear from these
graphs that very little high frequency output appears behind the enclosure, while
at low frequencies the response is very omnidirectional.

SPL vs Angle
dBSPL 90
95 105 75
90 Curve Polar Freq BW Q DI
120 60
10.00 360 1.0 0.0
85
135 45 80.00 360 1.0 0.0
80
160.00 360 1.0 0.0
75
320.00 220 1.6 2.1
70 150 30
640.00 160 2.3 3.5
65 1.28K 148 2.4 3.9

60 2.56K 80 4.5 6.5

165 15
3.84K 52 6.9 8.4
55
5.12K 40 9.0 9.5
50
6.40K 32 11.3 10.5
45 -180
180 0 Deg
12.80K 24 15.0 11.8
50

55

60 -165 -15

65

70
-150 -30
Horizontal
75

80
-135 -45
85

90 -120 -60
95 -105 -75
-90

SPL vs Angle
dBSPL 90
95 105 75
90 Curve Polar Freq BW Q DI
120 60
10.00 238 1.5 1.8
85
135 45 80.00 360 1.0 0.0
80
160.00 360 1.0 0.0
75
320.00 224 1.6 2.1
70 150 30
640.00 156 2.3 3.6
65 1.28K 162 2.2 3.5

60 2.56K 76 4.7 6.8

165 15
3.84K 50 7.2 8.6
55
5.12K 40 9.0 9.5
50
6.40K 32 11.3 10.5
45 -180
180 0 Deg
12.80K 24 15.0 11.8
50

55

60 -165 -15

65 Vertical
70
-150 -30
75

80
-135 -45
85

90 -120 -60
95 -105 -75
-90

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Half Space & Ground Plane

In this domain the enclosure has a single plane boundary similar to that of the
Infinite Baffle, but here the enclosure is located over the plane, rather than
recessed into it. Radiation is produced into a half space (2p) field on a single
side of the plane.

Since the enclosure is within

the radiation field, diffrac-
tion takes place around the
entire shell of the enclosure.

In general, the location of the

simulation point ( or receiver)
can be anywhere above the
boundary plane.

However, a special configu-

ration known as Ground
Plane occurs when the re-
ceiver is located on the sur-
face of the plane. Often the
enclosure is angled towards
the receiver location.

The two configurations are shown below. In the general case with the receiver
above the plane, multi-path radiation occurs caused by reflections from the
plane. The result is cancellations or nulls in the response at certain frequencies.

In the ground plane layout there are no reflections since the receiver is on the
boundary. These two configurations produce very different kinds of response.

Receiver
Direct Path

Direct Path Enclosure

Enclosure
Reflection Path

Receiver

General Configuration Ground Plane Configuration

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The 3D Layout Editor shows this domain in the ground plane configuration below.
The boundary is drawn as a large flat plane. The simulation target is at the surface
of the plane, and the enclosure is angled towards the target. This will then produce
the on-axis response of the transducer.

Note that all radiation is above the plane. Therefore, the vertical polar plots would
be expected to have no response for negative angles below the plane. The horizontal
polar locations occur at the surface of the plane.

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The graph below shows the response for both the Ground Plane simulation as
well as the previous Full Space simulation. The curves have virtually identical
shape, except for a difference of about 6dB. Indeed, the ground plane half
space configuration approximates the anechoic response very closely but
simply scaled +6dB higher.

Since the enclosure was angled to allow the transducer to be on-axis with the
target, the high frequency response would be expected to be similar as any on-
axis response. Furthermore, since the target is located directly on the surface
of the boundary, all radiation levels are doubled.

100
dBSPL SPL vs Freq

95
Ground Plane
90

85

80
Full Space (Anechoic)

75

70

65

60

55

50
10 Hz 20 50 100 200 500 1K 2K 5K 10K

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The horizontal and vertical polar graphs are shown below for the Ground Plane
configuration. There is now radiation 360° around the enclosure horizontally, but
only 0-180 in the vertical direction as expected.

SPL vs Angle
dBSPL 90
100 105 75
95 Curve Polar Freq BW Q DI
120 60
10.00 360 1.0 0.0
90
135 45 80.00 360 1.0 0.0
85
160.00 360 1.0 0.0
80
320.00 196 1.8 2.6
75 150 30
640.00 152 2.4 3.7
70 1.28K 132 2.7 4.4

65 2.56K 74 4.9 6.9

165 15
3.84K 50 7.2 8.6
60
5.12K 38 9.5 9.8
55
6.40K 32 11.3 10.5
50 -180
180 0 Deg
12.80K 22 16.4 12.1
55

60

65 -165 -15

70

75
Ground Plane
-150 -30
80 Horizontal
85
-135 -45
90

95 -120 -60
100 -105 -75
-90

SPL vs Angle
dBSPL 90
100 105 75
95 Curve Polar Freq BW Q DI
120 60
10.00 182 2.0 3.0
90
135 45 80.00 182 2.0 3.0
85
160.00 112 3.2 5.1
80
320.00 36 10.0 10.0
75 150 30
640.00 18 20.0 13.0
70 1.28K 10 36.0 15.6

65 2.56K 6 60.0 17.8

165 15
3.84K 6 60.0 17.8
60
5.12K 4 90.0 19.5
55
6.40K 4 90.0 19.5
50 -180
180 0 Deg
12.80K 4 90.0 19.5
55

60

65 -165 -15

70

75
-150 -30 Ground Plane
80

85
Vertical
-135 -45
90

95 -120 -60
100 -105 -75
-90

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The 3D Layout Editor below now shows this half space domain configured in
the more general fashion with the target simulation point above the plane. The
enclosure is not angled but simply placed flat on top of the plane. The target
is located directly on-axis with the transducer.

Whenever receiver positions do not lie on the surface of a boundary, there will
always be reflections. For the configuration below, we would expect reflec-
tions to occur in the vertical polar response, but not in the horizontal.

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The graph below shows the response for both the general Half Space simulation as
well as the previous Full Space simulation. The half space curve is 6dB higher than
the full space curve at low frequencies, as one would expect from the 2p vs.4p field
size difference. At mid frequencies there are two pronounced nulls in the half space
response. These are the result of the boundary reflections.

At frequencies above 3kHz the response curves are nearly identical. This is where
the transducer is highly directional, and does not direct any significant radiation
towards the plane. As such, there are minimal reflections.

100
dBSPL SPL vs Freq

95

90 General Half Space

85

80
Full Space (Anechoic)

75

70

65

60

55

50
10 Hz 20 50 100 200 500 1K 2K 5K 10K

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The horizontal and vertical polar graphs are shown below, for the general half
space configuration. Again, there is radiation 360° around the enclosure
horizontally, but only 0-180 in the vertical direction. Note that the on-axis
position occurs at approximately 20° vertical.

SPL vs Angle
dBSPL 90
100 105 75
95 Curve Polar Freq BW Q DI
120 60
10.00 360 1.0 0.0
90
135 45 80.00 360 1.0 0.0
85
160.00 360 1.0 0.0
80
320.00 216 1.7 2.2
75 150 30
640.00 160 2.3 3.5
70 1.28K 160 2.3 3.5

65 2.56K 80 4.5 6.5

165 15
3.84K 52 6.9 8.4
60
5.12K 36 10.0 10.0
55
6.40K 36 10.0 10.0
50 -180
180 0 Deg
12.80K 16 22.5 13.5
55

60

65 -165 -15

70
General Half Space
75

80
-150 -30
Horizontal
85
-135 -45
90

95 -120 -60
100 -105 -75
-90

SPL vs Angle
dBSPL 90
95 105 75
90 Curve Polar Freq BW Q DI
120 60
10.00 182 2.0 3.0
85
135 45 80.00 182 2.0 3.0
80
160.00 182 2.0 3.0
75
320.00 40 9.0 9.5
70 150 30
640.00 20 18.0 12.6
65 1.28K 12 30.0 14.8

60 2.56K 8 45.0 16.5

165 15
3.84K 6 60.0 17.8
55
5.12K 6 60.0 17.8
50
6.40K 4 90.0 19.5
45 -180
180 0 Deg
12.80K 4 90.0 19.5
50

55

60 -165 -15

65
General Half Space
70

75
-150 -30
Vertical
80
-135 -45
85

90 -120 -60
95 -105 -75
-90

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Quarter Space
In this domain the enclosure has two
boundary planes: one below and one
behind the enclosure. Radiation is
produced into a quarter space (p) field
between the two intersecting planes.

Since the enclosure is within the ra-

diation field, diffraction takes place
around the entire shell of the enclo-
sure.

In general, the location of the simula-

tion point ( or receiver) can be any-
where within the boundary planes.

The 3D Layout Editor shows this do-

main below. The boundaries are
drawn as large flat surfaces. The
enclosure must be located inside both planes.

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The graph below shows the response for both the Quarter Space simulation as
well as the previous Full Space simulation. The quarter space curve is now
nearly 12dB higher than the full space curve at low frequencies, as one would
expect from the p vs.4p field size difference. At mid frequencies there are now
three pronounced nulls in the quarter space response. These are the result of
the reflections from both boundaries.

At frequencies above 3kHz the response curves are nearly identical. This is
where the transducer is highly directional. As such, there are minimal
reflections from the boundaries.

100
dBSPL SPL vs Freq

95

Quarter Space
90

85

80 Full Space (Anechoic)

75

70

65

60

55

50
10 Hz 20 50 100 200 500 1K 2K 5K 10K

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The horizontal and vertical polar graphs are shown below for the quarter space
domain. Now the horizontal radiation is between ±90° and the vertical is between
0-90. Again, the on-axis position occurs at approximately 20° vertical.

SPL vs Angle
dBSPL 90
95 105 75
90 Curve Polar Freq BW Q DI
120 60
10.00 184 2.0 2.9
85
135 45 80.00 184 2.0 2.9
80
160.00 184 2.0 2.9
75
320.00 92 3.9 5.9
70 150 30
640.00 120 3.0 4.8
65 1.28K 108 3.3 5.2

60 2.56K 60 6.0 7.8

165 15
3.84K 40 9.0 9.5
55
5.12K 28 12.9 11.1
50
6.40K 28 12.9 11.1
45 -180
180 0 Deg
12.80K 28 12.9 11.1
50

55

60 -165 -15

65 Quarter Space
70

75
-150 -30 Horizontal
80
-135 -45
85

90 -120 -60
95 -105 -75
-90

SPL vs Angle
dBSPL 90
100 105 75
95 Curve Polar Freq BW Q DI
120 60
10.00 80 4.5 6.5
90
135 45 80.00 94 3.8 5.8
85
160.00 64 5.6 7.5
80
320.00 30 12.0 10.8
75 150 30
640.00 16 22.5 13.5
70 1.28K 10 36.0 15.6

65 2.56K 6 60.0 17.8

165 15
3.84K 6 60.0 17.8
60
5.12K 4 90.0 19.5
55
6.40K 4 90.0 19.5
50 -180
180 0 Deg
12.80K 6 60.0 17.8
55

60

65 -165 -15

70
Quarter Space
75

80
-150 -30
Vertical
85
-135 -45
90

95 -120 -60
100 -105 -75
-90

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Eighth Space
In this domain the enclosure has three
boundary planes: below, behind, and on
one side of the enclosure. Radiation is
produced into an eighth space (p/2) field
between the three intersecting planes.
This resembles the corner of a room.

Since the enclosure is within the radia-

tion field, diffraction takes place around
the entire shell of the enclosure.

In general, the location of the simulation

point can be anywhere between the
boundary planes.

The 3D Layout Editor shows this domain below. The boundaries are drawn as
large flat surfaces. The enclosure must be located inside all three planes, as
shown here somewhat in the corner. The simulation point lies in space at
different distances from all three planes and on-axis with the transducer.

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The graph below shows the response for both the Eighth Space simulation, as well
as the previous Full Space simulation. The eighth space curve is now nearly 18 dB
higher than the full space curve at low frequencies, as one would expect from the
p/2 vs.4p field size difference. At mid frequencies there are now pronounced large
nulls in the eighth space response. They are the result of reflections from all three
of the boundary planes.

The general shape of the response curve shows much more pronounced low
frequency level, as compared to mid and high frequencies. Reducing the domain
space generally increases the low frequency response, but does not significantly
change the high frequency response.

100
dBSPL SPL vs Freq

95
Eighth Space
90

85

80 Full Space (Anechoic)

75

70

65

60

55

50
10 Hz 20 50 100 200 500 1K 2K 5K 10K

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The horizontal and vertical polar graphs are shown below for the eighth space
domain. Now, both the horizontal and vertical radiation patterns lie between
0-90°. There is much higher null density in these polar response curves.

SPL vs Angle
dBSPL 90
100 105 75
95 Curve Polar Freq BW Q DI
120 60
10.00 94 3.8 5.8
90
135 45 80.00 94 3.8 5.8
85
160.00 94 3.8 5.8
80
320.00 42 8.6 9.3
75 150 30
640.00 28 12.9 11.1
70 1.28K 16 22.5 13.5

65 2.56K 10 36.0 15.6

165 15
3.84K 8 45.0 16.5
60
5.12K 6 60.0 17.8
55
6.40K 6 60.0 17.8
50 -180
180 0 Deg
12.80K 4 90.0 19.5
55

60

65 -165 -15

70 Eighth Space
75

80
-150 -30 Horizontal
85
-135 -45
90

95 -120 -60
100 -105 -75
-90

SPL vs Angle
dBSPL 90
105 105 75
100 Curve Polar Freq BW Q DI
120 60
10.00 80 4.5 6.5
95
135 45 80.00 94 3.8 5.8
90
160.00 64 5.6 7.5
85
320.00 30 12.0 10.8
80 150 30
640.00 16 22.5 13.5
75 1.28K 10 36.0 15.6

70 2.56K 6 60.0 17.8

165 15
3.84K 6 60.0 17.8
65
5.12K 4 90.0 19.5
60
6.40K 4 90.0 19.5
55 -180
180 0 Deg
12.80K 6 60.0 17.8
60

65

70 -165 -15

75
Eighth Space
80

85
-150 -30
Vertical
90
-135 -45
95

100 -120 -60

105 -105 -75
-90

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We now rotate the enclosure about 45 degrees and also angle it downward as shown
in the 3D layout below. The simulation point is also moved out 45 degrees, and
lowered to the surface of the bottom plane.

The graph on the following page shows the changes in the response for this new
configuration. There is one large null at 180Hz, but somewhat improved response
at the higher frequencies.

The presence of three boundaries produces a highly reflective field. The response
will be different at almost any location in the radiation domain. Many different
types of response shapes can be observed by changing the location of the enclosure
and/or the location of the simulation target.

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100
dBSPL SPL vs Freq

95

Eighth Space
90 (45 deg, down)

85

80 Full Space (Anechoic)

75

70

65

60

55

50
10 Hz 20 50 100 200 500 1K 2K 5K 10K

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5.8 Domain Volume

While the previous domains all provided different spatial environments for the
radiation to expand into, based on their own boundary conditions, the volumes of
the domains in each case were assumed to be infinite. Each extended to infinity.

However, there is another property to any domain which can be applied: finite
volume. In this case the volume is not infinite but specified as a finite quantity. This
produces the effect of a compliance, which causes a rise in the response at very low
frequencies. This will also affect the shape of the enclosure response.

The enclosure model dialogs provide a volume parameter in the Domain

group box. In the previous sections this was always left as infinite. The
program actually uses a volume of 1 million cubic meters as an approxima-
tion to an infinite volume.

However, this can be changed to a finite volume by choosing a real shape

and providing dimensions. The shape itself is not important to the analysis,
but used only to facilitate the volume calculation. Constant pressure
behavior is assumed.

Actual closed spaces would create many complex reflections, depending on the
geometry of the space, the location and orientation of the enclosure, and the
reflection/absorption coefficients of all surfaces. This type of room analysis is
beyond the intended scope of the program. The analysis provided here assumes
constant pressure behavior, which is equivalent to the average pressure taken in the
space at a number of different locations.

The 3D Layout Editor will not show any changes to the visual domain due to a finite
volume specification. This was originally attempted but caused too many issues for
enclosure viewing and manipulation.

The two graphs on the following page show a sealed and ported enclosure as
simulated in several closed space domain volumes Vd of 300, 100, and 30 cubic
meters along with a reference curve using infinite volume. The response at low
frequencies generally increases. However, the modifications to the shape of the
response is different in each case. The response of the sealed enclosure becomes
nearly flat, while the knee of the ported enclosure becomes sharper. The effect of
finite volume on the response of any enclosure will depend both on the type of
enclosure and its transducers.

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90
dBSPL SPL vs Freq

85

80 Vd = 30M3

75
Vd = 100M3
70

65

Vd = 300M3
60

Full Space (Anechoic), Vd = •

55 Sealed Enclosure

50

45

40
10 Hz 20 50 100 200 500 1K 2K 5K 10K

90
dBSPL SPL vs Freq

85

80

75

70 Vd = 30M3

65 Vd = 100M3

Vd = 300M3
60

55

50 Full Space (Anechoic), Vd = • Ported Enclosure

45

40
10 Hz 20 50 100 200 500 1K 2K 5K 10K

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5.9 Diffraction

When a wave strikes the surface of a hard object a reflection occurs. When a wave
strikes the edge of an object a diffraction occurs. Therefore, reflection is associated
with the area of a surface, while diffraction is associated with the edge of a surface.
These two types of phenomenon are shown in the pictorial below.

Source Here we see a point source radiating towards an object with a receiver
Direct
located at another point in space. The acoustic pressure received at
Wave this location is the sum of three different types of radiation: direct,
Receiver
reflected, and diffracted.

Reflected Diffracted The contribution of the reflection wave generated by the surface of the
Wave Wave
qs qr object is relatively easy to compute. However, the diffraction wave is
highly complex. It is dependent on the angle of the source qs, the angle
qw of the receiver qr, and the solid angle qw of the wedge. The pictorial
Object
here shows only a two dimensional representation. The true physical
process requires three dimensional geometry for proper computation.

Receiver In the case of a loudspeaker enclosure, the transducer is generally

Direct &
mounted on the surface of a wall as is represented here in the pictorial.
Reflected
Wave
Diffracted In this special case the object is an enclosure, and both the direct and
Wave
Source reflected waves are identical. The wave striking the edge arrives from
the 90 degree off-axis radiation of the source.
qw
Object For this reason, the off-axis response of the transducer must be
represented with reasonable accuracy. All of the enclosure diffraction
originates from the 90 degree off-axis transducer response.

The diffraction which occurs from the source to the first edge is
o
0 On-Axis o
1st Order
known as 1st order diffraction. However, real enclosures have
90 Off-Axis
Source Diffraction multiple edges. The diffracted wave leaving the first edge strikes
other edges producing higher orders of diffraction. The process
is shown here in the pictorial for a single path.
Enclosure
The source radiates outward towards all of the edges around the
baffle board. These edges then diffract and reradiate towards any
3rd Order 2nd Order adjacent edges. This process continues forever with decreasing
Diffraction Diffraction
amplitude through each order of diffraction.

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The diffraction methodology employed by EnclosureShop is based on the

fundamental work of Biot-Tolstoy, who derived the exact solution for the
diffraction of an infinite wedge in 1957.

However, diffraction for real objects involve a finite

Diffraction wedge and require a numerical solution. For this case the
Edge
edge is divided into elements as shown here in the
Diffraction pictorial.
Elements
Source
Each element has a finite length. The length of this
element will determine the upper frequency limit for the
diffraction analysis, or resolution. Higher frequency
analysis requires a smaller element length.
Receiver

The threshold for the resolution frequency limit occurs

when the element length equals half a wavelength.

le = l / 2 = c / 2fr

Choosing a higher resolution frequency fr (smaller ele-

ment size) will therefore create a larger number of diffrac-
34 - 2nd Order
Diffraction Elements tion elements. This then demands more calculation time
and memory. As the order of diffraction analysis in-
creases, the permutations become enormous.
7
7
The pictorial shown here demonstrates the geometric
Source expansion of diffraction permutations for 2nd order dif-
3 fraction. Here a single diffraction element is irradiated
7 7 from a single source. From that one element, 34 2nd order
1 - 1st Order diffraction elements become irradiated.
3 Diffraction Element
Note: The two fundamental parameters controlling dif-
fraction analysis are the resolution frequency (element
size) and the order of diffraction.

These parameters are available under user control in the Analysis Parameters
dialog. Adjustment of these two parameters will directly control the overall
complexity, resolution, and accuracy of the analysis. However, the structure
of the enclosure itself also plays a vital role in determining the minimum
requirements.

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The enclosure contains many additional factors which also determine the complex-
ity of the diffraction analysis. These include the following:

• number of enclosure faces

• number of enclosure edges
• number of transducers
• number of ports

Furthermore, the number of polar points and even the analysis frequency range will
also affect the diffraction analysis, but to a lesser degree. EnclosureShop utilizes
many sophisticated and highly optimized algorithms to perform these calculations
with the highest possible efficiency. A simple means does not exist to predict the
time and memory required to perform a specific diffraction analysis.

The following tables provide some examples of memory usage and analysis time for
a variety of different enclosures, analyzed at different orders of diffraction.
EnclosureShop contains a fully automated diffraction path mapper capable of
infinite order diffraction. However, the dialog restricts the maximum selection to
8th order due to the Win32 address space limitation of 2G bytes.

Box with Icosahedron with Buckyball with

2-Elements / Edge 2-Elements / Edge 1-Element / Edge

Diffraction Analysis Computation Summary Diffraction Analysis Computation Summary Diffraction Analysis Computation Summary
OS: W2K/SP2 CPU: P4 / 1.5GHz MEM: 1GB OS: W2K/SP2 CPU: P4 / 1.5GHz MEM: 1GB OS: W2K/SP2 CPU: P4 / 1.5GHz MEM: 1GB
Enclosure = Box Enclosure Faces = 6 Enclosure = Icosahedron Enclosure Faces = 20 Enclosure = Buckyball Enclosure Faces = 32
Sources = 32 (Round Dia) Edge Segments = 12 Sources = 32 (Round Dia) Edge Segments = 30 Sources = 32 (Round Dia) Edge Segments = 90
Receivers = 32 Src + 378 Field Edge Elements = 24 Receivers = 32 Src + 378 Field Edge Elements = 60 Receivers = 32 Src + 378 Field Edge Elements = 90

Order Paths Steps Mem Time Order Paths Steps Mem Time Order Paths Steps Mem Time
1 8 8 40M 6S 1 6 6 42M 4S 1 10 10 42M 4S
2 68 68 41M 7S 2 36 36 42M 6S 2 120 120 42M 5S
3 412 272 41M 9S 3 150 114 43M 7S 3 1,075 755 43M 7S
4 2444 560 41M 10 S 4 588 246 43M 8S 4 9,735 2,815 44M 11 S
5 14,572 560 41M 22 S 5 2304 426 43M 11 S 5 89,395 5,665 44M 29 S
6 87,212 560 41M 91 S 6 9,066 582 44M 17 S 6 826,655 7,910 73M 3M
7 522,796 560 55M 9M 7 35,838 630 44M 44 S 7 7,672,145 8,800 297M 26 M
8 3,135,788 560 104M 51 M 8 142,104 630 44M 3M 8 41,192,918 9,768 978M 3H

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Determining the required resolution frequency and order of diffraction is

somewhat a trial and error process, unique to each enclosure. Both values could
certainly be set arbitrarily high, but the calculation time and memory usage
would also be high. This may be unnecessary and is certainly undesirable.

Therefore, the objective is to find the minimum values needed to produce the
desired accuracy. Higher values can certainly be used but may only offer
minimal improvement, at the expense of longer run times and higher memory
usage. Lower values may cause defects, large or small, in the response.

The importance of the diffraction order can best be ex-

plained by examining the shadow region of an edge. The
Rcvr-1 pictorial here shows two receiver locations Rcvr-1 and
Rcvr-2. Rcvr-1 will receive both the source and diffracted
Source Source Wave waves, while the 2nd receiver Rcvr-2 can only receive the
diffracted wave since it is in the shadow of the source.
Diffracted Wave
qw
Object Rcvr-2
Therefore the response produced in the shadow region is
Shadow
Region due solely to diffracted radiation. The source wave cannot
reach this region since it is not visible from the source.

We now apply this concept to an enclosure. The fields of

radiation for each diffraction corner and the source are
shown here as circular shaded regions. Only the Source and
Diffr-1 fields can radiate to receivers in the front. For
receiver locations on the side, only the Diffr-1 and Diffr-2
fields are visible, with only the Diffr-2 fields reaching
receiver locations in the rear.

This shows that a minimum of 2nd order diffraction is

mandatory simply to fill out the entire field around a basic
six sided box. If the enclosure had more sides (faces), a
much higher order of diffraction would likely be required.

Note that higher orders of diffraction will bounce the wave from front to back,
back to front, and all around the enclosure until it decays at infinity.

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Another phenomenon affecting the needed diffraction order is the rate of conver-
gence. This is largely controlled by the amount of attenuation which occurs through
each level of diffraction. As the wavefront travels from one edge to another, it is
also radiating into free space simultaneously. Thus the amplitude reaching an edge
decays with increasing order.

Several analogies can be offered for this effect. It is much like the ringing of a
Lowpass filter reacting to a step function.

Error after 3 ripples Error after 7 ripples

Error after 3 ripples

Asymptote Asymptote

This analogy is shown above in the two step response graphs. Both are responding
to a step function and eventually arrive at the final asymptotic value. However the
graph on the left quickly achieves a low error after only 3 ripples. The graph on the
right requires 7 ripples before settling to a similar error level.

Such is the case with diffraction. Some enclosure shapes will have rapid decay
through each order of diffraction producing stable response quickly with low order
analysis. Other enclosures may require much higher orders of diffraction before
settling towards the final asymptotic values.

A further analogy, that of an infinite series, can also be applied. If the final value
was taken on the 3rd ripple of the second graph, significant error would result. This
is the equivalent of truncating a series after only a few terms. Some series converge
quickly while others require many more terms for adequate convergence.

These convergence effects can be seen very clearly when analyzing the polar plots
of an enclosure using different levels of diffraction. In fact, inspection of the polar
plots is probably one of the easiest methods of evaluating diffraction convergence.

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The polar response graphs of the simple six sided box analyzed with increasing
orders of diffraction are now shown below. The 0th order diffraction includes
only the source radiation. As shown here only the front field receives radiation,
and without diffraction the entire back field is empty. The 1st order graph
shows much more of the rear field filled in with the exception of the narrow
180° region which remains empty. Also note that sharp discontinuities appear
near the 90° regions. These steps or offsets indicate lack of convergence.

dBSPL 90 dBSPL 90
95 105 75 80 95 80
105 75
320 320
90 120 60 640 90 640
1.28K 120 60 1.28K
85 2.56K 2.56K
3.84K 85 3.84K
135 45 5.12K 135 45 5.12K
80 6.40K 80 6.40K
12.80K 12.80K
75 75
70 150 30 150 30
70
65 65
60 60
165 15 165 15
55 55
50 50
45 -180
180 0 Deg 45 -180
180 0 Deg
50 50
55 55
60 -165 -15 60 -165 -15
65 65
70 70
-150 -30 -150 -30
75 75
80 80
-135 -45 -135 -45
85 85
90 -120 -60 90
Fr = 3kHz -120 -60
Fr = 3kHz
95 -105
-90
-75 Diffr Order = 0 95 -105
-90
-75 Diffr Order = 1

dBSPL 90 80
95 105 75 320
640
90 120 60 1.28K
2.56K
85 3.84K
5.12K
80
135 45 6.40K
12.80K
The graph on the left shows the response with 2nd
75

70 150 30
order diffraction. Now the entire 360° field is filled
65 in completely. Note also that the previous offsets in
60
165 15 the 90° region have become smaller, thus indicating
55

50
improved convergence.
45 -180
180 0 Deg

50

55
We also see that small offsets remain in the response
60 -165 -15 near 180°. Again, these offsets serve as valuable
65

70
indicators for judging convergence.
-150 -30
75

80
-135 -45
85

90 -120 -60
Fr = 3kHz
95 -105
-90
-75 Diffr Order = 2

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dBSPL 90 dBSPL 90
95 105 75 80 95 105 75 80
320 320
90 640 90 640
120 60 1.28K 120 60 1.28K
2.56K 2.56K
85 3.84K 85 3.84K
135 45 5.12K 135 45 5.12K
80 6.40K 80 6.40K
12.80K 12.80K
75 75

70 150 30 70 150 30

65 65

60 60
165 15 165 15
55 55

50 50

45 -180
180 0 Deg 45 -180
180 0 Deg

50 50

55 55

60 -165 -15 60 -165 -15

65 65

70 70
-150 -30 -150 -30
75 75

80 80
-135 -45 -135 -45
85 85

90 -120 -60 90 -120 -60

Fr = 3kHz Fr = 3kHz
95 -105
-90
-75 Diffr Order = 3 95 -105
-90
-75 Diffr Order = 4

The left graph shows the response with 3rd order diffraction, and the right graph
gives the response with 4th order diffraction. The differences between these two
have now become almost negligible. The curves are very smooth with only minor
offsets remaining. Therefore, either 3rd or 4th order diffraction would be adequate
for simulating this enclosure.

Using higher orders of diffraction would not produce significant change in the
response. The amplitude of the higher orders of diffraction become very small, and
their contribution to the total response insignificant.

Using polar plots to evaluate diffraction convergence is very effective. The

response at all angles around the enclosure is obtained at once and any offsets in the
curves are readily visible.

It should also be noted that the low frequency polar curves are often invaluable for
indicating complete convergence. At very low frequencies all enclosures become
omnidirectional. Smooth round circles should always be the result. Any irregulari-
ties in the low frequency polar response generally indicate lack of convergence.

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You may now be wondering what the on-axis detailed response looks like for
different orders of diffraction. The graph below provides this information.

As one would expect the 0th order diffraction shows major errors in the
response. Actually, this is the exact infinite baffle response. With 1st order
diffraction the response begins to take shape but is still in error by several dB
at low frequencies.

With 2nd order diffraction the response becomes very accurate. Further
increases of diffraction order produce only minimal improvements. As with
the polar response, either 3rd or 4th order diffraction would be more than
sufficient for accurate response simulation. This confirms the information
gathered from the polar response.

It should also be noted that the response above 2kHz is unaffected by changes
in diffraction order. The transducer is of course directional at these frequen-
cies, and little off-axis amplitude is available for diffraction.

95
dBSPL SPL vs Freq

90
Diffr-0 Diffr-4

85

80
Diffr-3
75 Diffr-2

70

Diffr-1
65

60

55

50

45
10 Hz 20 50 100 200 500 1K 2K 5K 10K

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The previous diffraction order comparisons were performed with a resolution

frequency of 3kHz. We can also examine changes due to resolution frequency for
a fixed diffraction order.

The on-axis frequency response graph below shows four different curves using
resolution frequencies of: 750Hz, 1500Hz, 3000Hz, and 6000Hz. In all cases 4th
order diffraction was used. While the 750Hz curve shows significant error, the
other curves are virtually identical. Since the transducer is highly directional above
2kHz, little advantage is gained by using resolution frequencies above this region.

Therefore, when choosing the diffraction resolution frequency, consideration

should be given to the size of the transducer. It is of no advantage to use high
resolution frequencies where the transducer is directional.

With this in mind, there are several recommendations that can be given. For average
size Hi-Fi enclosures, a resolution frequency of around 2-3kHz is satisfactory. If
the enclosure/transducer is larger, then even lower frequencies can be used. For
tweeters and other small transducers, higher frequencies should be employed.

95
dBSPL SPL vs Freq
Fr=6000Hz
90
Fr=3000Hz
Fr=1500Hz
85

80

Fr=750Hz
75

70

Diffr Order = 4
65

60

55

50

45
10 Hz 20 50 100 200 500 1K 2K 5K 10K

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The polar graphs below show the response using the four different resolution
frequencies, all with 4th order diffraction. The 750Hz plot shows significant
changes from the others. However, the other three at 1500Hz, 3000Hz, and
6000Hz are virtually identical.

dBSPL 90 80 dBSPL 90 80
95 105 75 95 105 75
320 320
640 640
90 120 60 1.28K 90 120 60 1.28K
2.56K 2.56K
85 3.84K 85 3.84K
5.12K 5.12K
135 45 6.40K 135 45 6.40K
80 80
12.80K 12.80K
75 75

70 150 30 70 150 30

65 65

60 60
165 15 165 15
55 55

50 50

45 -180
180 0 Deg 45 -180
180 0 Deg

50 50

55 55

60 -165 -15 60 -165 -15

65 65

70 70
-150 -30 -150 -30
75 75

80 80
-135 -45 -135 -45
85 85

90 Diffr Order = 4 -120 -60 90 -120 -60

Diffr Order = 4
95 -105
-90
-75 Fr = 750 Hz 95 -105
-90
-75 Fr = 1500 Hz

dBSPL 90 80
dBSPL 90 80
95 105 75 95 105 75
320 320
640 640
90 120 60 1.28K 90 120 60 1.28K
2.56K 2.56K
85 3.84K 85 3.84K
5.12K 5.12K
135 45 6.40K 135 45 6.40K
80 80
12.80K 12.80K
75 75

70 150 30 70 150 30

65 65

60 60
165 15 165 15
55 55

50 50

45 -180
180 0 Deg 45 -180
180 0 Deg

50 50

55 55

60 -165 -15 60 -165 -15

65 65

70 70
-150 -30 -150 -30
75 75

80 80
-135 -45 -135 -45
85 85

90 -120 -60 90 -120 -60

Diffr Order = 4 Diffr Order = 4
95 -105
-90
-75 Fr = 3000 Hz 95 -105
-90
-75 Fr = 6000 Hz

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Since the previous curves were based on the use of a directional round transducer,
little diffraction changes could be observed at high frequencies. To examine the
diffraction affects at higher frequencies, we can employ a point source transducer.
This transducer shape is omnidirectional at all frequencies.

The frequency response graph below shows the difference for a point source on the
enclosure at the same four resolution frequencies. Once again, the 750Hz curve
shows similar error at low frequencies. However, we can now see the other
differences between the curves at frequencies all the way up to 10kHz.

The curves are difficult to distinguish above 4kHz. Using the 6000Hz curve as the
reference, we see that deviations in the 3000Hz curve begin around 5kHz, and
deviations in the 1500Hz curve begin around 2kHz. These results demonstrate that
the resolution frequency does indeed correctly predict the accuracy limitations.

However, it should be noted that the 750Hz curve is inaccurate even at 200Hz. At
this resolution, only a single element per side was used in the diffraction computa-
tion. This resolution is too coarse to provide accurate analysis at any frequency.

95
dBSPL SPL vs Freq
Fr=3000Hz
90 Fr=1500Hz

85

80

Fr=750Hz
75 Fr=6000Hz

70

Diffr Order = 4
65
Point Source
60

55

50

45
10 Hz 20 50 100 200 500 1K 2K 5K 10K

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The polar graphs below now show the point source response using the four
different resolution frequencies, all with 4th order diffraction.

In summary, diffraction analysis should be performed at several different

orders and frequency resolutions to determine when sufficient convergence
has been achieved. This is indicated by the lack of offsets in the response at low
or mid frequencies and negligible change for increased order and resolution.

dBSPL 90 dBSPL 90
95 105 75 80 95 105 75 80
320 320
90 640 90 640
120 60 1.28K 120 60 1.28K
2.56K 2.56K
85 3.84K 85 3.84K
135 45 5.12K 135 45 5.12K
80 6.40K 80 6.40K
12.80K 12.80K
75 75

70 150 30 70 150 30

65 65

60 60
165 15 165 15
55 55

50 50

45 -180
180 0 Deg 45 -180
180 0 Deg

50 50

55 55

60 -165 -15 60 -165 -15

65 65

70 70
-150 -30 -150 -30
75 75

80 80
-135 -45 -135 -45
85 85

90 -120 -60 90 -120 -60

Diffr Order = 4 Diffr Order = 4
95 -105
-90
-75 Fr = 750 Hz 95 -105
-90
-75 Fr = 1500 Hz

dBSPL 90 dBSPL 90
95 105 75 80 95 105 75 80
320 320
90 640 90 640
120 60 1.28K 120 60 1.28K
2.56K 2.56K
85 3.84K 85 3.84K
135 45 5.12K 135 45 5.12K
80 6.40K 80 6.40K
12.80K 12.80K
75 75

70 150 30 70 150 30

65 65

60 60
165 15 165 15
55 55

50 50

45 -180
180 0 Deg 45 -180
180 0 Deg

50 50

55 55

60 -165 -15 60 -165 -15

65 65

70 70
-150 -30 -150 -30
75 75

80 80
-135 -45 -135 -45
85 85

90 -120 -60 90 -120 -60

Diffr Order = 4 Diffr Order = 4
95 -105
-90
-75 Fr = 3000 Hz 95 -105
-90
-75 Fr = 6000 Hz

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File Menu 6

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6.1 New

The File | New menu item starts a new design. The

accelerator key CTRL-N can be used to activate this item
using the keyboard, or the tool button as shown above.

If your existing design has changes and has not yet been
saved, you will be prompted to save it first.

File | New changes the name of the design to Untitled, and

initializes and/or clears some of the various system param-
eters. You will be required to set a real name before the
program will allow you to save the design file.

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6.2 Open

The File | Open menu item opens an existing design.

The accelerator key CTRL-O can be used to activate
this item using the keyboard, or the tool button as
shown above.

If your existing design has changes and has not yet

been saved, you will be prompted to save it first.

File | Open presents a dialog to choose the design file

to open. Design files have an LED extension.

Depending on the various options in the File | Preferences dialog, different

parameters can be updated from design files, or retained as global settings
across design files.

Note: By default the program always loads your last design when launched.

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6.3 Reopen

The File | Reopen menu item opens an existing design, by one of the previously
stored 12 paths. The sub menu adjacent to the drop down menu displays the possible
choices. These paths are updated based on your previously opened design files.

The tool button shown above can also be used, which will present a dialog with the
same path choices as shown below. Each path is listed on a button for selection.

If your existing design has changes, and has not yet been saved, you will be
prompted to save it first.

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6.4 Save

The File | Save menu item saves the current design

under its existing name. The accelerator key CTRL-
S can be used to activate this item using the keyboard,
or the tool button as shown above. If the design does
not currently have a name, you will be directed to the
SaveAs dialog to choose a name for the design.

If the design does not have changes since it was last

saved, this menu item and button will be grayed out.
If the design has changes since it was last saved, they
will be enabled.

When saving design files, it is generally best to create a project folder under
which all of your files for that project can be placed. This can include imported/
exported data files, graphics files, etc.

Design files have an extension of LED. You should always use the default
extension. It is not recommended that you use other extensions, or you may not
recognize the files in the future.

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6.5 SaveAs

The File | SaveAs menu item saves the current design

under a new name. The tool button as shown above can
also be used to activate this item. A dialog will be
presented to specify the file name and/or folder.

When saving design files, it is generally best to create a

project folder under which all of your files for that project
can be placed. This can include imported/exported data
files, graphics files, etc.

Design files have an extension of LED. You should always use the default
extension. It is not recommended that you use other extensions, or you may not
recognize the files in the future.

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6.6 Revert

The File | Revert menu item allows you to abort the

current design file changes, and reload the last saved
version of the design. The tool button as shown above
can also be used to activate this item.

A dialog will be presented to ask you to confirm this

action. All changes to the design will be lost when the
previously saved version is reloaded.

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6.7 Convert LEAP-4 DGL

The File | Convert LEAP4 DGL menu item performs

conversion of the LEAP-4 DGL file data into the
program. The dialog shown below will appear for
selection of the DGL file.

After you select the DGL file the file will be decoded
and the entry data shown as below. There are 20
possible entries in a DGL library. However, only
entries with TSL/ECL simulation type data will be
enabled (ie. no imported data).

You may select one of the enabled entries for conversion. Make sure you have
the correct units selected here which match those in the ECL LEAP-4 system.
They may be English or Metric. The Design Creation option will create a new
LED file or use the current.

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Clicking the properties button at the end

of an entry will display a dialog, as shown
here. This allows you to view the internal
DGL data for that entry.

After you click Ok, the selected DGL

entry will be converted, and an enclosure
Model dialog will automatically appear.

You will need to check each of these

parameters to make sure the data is cor-
rect. LEAP-4 does not contain all of the
data necessary to define a LEAP-5 enclo-
sure in all cases.

Note: You MUST open the Shell/Cham-

ber property button so that the 3D defini-
tion of the box can be written.

The conversion routine will transfer the TSL data into the Transducer group
box. This is stored in the enclosure record itself, not in a LTD library. Those
are converted separately. After you have closed this dialog, you will then need
to open the 3D Layout Editor to define the transducer/port locations.

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The initial layout will have all speakers and ports aligned on top of each other. You
will need to move the transducers and ports to suitable locations, as the examples
show in the pictures below.

You may also wish to setup and/or modify parameters in the Analysis Parameters
dialog. Many other analysis options are available which did not have corresponding
definitions in LEAP-4.

Because of the substantial structural changes between LEAP-4 and this

EnclosureShop, perfect conversion of the DGL entries into this format is not always
possible. There are many new parameters for the transducer, such as diaphragm
shape, profile, etc., which need to be defined here.

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6.8 Convert LEAP-4 TSL

The File | Convert LEAP4 TSL menu item performs

conversion of LEAP-4 TSL files into the new LTD
file format. The dialog shown below will appear for
selection of the TSL file(s).

After you select the TSL file(s) you wish to convert,

click the Execute button. The program will write new
LTD files with the same name but new extension into
the same folder. These will then appear in the list.

Clicking the properties button at the end

of the TSL file name will display a
dialog as shown here. This allows you to
view the internal TSL entries.

You may wish to move the new LTD

files to another location, perhaps into
the main Transducer folder. This can be
done using Window's File Explorer

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6.9 Open Graph Setup

The File | Open Graph Setup menu item opens a graph

setups file and loads the configuration data into the current
design. The tool button, as shown above, can also be used
to activate this item. Graph setup files have an FSG
extension.

Graph setup files store configuration parameters such as

colors, lines, fonts, and scale data. You can save these
settings in a graph setup file and then load them into design
files without affecting the circuit data.

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6.10 Save Graph Setup

The File | Save Graph Setup menu item saves a graph

setup file. The tool button, as shown above, can also
be used to activate this item.

Graph setup files store configuration parameters such

as colors, lines, fonts, and scale data. These are taken
from the current design and stored in the graph setup
file. You can save these settings in a graph setup file
and then load them into design files without affecting
the circuit or target data.

File | Save Graph Setup presents a dialog to specify

the graph file name and folder to save. You may choose to save graph setup
files on a project basis, or place the files in the common Graph folder.

Graph files have an extension of FSG. You should always use the default
extension. It is not recommended that you use other extensions, or you may not
recognize the files in the future.

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6.11 Print

The File | Print menu item is used to print the main graph
window data. The accelerator key CTRL-P can be used to
activate this item using the keyboard, or the tool button as
shown above.

The Print item opens a dialog for printing control. From

here the artwork generated in the program can be printed
to any output device currently supported in your Windows
system.

The graphs used in the program have layouts of 10 inches wide by 8 inches high.
The Design Parameters listing can have multiple pages depending on the length of
the data.

Printing at a scale factor of 100% will require landscape orientation on 8½ x 11 letter

size paper. This is the default mode for the printer setup. For portrait printing, use
a reduced scale factor such as 80% or less.

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Page(s) to Print
This group box provides check boxes to enable printing of the various graph
windows. Choose which pages you wish to print. The All On / All Off buttons
provide an easy means to enable/disable all of the check boxes at once. Note
that the schematic page can be larger than 11x8½. If you need to print this at
reduced scale factor from the other pages, you will need to print it separately
from the other standard letter size pages.

Printer Configuration
This group box displays the configuration for the currently selected printer.
When you start a print, this configuration will be used. To change the
configuration use the Setup button at the bottom of the dialog box.

Color Options
This group box provides two options which control how the graphics are
printed. If the Color/Gray option is selected, and you are printing to a Black
& White device, the colors in the artwork will be dithered to produce gray
levels.

When the Black & White selection is used, all colors in the artwork graphics
will be printed as black, regardless of the printer. This is a very useful feature
when printing to a dot matrix device. Gray halftones of low resolution on small
lines or fonts may often result in unreadable graphics. Printing all colors as
black will eliminate this problem and produce better looking plots on low
resolution devices.

For printing on laser or ink jet printers where higher resolution is available, it
may be a matter of choice as to the representation of color. Gray lines of
varying density may help to produce more identity between multiple lines on
the graphs. With the low cost availability of color ink jet printers today,
printing in color will usually be the most popular choice.

Location Options
This group box provides two options which control where the graphics are
printed on the page. If you are printing in full size, neither option will be much
different since the artwork will mostly fill the page regardless. However, if the
graph is printed at reduce size, the image will appear either in the middle of the
page or in the top left corner.

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The Center of Page option positions the artwork in the center of the available
printing area. The printing area is dependent on the page size selected for the
printer. The Corner of Page option positions the artwork at a corner of the available
printing area. The printing area is dependent on the page size selected for the printer
and the specific corner will vary depending on whether landscape or portrait
orientation is in use.

Scaling Options
This editing field allows you to specify the amount of enlargement or reduction in
the magnification of the printed image. The value is entered in percent. A full size
100% plot represents an artwork width of 10 inches and a height of 8 inches for the
standard sized graphs.

Setup Button
Use this button when you wish to change the selected printer and/or configuration.
When this button is pressed another dialog will open to change the printer/port
selection. These dialogs are produced from the printer driver. The contents of these
dialogs will be different for various printers. An example is shown below.

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6.12 File Editor

The File | Editor menu item allows you to open and

view/edit a file with your currently selected text
editor. The tool button as shown above can also be
used to activate this item.

The default editor is set to NOTEPAD.EXE. How-

ever, you can easily change this to your favorite text
editor through the File | Preferences dialog.

There are many occasions in the program where you may wish to view or edit
the contents of a text file. This arises frequently when you are importing/
exporting text data. All text files exported by the program have the default
extension TXT.

File | Editor presents a dialog to choose the file to open with the editor.

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The image above shows a text file opened with the MultiEdit editor.

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6.13 Preferences

The File | Preferences menu item opens a dialog that

contains additional parameter settings for the pro-
gram. These are parameters which are changed on a
less frequent basis, or provide optional behavior.

Preference parameters are stored in the LEAP_ENC.

INI file as global characteristics, and are not loaded
from design files.

Editor Path
This is the path to the editor you wish to use when
opening text files for viewing or editing inside the
program. The default choice is the Window's
NOTEPAD.EXE basic editing program. You can choose your own favorite
editor by using the Browse button, and selecting your editor's EXE file.

Cursor Style
The bitmap used for the tracking cursor can be selected here. There are several
possible choices. The blinking rate of the cursor can also be controlled by
entering a numeric value in the edit box.

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General
There are several check boxes which enable/disable general options in the program.
The Show Splash Screen option controls whether the initial introduction screen
appears when you start the program. The Graph Select Toolbar option controls
whether or not it will appear when a graph window is maximized. The Auto Backup
Design Files option will automatically create a BAK version of your design file each
time you save it. The Quick View Scale from Data option controls how the vertical
auto scale is generated for the QuickView graph. When disabled, the vertical scale
is produced by the major division values of the original graph. When enabled, the
scale is adjusted to fit the data within the bounds of the selection rectangle.

Relative Cursor Mode Horz Data

When taking relative cursor measurements, this option provides two different
readout modes for the horizontal data. You can have the horizontal value represent
the absolute true value at the cursor, or the horizontal difference between the
reference point and the current position of the cursor. This would be similar to what
happens with the vertical data.

Optional Design File Data

These options determine whether some configuration parameters will be treated as
global or design specific. For example, when opening a design file one may wish
for the current graph fonts and color settings to remain unchanged. Likewise, one
may wish that the toolbar locations remain the same, and not be affected when a
design is opened. Conversely, if you want to restore all of the full configuration
elements by each design file when it is opened, you can enable these options.

Optional Graph Setup File Data

These options determine whether some configuration parameters in the Graph
Setup files will be restored when the setup file is opened. For example, the Scale
Parameters option will reload the scale parameters from the saved graph setup file
data. Likewise, the View Parameters option will reload the graph window display
parameters from the saved graph setup file data. Using these options you can
control which aspects of the graph setup file data you wish to use to restore previous
settings.

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Control Bar Texture

These are selectable backgrounds which can be used in the control bars located
at the top and in the Tool Box.

The color depth of these texture patterns vary from 4-Bit to 24-Bit. Depending
on the mode of your video system, some may not be suitable for display.

You can create your own bit-

maps as well and place them
into the ControlBarTexture
folder. The program will auto-
matically load them for selec-
tion the next time it is started.

There is also a palette file

LEAP.PAL which should be
used if you are creating 256
color bitmaps. All files must be
BMP format.

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6.14 Exit

The File | Exit menu item is used to terminate the program.

The accelerator key CTRL-Q can be used to activate this
item using the keyboard as well.

When this option is selected the system checks to see if any

changes have been made since the design was last saved.
If changes have been made, then a dialog box will appear
with three options for exiting the program. If the current
design name is Untitled you will always receive this
message.

Use the YES button if you wish to save the design, and another dialog box will appear
to allow you to enter a new file name if the current name is Untitled. If the current
name is valid, the file will be updated. The program will exit after saving the file.

Use the NO button if you do not wish to save the current design as a file, or do not
wish to update the existing file on disk. The program will exit after pressing this
button.

Use the CANCEL button if you wish to abort the exiting process. You will be
returned to the program after this button is pressed.

Note:
When you exit the program, all of the configuration data is stored in the
LEAP_ENC.INI file and will be restored the next time you start the program.

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Edit Menu 7

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7.1 Transducer Parameters

The Edit | Transducer Parameters menu item will open a dialog which controls
the creation, editing, and general management of transducer library files. The tool
button as shown above can also be used to activate this item.

This dialog has many advanced features and capabilities. There are also two modes
of operation: library editing, and transducer editing. The library mode is shown
below. There are two large display areas. The left panel shows a tree view of the
library folders and library files within each folder. One file is generally selected.
The right panel shows a list view of the transducers in that library.

There can be multiple transducer folders, with any number of library files in each.
Furthermore, each library file can hold any number of transducer entries. All library
files have an extension of LTD (LEAP Transducer Data). However, the entries in
a library may actually be one of three different models: STD, TSL, or LTD. Much
of the functionality for these two panels is provided through Right Click menus.

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Folder/File Tree View

The left panel gives a tree view of the transducer folders
and files. The bottom status bar provides the number of
folders, files, and selected files. Each branch of the tree
can be opened or closed by clicking on the [+]/[-] boxes.
The files in each folder are shown in a hierarchical style.

The tree view can be scrolled up and down, and the center
divider can also be repositioned horizontally to change the
space utilization between the tree and list view panels.
Simply place the mouse over the divider and drag.

Selecting Files
Clicking on a file will select it, and multiple files can be
selected using the CTRL and SHFT keys. Operation is
very similar to Window's File Explorer. The transducers
in the primary selected file will appear in the list view
panel on the right side of the dialog.

Editing File Names

You may edit the file names in place by simply clicking the mouse twice over
the file name. The extension will always be forced to LTD.

Moving / Copying Files

You may move or copy a file from one folder to another simply by dragging
it with the mouse. If you hold down the CTRL key you will copy it. Otherwise
it will be moved.

Popup Menu
When you Right Click with the mouse over the Folder/File tree view, a popup
menu will appear as shown above. This menu contains all of the various
operations you can perform on folders and files. Some items may be grayed
out if they are not applicable to the selection. Some items require a folder
selection, while others may require one or more file selections.

Many shortcuts are also provided for the operations in the popup menu. These
are shown in the right side of the menu item listings. However, for these to
operate the folder/file tree view must have the focus.

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• Add Folder
This item will allow you to add another folder to the tree. No selection is
required. All folders appear under the root Leap Transducer Data
Folders. A dialog will open allowing you to select the folder.

• Remove Folder
This item will remove a folder from the display. It does not delete any folders or
files on your hard drive. A folder selection is required.

• New LTD File

This item will create a new LTD file under the
currently selected folder. A dialog will open to
allow you to enter the file name and choose the
number of initial transducer entries.

• Delete LTD File(s)

This item will delete one or more selected LTD
files. This does erase them permanently from the
hard drive, and you will be asked to confirm the
operation before it takes place. This is permanent.

Note: When the dialog is opened a check is performed on the list of transducer
folders. If a folder path does not exist on a drive it is removed from the list. Also,
the default folder LEAP/Transducers is always added if not already in the list.

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• Rename LTD File

This item will open another dialog allowing you to rename
a selected LTD file. You can also do this using the in-place
editing feature by clicking twice on a file name.

• Duplicate LTD File

This item will create a copy of a selected LTD
file. The new file will be placed under the same
folder, and the name will be modified with the
prefix Dup... as shown here. The duplicate file
will contain all of the same transducer data.

• Select All Spkrs

This item will select all the transducers in the
currently selected LTD file. This will be indi-
cated in the list view panel as shown below.
You can also perform the same function in the
transducer list view panel itself.

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Transducer List View

The right panel gives a list of all
the transducers within the cur-
rently selected LTD file. The list
contains many columns which
show some of the more com-
monly used parameters for se-
lecting transducers. The list can
be sorted by any of these param-
eters simply clicking on one of
the column headers.

The bottom status bar provides

the number of transducers in the
LTD library file, and the number
currently selected transducers.
Warnings and error messages may
also appear here as well.

The list view can be scrolled up/down and left/right. The center divider can also be
repositioned horizontally to change the space utilization between the tree and list
view panels. Simply place the mouse over the center divider and drag.

You may also edit a transducer name in-place by clicking twice in the name field.
The M-S-P column shows icons which indicate the Model, Shape, and Profile.

Selecting Transducer
Clicking anywhere on a transducer row will select it, and multiple transducers can
be selected using the CTRL and SHFT keys. Operation is very similar to Window's
File Explorer.

Editing Transducer Names

You may edit the file names in-place simply by clicking the mouse twice over the
transducer name field.

Moving / Copying Transducer

You may move or copy a transducer(s) from one file to another simply by dragging
it with the mouse to a different file in the tree view. Hold down the CTRL key for
Copy, otherwise it will be Moved.

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Popup Menu
When you Right Click with the mouse over the transducer list view, a popup
menu will appear as shown above. This menu contains all of the various
operations you can perform on transducers. Some items may be grayed out
if not applicable.

Many shortcuts are also provided for the operations in the popup menu.
These are shown in the right side of the menu item listings. However, for
these to operate the transducer list view must have the focus.

• Edit Parameters
This item will place the dialog into the transducer editing mode, with the
selected transducer. Double Clicking on a transducer will also activate this
item, as will the shortcut CTRL-E. The tree and list view area will be replaced
with the parameter editing fields. These are covered in detail shortly.

• New Transducer
This item will append a new transducer to the listing with default parameter
values. You may then edit the values as desired, or Paste values from the
clipboard when the editing fields are displayed.

• Cut Transducer(s)
This item will copy the selected transducer(s) to the Clipboard, and then delete
them from the library. The transducers are copied in binary format.

• Copy Transducer(s)
This item will copy the selected transducer(s) to the Clipboard. The transducers
are copied in binary format.

• Paste Transducer(s)
This item will paste the transducer(s) from the Clipboard. The transducers are
required to be in the binary format within the Clipboard.

• Delete Transducer(s)
This item will delete the selected transducer(s) from the library file.

• Duplicate Transducer
This item will duplicate the selected transducer and place another copy into the
list. The new name will be modified with Dup... prefix.

• Select All
This item will select all the transducers.
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Moving and Copying Transducers between Files

Using both the tree and list views, transducers can be moved and or copied from one
file to another simply by dragging them. If you wish to copy, hold the CTRL key
down before starting. Select one or more transducers in the list view, then drag them
over to another file in the tree view.

The Importance of Transducer Names

The names of all transducers in a library file must be unique. Since the number of
transducers in a library is unlimited, and the index of a transducer can often change
due to library editing, the transducers are always identified by their name. If you
encounter identical transducer names in a library file, you should rename the
transducer as soon as possible.

Note: If more than one transducer has the same name in a library, a warning will
appear in the status bar and the M-S-P column will show warning icons.

Automatic Update of Enclosure Transducers

It should be understood that the enclosure Model dialogs make a copy of the
transducer data when a transducer is selected there. This Transducer Parameters
dialog does not select transducers into enclosure designs. It is solely for manage-
ment of transducer library files and entries.

However, when you leave this dialog it will check the enclosure design for the
selected transducer. If a match is found, it will prompt you to update the enclosure
transducer. This assumes that you have been editing the same library and transducer
as used in the enclosure.

The determination of whether or not it is the same transducer is based on library and
transducer names. If these match, then it checks three more critical parameters:
Shape, Profile, and Sd. In order for an automatic update of the enclosure transducer
to take place, all of these parameters must match. Otherwise, the update must be
Note: Automatic up- made by the user manually and may also require update to the 3D layout due to
dating of the enclo- changes in Shape, Profile, or Sd.
sure transducer can
only occur when you If the Shape, Profile, and Sd of the transducer have not changed, then it will update
leave this dialog with the remaining parameters in the enclosure transducer. A dialog will be presented
the same matching requesting user confirmation.
library transducer
selected. If you do not receive this notification message when leaving the Transducer
Parameters dialog, then the selected transducer is not used in the current enclosure
design, or the critical parameters have changed.

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Transducer Graph Display

When the Graph toggle button is depressed, the dialog will be extended to
show a graph of the selected transducer's response. When it is clicked again the
dialog will collapse to its original size.

Within the graph are 11 selection buttons to choose which transducer charac-
teristics are to be displayed. This provides easy viewing of any transducer
characteristic. A cursor readout system is also provided. Any data point along
the curve can be read by holding down the left mouse button and moving the
mouse to the desired frequency. The frequency scale follows that of the Scale
Parameters dialog.

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By Right Clicking the mouse over the graph, a popup menu button will appear
as shown here. This allows you to Copy the transducer curve or curves in to
the Windows Clipboard. You could then Paste them at a later time into the
Guide Curve Library.

Typically the graph curves are generated at 1 Watt and a distance of 1 Meter.
However, if the transducer uses the LTD model you may also change the power
level and temperature operating points. Free air mass loading is assumed. All
transducer curves using the LTD model will have frequency dependent
parameter behavior. Transducers with the STD or TSL models will not. The
following table gives a description of the curves:

Curve Description
SPL The acoustic response of the transducer
IMP The Impedance response of the transducer
Rem The resistive portion of the motor impedance
Lem The inductive portion of the motor impedance
Zem The total impedance of motor (Rem+jwLem)
Zeb The blocked impedance (Revc+Rem+jwLem)
BL The magnetic flux-length product of the motor
Rms The mechanical suspension resistance
Cms The mechanical suspension compliance
Mms The mechanical mass w/ air load (Mmd+Mmr)
Xms The mechanical excursion of the diaphragm

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Transducer Editing Mode

Opening the edit mode can be performed from the Popup menu, by using the
shortcut CTRL-E, or by Double Clicking on a transducer in the list view. The edit
panel is shown above. This panel contains a large number of editing fields and also
a number of button functions at the bottom.

Transducer data may be stored in the Clipboard in two different ways: either as text
strings, or as a binary record. Each of the two methods provide special capabilities.
The text format allows the user to create transducer data in other applications or
manually, and import it into this program. The binary format allows for multiple
transducers to be copied and pasted through the Clipboard. In most cases, the user
will probably wish to use the binary format which supports multiple transducers.

A sample of the structure and parameters of the text format is shown on the
following page. The actual number of parameters will depend on the model. If you
are creating transducer data manually or in another application, you will need to
follow this same structure carefully.

The units are also important and only certain types of units will be recognized,
depending on the parameter. The exported units for each parameter will follow the
selections of the fields. Certain parameters also have key words such as Cone,
Dome, Round, etc., that are recognized during paste.

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* Loudspeaker Enclosure Analysis Program

* LEAP® EnclosureShop 5.0.0.278 Oct/13/2002
* ©1993-2002 LinearX Systems Inc
* Date: Oct 14, 2002 Mon 2:09 am
* LTD File=D:\Program Files\Leap_ed\Transducers\Samples.Ltd
* Electro Mechanical Parameters
Name= Test Woofer STD
Note=
Model= STD
Domain= FreeAir
Shape= Round
Profile= Cone
Fmd= 3.0000 KA
Qmd= 3.0000
Flp= 8.0000 KA
Qlp= 2.0000
Znom= 8.0000 Ohm
Revc= 5.8700 Ohm
Sd= 3.0000E-3 M²
Mmd= 2.1000E-3 Kg
Pmax= 25.0000 W
Rtvc= 10.0000 °C/W
Xgap= 1.0000 M
Xcoil= 1.0000 M
Xmax= 0.0000 M
Rms= 173.4879E-3 N·S/M
Mms= 2.1944E-3 Kg
Cms= 695.7570E-6 M/N
Vas= 894.3748E-6 M³
Fo= 128.8052 Hz
Qms= 10.2367
Qes= 0.3200
Qts= 0.3103
BL= 5.7077 T·M
Levc= 200.0000E-6 H
SPLo= 89.5970 dB
No= 573.0000E-3 %
* End

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The following list describes the edit mode button functions:

• Copy as Text
This button will copy the transducer editing data to the Clipboard as text strings.

• Copy as Binary
This button will copy the transducer editing data to the Clipboard as a binary record.

• Paste from Text

This button will paste transducer data from the Clipboard into the editing fields. The
Clipboard transducer data must be in the text form.

• Paste from Binary

This button will paste transducer data from the Clipboard into the editing fields. The
Clipboard transducer data must be in the binary form.

• Check Params
This button will perform a manual correlation check of the parameters. If a problem
is found you will receive a message. If no error is found, a confirmation Beep is
produced. If you have Auto Check enabled this function is unnecessary.

• Auto Check
This toggle button will enable or disable auto parameter correlation checking.
Checking is performed continuously during live editing of the parameter fields.
Whenever the mouse is clicked on a different field, the check is performed. This also
performs automatic forward and backward calculation of related parameters.

Depending on your editing preferences, you may wish to use either manual or
automatic correlation. If you choose to use manual, and turn off the Auto Check
function, make sure to verify your final parameters using Check Params.

• Show Graph
When this toggle button is depressed, the dialog will be extended to show a graph
of the transducer's response, based on the values in the editing fields. When it is
clicked again, the dialog will collapse to its original size.

Viewing the graph while adjusting the transducer's Fmd, Qmd, Flp, and Qlp
parameters is very useful when shaping the high frequency response. It is also
extremely valuable for graphically verifying the results of the parameters.

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Editing Fields
The editing fields of the transducer parameters are arranged into logical groups
of similar type, as is shown in the shaded dialog view below. Parameters are
enabled or disabled based on the type of model. Many of the parameters are
used specifically for the LTD model, and are disabled in the other models.

When manually entering a new transducer, you should begin with the param-
eters in the General area. This is especially true for the Model parameter which
will determine what other fields are enabled/disabled.

It is typically not possible to convert the parameters from one model to another
simply by switching the model. However, the TSL and LTD models can be
degenerated into the STD model with little difficulty.

All of these models can be derived from basic impedance measurements on the
actual transducer. These measurements are then processed using the Trans-
ducer Model Derivation dialog to distill the required parameter values.

The following sections will describe the parameters used in each model, and
the actual parameters will be defined following the model descriptions.

Note: Additional background and detailed information regarding the trans-

ducer models is provided in chapter 4.

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STD Model
The STD (Standard) model provides the most basic parameters to define a
transducer. These active parameters are shown in the editing view below. Manual
entry should begin with the Name field and follow the Tab key order.

These parameters will be familiar to most users. The only new parameters here will
likely be the high frequency shaping controls Fmd, Qmd, Flp, and Qlp. These are
common to all models and are used to adjust the high frequency response based on
known transducer performance.

However, the use of these controls with this model is somewhat pointless. Since the
high frequency response of the transducer is highly dependent on the modeling of
motor impedance, this model will generally produce substantial errors in the
response at mid and high frequencies. There may also be significant errors at low
frequencies, depending on the other parameters of the transducer. (See the model
comparisons in chapter 4 for more details.)

Editing the parameters of a STD transducer is straight forward. Using the

correlation features will also ensure accurate parameter relationships.

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TSL Model
The TSL (Transducer Speaker Library) model utilizes all of the same param-
eters as the STD model but with the additional three parameters specifying
motor dimensions, and also the four parameters defining motor impedance. In
this model Levc is not an editable parameter, having been replaced by a more
sophisticated motor impedance model using Rem and Lem. The active
parameters are shown in the editing view below. Manual entry should begin
with the Name field and follow the Tab key order.

As with the STD model, most of these parameters will be familiar to users. The
high frequency shaping parameters Fmd, Qmd, Flp, and Qlp are used to adjust
the high frequency response based on known transducer performance. The
Xcoil, Xgap, and Xmax values are used for nonlinear BL modeling. The Krm,
Erm, Kxm, and Exm coefficients control the motor impedance model.

The high frequency shaping parameters are selected on a trial-and-error basis.

This operation should be performed last after the other parameters have been
correctly entered.

This model also provides two special function buttons: Levc Motor and SPL
Mech. Levc Motor is used to generate approximate guesses for the Rem and
Lem functions based on Levc. SPL Mech will create mechanical parameters
based on a known SPL sensitivity. This is often helpful for tweeters.

(See the model comparisons in chapter 4 for more details.)

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LTD Model
The LTD (Leap Transducer Data) model operates very differently than either of the
other two models. In this case only fundamental parameters are active and all
dependent parameters are inactive. In this model dependent parameters are a
function of the operating point, meaning they do not have fixed values. For
example, if the compliance changes with drive level the Cms and fo values change
as well. They are not fixed. Only fundamental coefficients are fixed constants.

The active parameters are shown in the editing view below. Manual entry should
begin with the Name field and follow the Tab key order. The disabled dependent
fields are calculated automatically based on the drive level and temperature.

As with the other models the high frequency shaping parameters Fmd, Qmd, Flp,
and Qlp are used to adjust the high frequency response based on known transducer
performance. The high frequency shaping parameters are selected on a trial-and-
error basis. This operation should be performed last after the other parameters have
been correctly entered. The Vs and Ta parameters control the operating conditions
and affect how the dependent parameters will be calculated.

Derivation of the other numerous coefficient parameters requires multiple imped-

ance measurements taken under different drive levels and if desired different
temperatures. The Transducer Model Derivation dialog is required for processing
the large amount of data into transducer parameters.

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Transducer Parameters
Nearly all of the numeric parameters have unit conversion buttons associated
with them. This allows you to enter and display the values in a wide variety of
different units. Make sure to note the units when entering parameters.

Entering parameters with Auto Check is probably the best way to validate
parameters. This will also calculate other values forward and backwards as
they are being entered. If you choose to enter the parameters without Auto
Check, you will need to use the manual Check Params function afterwards.
This will often produce many update messages of parameters that must be
corrected. Updating all the parameters at once in this way can be confusing.

Detailed information about the various transducer parameters can also be

found in Chapter-4 Transducer Models.

General Parameters

Name - The names of all transducers in a library file must be unique. Name
and fields are limited to 39 characters. This will be displayed in the list view.

Note - Additional information can be placed in this field. Up to 39 characters.

Model - The type of mathematical model used for the transducer. The three
choices are STD, TSL, and LTD.

Domain - This will be either Free Air or Infinite Baffle depending on how the
data was measured. This affects the Mmr value for internal calculations, and
will produce slightly different parameters. If the transducer was measured
using an IEC baffle or other large baffle select InfBaf, otherwise use FreeAir.

Shape - This parameter specifies the shape of the transducer diaphragm. The
selection controls modeling of the directional characteristics. The following
choices are provided: Point, Round, Ellipse-3:2, Hexagon, Triangle, Square,
Rect-2:1, Rect-3:1, Rect-4:1, Rect-5:1. The point source has no directivity.

Profile - This parameter specifies the profile of the transducer diaphragm. The
selection controls modeling of the directional characteristics. The following
choices are provided: Flat, Cone, and Dome.

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Physical Parameters

Znom - The nominal rated impedance of the transducer.

Revc - The DC voice coil resistance.

Sd - The equivalent acoustic diaphragm area.

Mmd - The physical mass of the diaphragm without air load.

Pmax - The nominal rated power of the transducer. This will be used to relate the
thermal resistance Rtvc assuming a failure temperature of 250C°. Various values
can be used here depending on what type of power behavior you wish to describe.

Rtvc - The thermal resistance of the voice coil. The value is related to Pmax as
described above. Adjusting this value will change Pmax and vice versa.

Xgap - The height of the magnetic field gap.

Xcoil - The height of the voice coil winding.

Xmax - The overhang or under hang of the coil outside or inside the gap. This is
generally thought of as the maximum peak linear travel. However for most
transducers there is no hard threshold between linear and nonlinear operation. More
often the nonlinearity shows a continuous increase with increasing excursion.

Xfrg - This parameter along with the previous three is used by the LTD model to
represent the location of the fringing field outside the gap.

Efrg - This parameter is used by the LTD model and controls the width of the
fringing field outside the gap.

BLo - This parameter is used by the LTD model and is the maximum BL product
with the voice coil at rest.

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Motor Impedance Parameters

Krm - This parameter is used by the TSL and LTD models to define the
resistance constant of the motor impedance.

Frm - This parameter is used by the LTD model as a transition frequency

between the two different resistance slopes controlled by Drm and Erm.

Drm - This parameter is used by the LTD model to control the low frequency
slope (exponent) of the motor resistance.

Erm - This parameter is used by the TSL and LTD models to control the high
frequency slope (exponent) of the motor resistance.

Vrm - This parameter is used by the LTD model to control the change in motor
resistance due to voltage. It is an exponent.

Trm - This parameter is used by the LTD model to control the change in motor
resistance due to temperature. It is a temperature coefficient.

Kxm - This parameter is used by the TSL and LTD models to define the
reactance constant of the motor impedance.

Fxm - This parameter is used by the LTD model as a transition frequency

between the two different reactance slopes controlled by Dxm and Exm.

Dxm - This parameter is used by the LTD model to control the low frequency
slope (exponent) of the motor reactance.

Exm - This parameter is used by the TSL and LTD models to control the high
frequency slope (exponent) of the motor reactance.

Vxm - This parameter is used by the LTD model to control the change in motor
reactance due to voltage. It is an exponent.

Txm - This parameter is used by the LTD model to control the change in motor
reactance due to temperature. It is a temperature coefficient.

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Suspension Parameters

Krs - This is a constant controlling the scaling of the suspension resistance. It is used
by the LTD model to determine the effective Rms value under operating conditions.

Xrs - This is an excursion constant controlling the nonlinear characteristics of the

suspension resistance. It is used by the LTD model to determine the effective Rms
value under operating conditions. It has units of Length.

Drs - This is an excursion exponent constant controlling the nonlinear slope

characteristics of the suspension resistance. It is used by the LTD model to
determine the effective Rms value under operating conditions.

Ers - This is a constant controlling the frequency dependent characteristics of the

suspension resistance. It is used by the LTD model to determine the effective Rms
value under various operating conditions. This exponent value controls a resistance
shift relative to frequency. Positive values cause the resistance to decrease with
increasing frequency.

Grs - This is a constant controlling the shape of the nonlinear characteristics of the
suspension resistance. It is used by the LTD model to determine the effective Rms
value under operating conditions.

Trs - The temperature coefficient of the suspension resistance. This is the change
in resistance vs. temperature. It is used by the LTD model to determine the effective
Rms value under operating conditions.

Kcs - This is a constant controlling the scaling of the suspension compliance. It is

used by the LTD model to determine the Cms value under operating conditions.

Xcs - This is an excursion constant controlling the nonlinear characteristics of the

suspension compliance. It is used by the LTD model to determine the effective Cms
value under operating conditions. It has units of Length.

Dcs - This is an excursion exponent constant controlling the nonlinear slope

characteristics of the suspension compliance. It is used by the LTD model to
determine the effective Cms value under operating conditions.

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Ecs - This is a constant controlling the frequency dependent characteristics of

the suspension compliance. It is used by the LTD model to determine the
effective Cms value under operating conditions. This exponent value controls
a compliance shift relative to frequency. Positive values cause the compliance
to decrease with increasing frequency.

Gcs - This is a constant controlling the shape of the nonlinear characteristics of

the suspension compliance. It is used by the LTD model to determine the
effective Cms value under operating conditions.

Tcs - The temperature coefficient of the suspension compliance. This is the

change in compliance vs. temperature. It is used by the LTD model to
determine the effective Cms value under operating conditions.

Dependent Parameters

Mms - This is the equivalent total mechanical moving mass of the transducer.
It includes the radiation mass (air-load) as well. If you do not have mechanical
diaphragm values (Cms, Mms, etc.) you can compute a generic set of values
based on the known SPL and electrical parameters using the SPL Mech button.

Cms - The equivalent mechanical compliance of the transducer. The units are
length per unit force, typically Meters/Newton. If you do not have mechanical
diaphragm values (Cms, Mms, etc.) you can compute a generic set of values
based on the known SPL and electrical parameters using the SPL Mech button.

Vas - The equivalent acoustic volume of the transducer. If you do not have
mechanical diaphragm values (Cms, Mms, etc.) you can compute a generic set
of values based on the known SPL and electrical parameters using the SPL
Mech button.

Rms - This is the mechanical resistance (losses) in the suspension of the

diaphragm. It is produced from the surround and spider characteristics.

Fo - The resonance frequency of the diaphragm and suspension.

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BL - The product of magnetic flux density and length of wire in the flux. Typical
units are Tesla-Meters. BL is a measure of the electromagnetic strength of the
transducer motor. For the LTD model this parameter gives the BL at resonance with
the operating conditions.

Qms - This value is a measure of the mechanical losses in the suspension.

Qes - This value is a measure of the electrical losses in the voice coil.

Qts - This value is a measure of the total losses in the transducer.

Levc - This value gives the inductance of the voice coil or motor at 1kHz.

SPLo - This is the theoretical sensitivity in dBspl using 1W based on Revc at 1

Meter. It is relative to half space radiation.

ho - This is the conversion efficiency in % from electrical to acoustical energy.

Operating Condition Parameters

Vs - This is the drive voltage used to compute the dependent parameters in the LTD
model. Since many transducer characteristics are modeled as drive level dependent,
this voltage must be specified in order for other parameters to be computed.

Ta - This is the ambient temperature used to compute the dependent parameters in

the LTD model. Since many transducer characteristics are modeled as temperature
dependent, this value must be specified in order to compute other parameters.

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7.2 Enclosure Parameters

The Edit | Enclosure Parameters menu item will open a dialog which provides
access to the parameters of the enclosure. The actual enclosure dialog will change
depending on the Model currently selected. Each dialog contains the specific
functions needed for a particular enclosure structure. An example of an enclosure
dialog is shown below for the Ported Highpass Enclosure.

The details of each enclosure model are given in the following chapter on Models.
However, most of the enclosure dialogs have many sections and controls in
common. The type of sections common to all of the enclosure dialogs to be
described here are: Shell, Domain, Chamber, Port, and Transducer.

Depending on the particular dialog, there may be multiple sections of the same type,
or modified combinations of various parameters. Each model requires elements
specific to its own structure.

All of the dialogs contain many graphical icons and picture elements which aid in
the visualization of the enclosure and its configuration.

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Shell Section
The external description of an enclosure is known
as the shell. Each shell section has a small icon
denoting the structure of the enclosure and a
volume specification as shown here on the right.

The volume shape and dimensions are used to produce a 3D description of the
surfaces on the enclosure. The actual numeric value of the volume is generally
unimportant, unless there is a single chamber in the enclosure. In that case the
shell and chamber definitions are one in the same. However for enclosures with
multiple chambers a separate definition is always used for the shell.

The large graphic in the section displays a picture of the currently selected
volume shape, and the name of the shape is also given below the Volume editing
field. A small button [¨] is also provided to display the volume in a variety
of different units.

To change the shell configuration, click the button in the Volume editing field.
A Volume Parameters dialog will then be presented as shown on the following
page. The actual numeric Volume field value cannot be edited directly. It is
automatically calculated by the Volume Parameters dialog.

Note: When you change the shell volume configuration, the 3D structure of the
enclosure will be invalidated. When the dialog is closed, the 3D structure of
the enclosure will then be recreated.

It is also possible to import custom definitions for the shell by using the 3D
Layout Editor. In this case the volume specification should not be edited here,
as this would cause the custom shape to be overwritten.

Lock Shell
When the chamber volume and shell definition are defined at the same time (by
clicking the Volume button), a means must be provided to prevent the shell
from being changed. This is necessary when a custom 3D shell object has been
imported. When this is checked, only the chamber volume will be modified and
the existing shell is maintained. This option should be enabled if you are using
imported shells.

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Volume Parameters
This dialog is used throughout the program
to define the shape and dimensions of a 3D
volume specification. It provides auto-
matic calculation of the internal volume
including compensation for wall thickness.

Dimensions can be entered and displayed

in many different kinds of units, both for
length and volume. Both forward and back-
ward calculation of dimensions and vol-
umes are provided.

The Shape group box is primarily used to select the geometric shape for the volume.
Over 18 different shape selections are available in the list box. Additional controls
are provided for units and wall thickness. The Res selection controls the angular
resolution for curved surfaces. The curved surfaces will be approximated by flat
polygons using this angular resolution step size between faces. For some shapes the
Sides parameter will be required. A listing of the available shapes is given on the
following page.

Depending on the specific shape, different dimensional parameters will be enabled.

The graphic image shows the usage of the different parameters for each shape. Each
time the focus is moved from a dimensional parameter, the volume parameters will
be recalculated. When a volume parameter is changed, another dialog will appear
to select which dimensional value should be updated to correlate.

The volume calculations also provide the ability to include an Occupied value. This
is an additional volume reserved inside the shape, for transducers, ports, braces,
etc., which decreases the available net volume.

The Infinite shape does not require any dimensional parameters. The volume will
be automatically set to 1 Million cubic meters to approximate an infinite volume.

Leaving the dialog with a net volume of zero is not permitted. If this occurs you will
receive a warning message and be forced to correct the necessary parameters before
the close operation is allowed.

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Standard Volume Shape Definitions

D2 D2
W1 W1

H1

H1 H1

W1 W1 D1 W2
D1 D1

0 - Infinite 1 - Cube 2 - Box 3 - VBox 4 - UBox

D2 W1
W2 D2 D2 W1
W2 R1
H1 H1 H2
H1
H2
H1
H1

W1 D1 W1 W2 D1
D1 D1
R2

5 - TrapBox 6 - SlantBox 7 - BevelBox 8 - Wedge 9 - Cone

R1
R1 R1
N N
H1 H1
H1

H2

R2 R2 R1
W1
10 - Pryamid 11 - Diamond 12 - Sphere 13 - Ellipsoid

R1 R1 R1
H1

H2

R1

14 - Eggoid 15 - Icosahedron 16 - Dodecahedron 17 - Buckyball

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Chamber Section
A chamber is a fixed volume of air which may be
connected via transducers and/or ports, to addi-
tional chambers or the external radiation field.
Chambers are often labeled by their location in the
enclosure structure such as front or rear. A typical
chamber group box is shown here on the right.

Like the Shell section, all chambers include a volume specification as the primary
parameter. For chambers the numeric volume value is of key importance, while the
shape of the volume itself is used solely to facilitate the calculation.

The large graphic in the section displays a picture of the currently selected volume
shape, and the name of the shape is also given below the graphic. Several small
buttons [¨] are provided to display the field values in a variety of different units.

To change the volume configuration, click the button in the Volume editing field.
A Volume Parameters dialog will then be presented as shown on the preceding
page. The actual numeric Volume field value cannot be edited directly. It is
automatically calculated by the Volume Parameters dialog.

The chamber may also be filled with a fibrous material. These materials are used to
absorb the standing waves within the chamber at mid and high frequencies.
However, they will also create losses at low frequencies.

The amount of fill is specified by the Vfill parameter, and the density by the Dfill
parameter. The type of Media can also be chosen. Lining all of the internal the walls
of a chamber typically corresponds to about 50% fill.

The density of fiberglass materials generally range from 1 lb/Ft3 (16 kg/m3) to 6
lb/Ft3 (96 kg/m3). Most typical fiberglass batting is between 1-3 lb/Ft3 .

Polyester materials are much lighter, often 0.25 lb/Ft3 (4 kg/m3) to 1 lb/Ft3 (16 kg/
m3). If you are using a different material you will need to use the appropriate value.

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Port Section
A port may be either an air vent or a passive
drone radiator, which may connect two cham-
bers or a chamber and the external radiation
field. Ports are often labeled by their location in
the enclosure structure such as front or rear. A
typical port group box is shown here on the right.

A port specification may actually be a cluster of ports at the given location.

This is sometimes referred to here as a multi-port or a port set. The Qty field
shown above indicates the number of ports in the set. It is assumed that all of
the ports are mounted in acoustic parallel with identical dimensions.

The primary parameter of a port is the resonance frequency Fp as shown in the

field above. This resonance is given by association with a chamber. The actual
numeric frequency value cannot be edited directly in the field, but must be
modified through use of the Port Parameters dialog.

The large graphic in the section displays a picture of the currently selected area
shape for the port, and the name of the shape is also given below the graphic.

To change the port configuration, click the button in the Fp editing field. A Port
Parameters dialog will then be presented as shown on the following page. The
actual numeric Fp frequency field value cannot be edited directly. It is
automatically calculated by the Port Parameters dialog.

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Port Parameters
This dialog is used throughout the program to define the
shape, dimensions, and tuning data for a multi-port speci-
fication. It provides automatic calculation of the resonance
frequency and/or physical length of the port. These com-
putations provide built-in allowance for the end correc-
tions (radiation mass).

Note that the quantity of ports in the set and the associated
chamber volume are displayed in the lower display fields.

The button within the area field Sp is used to select the shape of the vent (or drone)
and specify its area. An area shape may be chosen here for an air vent type port, or
a drone shape in the case of a passive radiator.

Dimensions can be entered and displayed in many different kinds of units, both for
length and area. Both forward and backward calculation of resonance frequency
and port length are provided.

The actual numeric area value cannot be edited directly in the field, but must be
modified through use of the Area Parameters dialog. The large graphic in the dialog
displays a picture of the currently selected area shape for the port, and the name of
the shape is also given below the Sp combo box field. To change the area
configuration, click the button in the Sp editing field. The Area Parameters dialog
will then be presented as shown on the following page.

The port may also be filled with a fibrous material. These

materials are used to absorb the standing waves within the
port at mid and high frequencies. However, they will also
create losses at low frequencies. In most cases, use of a fill
material in a port is not recommended. However, the
parameters here can be used for special applications or for
additional loss modeling.

If a drone style shape is in use, the names of the fields will

change as shown here. In this case, the Fp value is the
resonance frequency of the drone itself. The Qmd, Cmd,
and Mmd values can be entered based on the actual drone
specifications.

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Area Parameters
This dialog is used throughout the program to define the
shape and dimensions of a 2D area specification. It
provides automatic calculation of the internal area, includ-
ing compensation for wall thickness.

Dimensions can be entered and displayed in many differ-

ent kinds of units, both for length and area. Both forward
and backward calculation of dimensions and area are
provided.

The Shape group box is primarily used to select the

geometric shape for the area. Over 10 different shape
selections are available in the list box. Additional controls
are provided for units and wall thickness. The Res selec-
tion controls the angular resolution for curved shapes. The curved shape will
be approximated by polygons using this angular resolution step size between
sides. For some shapes the Sides parameter will be required. A listing of the
available shapes is given on the following page.

Depending on the specific shape, different dimensional parameters will be

enabled. The graphic image shows the usage of the different parameters for
each shape. Each time the focus is moved from a dimensional parameter, the
area parameters will be recalculated. When a area parameter is changed,
another dialog will appear to select which dimensional value should be updated
to correlate.

The area calculations also provide the ability to include an Occupied value.
This is an additional area reserved inside the shape which decreases the
available net area.

The Infinite shape does not require any dimensional parameters. The area will
be automatically set to 1 Million square meters to approximate an infinite area.

Leaving the dialog with a net area of zero is not permitted. If this occurs you
will receive a warning message and be forced to correct the necessary
parameters before the close operation is allowed.

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Standard Area Shape Definitions

W2

H1
H1 H1

W1 W1 W1 W1

0 - Infinite 1 - Square 2 - Rectangle 3 - Trapezoid 4 - Triangle

R
N H1
H1

N H2
R
R R R

5 - Polygon 6 - Pie 7 - Circle 8 - Ellipse 9 - Egg

10 - Drone

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Transducer Section
A transducer connects two chambers or a chamber
and the external radiation field. Transducers are
often labeled by their location in the enclosure struc-
ture such as front or rear. A typical transducer section
is shown here on the right.

A transducer specification may actually be a cluster of transducers at the given

location. This is sometimes referred to here as a multi-transducer or a transducer
set. The Qty field shown above indicates the number of transducers in the set. The
transducers have both an electrical and acoustical configuration. They may be
wired in electric parallel, series, or series/parallel. They may be mounted in acoustic
parallel, series, or series/parallel. A two port network interface is also provided.

Note: Acoustic series is also known as compound or isobaric.

Note: All of the transducer sets in an enclosure are wired in electric parallel.

To select a transducer click the

folder button. A dialog will open
as shown here with the available
transducer folders and files.

When a transducer is selected,

the transducer's data is copied into
the enclosure data. The original
transducer in the library file is no
longer needed.

Therefore, if you change the origi-

nal transducer data in its library
file, those changes do not apply
here until they are updated.

This may happen automatically when you exit the Transducer Parameters dialog,
if the transducer you were editing is also used in the current enclosure model. (See
the previous section for more details.) If not, then you will need to re-select the
transducer here to pick up any changes from the original transducer library data.

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The transducer section also allows you to view the parameters of the transducer by
clicking the Properties button. A dialog as shown below will appear. The
parameters cannot be edited, but they may be graphed, copied to the Clipboard, or
Pasted from clipboard. This provides an alternative means to enter a transducer into
the enclosure.

Most of the controls on this dialog operate similar to those covered in the
Transducer Parameters dialog. You may also copy the graph curves to the
clipboard by using the Right Click popup menu on the graph.

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The transducer section also allows you to create,

edit, and view the parameters of the network by
clicking the Net button. The dialog is shown here.

Each transducer set is connected to the generator

system through the network described in this
dialog. This is a two port network with four
preassigned node values. Network components
are entered into the net list with additional node
values created by the user as needed.
R1
The default net- 1 3
work is a pair of 1.0u

Transducer
Generator
low value resis-
tors which short
R2
the transducer di- 4
2
rectly to the gen- 1.0u
erator.

The user can create many different types of

networks for each transducer location in an en-
closure. This can be useful for passive crossover
modeling, or other special effects.

Since the transducer side of the network is float-

ing, phase reversal and lattice delay networks can
be utilized as well. The transducer need not even
be connected to the generator at all.

The example here shows a six component net-

work with an additional node (5) added. Compo-
nents must begin with R, L, or C and must have
unique names with non zero values.
R1 5 L2
1 3
10 15.0m
Transducer
Generator

100.0u

500.0u
20.0m
C2

L1

C1

R2
2 4
1.0m

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7.3 Layout Parameters

The Edit | Layout Parameters menu item will open a large 3D editor which
provides capabilities to manipulate the physical layout of the simulation. The
accelerator key F5 can also be used to activate this menu item. The layout editor
plays a crucial role in the advanced acoustic simulations provided by Enclosure-
Shop. It provides a highly efficient graphical means of specifying all of the many
coordinates and orientations necessary to simulate the enclosure and domain.

This special layout editor was created solely for the purpose of enclosure design and
contains a large number of unique and sophisticated features. One of the most
important aspects of the editor is to enforce the specific rules of alignment and
positioning necessary for diffraction analysis. It also satisfies the need for an easy
method to accurately position objects in a meaningful way. This approach is further
facilitated by the use of pre-built objects for all of the required 3D entities.

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+Y
Layout Editor Screen & Axis Locations

+Z +X

Position Rotation
Editor Editor
Menu Toolbar

Zoom (%) X,Y,Z Position Coordinates X,Y,Z Rotation Angles Message Area Camera Vertical Scroll Bar

Camera or Selected Object

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Screen Description
The elements of the 3D editor screen are shown in the preceding page. In addition
to the large viewing window, the editor has its own menu, toolbar, and status bar.
The editor is virtually a large program itself. The main window shows the scene of
the enclosure and domain. Different domains will appear depending on the
selection in the enclosure model dialog.

The scene view is based on a camera position and includes a perspective. This
means that a lens effect of distance is present to aid in the 3D visualization. Various
zoom levels may show some perspective distortion of the scene. The scene is
illuminated by two light sources diagonally positioned above and below.

The menu contains many different functions for display and editing of the scene.
The toolbar contains many of the same menu items, but also additional functionality
not available from the menu. The status bar at the bottom provides many readouts
and editing fields for zoom, position, rotation angles, and messages.

Note the axis orientation given in the preceding page. The Y axis is up, and the X
and Z axis point to the right and left respectively. The enclosure is generally pointed
in the direction of the +Z axis. These axis reference lines are also shown in the scene.
The primary simulation target is shown along the Z axis with X and Y values of zero.
Polar plot angles are relative to this Z axis orientation, with Horz curves in the X axis
direction, and Vert curves in the Y axis direction. The location and orientation of
3D objects are determined both by their x,y,z position and their rotation around each
of the three axis.

Camera Movement & Viewing

The camera provides the user with the observation point of the scene. The position
of the camera can be moved by simply holding down the left mouse button in the
scene and dragging. Moving the mouse in the horizontal direction will rotate the
camera around the Y axis. Moving the mouse in the vertical direction will rotate
the camera up and down in a composite rotation around the X and Z axis. The
camera's position can also be moved vertically up and down along the Y axis using
the scroll bar on the right side of the scene.

If nothing is selected in the scene, then the position and rotation values of the camera
will be displayed in the status bar. The zoom factor is always displayed. Note that
the default units of the coordinate readouts are meters, but they can be changed to
other units by clicking the small button in the status bar.

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Scene Objects
There are six types of objects within the scene: domain, primary target, polar
paths, enclosure, transducer(s), and port(s). The terminology of transducers
and speakers is used here interchangeably and mean the same thing. All of
these objects are pre-built 3D entities whose appearance, shape, and size will
change based on the parameters and selections specified in the design.

Infinite Baffle Domain

This domain appears as a large vertical plane. The enclosure will typically be
recessed into the plane near the origin. Only the baffle board itself, which is
always assumed to be face #1 of the enclosure, will protrude through and flush
with the plane. The remainder of the enclosure will appear behind the plane.

When editing the position of the enclosure, only movements in the X and Y axis
are allowed with no rotations. Since the baffle board must be maintained in the
infinite plane, these are the only positional changes permitted.

All transducers and ports must be on the baffle board face. For some types of
enclosures this may not be possible, and therefore the infinite baffle domain is
not appropriate for those enclosure simulations. The same difficulty would
exist for a real physical measurement.

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Full Space Domain

This domain appears as an anechoic
chamber room. It also provides a
grating as the floor, which helps to
determine up and down directions.

The size of the room is determined

automatically by the dimensions of
the SPL distance. The camera is
always positioned inside the walls.

There are few limitations with this

domain. The enclosure can be ori-
ented in any direction. The simula-
tion target may be located at any
point in space. However, if you move
it outside the chamber, you will need
to close and reopen the dialog so that
the walls can be re-sized.

Half Space Domain

This domain appears as an infinite
horizontal plane or floor. For proper
simulation the target point and all
portions of the enclosure must be at
or above the floor.

The enclosure may be moved or ro-

tated in any direction, however all
portions of the enclosure must be
above the boundary.

The radiation side of the boundary

has a tiled appearance, while the rear
side is a uniform color.

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Quarter Space Domain

This domain appears as an angled
infinite horizontal and vertical plane.
For proper simulation the target point
and all portions of the enclosure must
be at or above the floor, and in front
of the back plane.

The enclosure may be moved or ro-

tated in any direction, however all
portions of the enclosure must be
above and in front of the boundaries.

The radiation sides of the boundaries

have a tiled appearance, while the
rear sides are a uniform color.

Eighth Space Domain

This domain appears as three inter-
secting orthogonal infinite planes.
Much like the corner of a room. For
proper simulation the target point and
all portions of the enclosure must be
at or above the floor, and in front of
the side and back planes.

The enclosure may be moved or ro-

tated in any direction, however all
portions of the enclosure must be
within the radiation active area, and
not on the rear side of the boundaries.

The radiation sides of the boundaries

have a tiled appearance, while the
rear sides are a uniform color.

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Primary Simulation Target

This is the object which indicates the location of the primary simulation point. All
of the acoustic frequency response curves will be generated for this location. The
target object may appear as either a concentric set of square rings or as a concentric
set of semi transparent spheres. This option is provided in the Preferences dialog.

The target also contains a reference line through its center to the origin. This often
aids in alignment with transducers for on-axis response analysis.

The initial location of the target is specified by the SPL Distance and the Horz and
Vert polar angles in the Analysis Parameters dialog. However, this object can also
be selected in the scene and its position edited directly. In this case the X and Y
rotation angles will change the polar Horz and Vert values. The Z rotation is not
used. Changing the X, Y, Z position coordinates will alter the SPL Distance and
Horz / Vert angles together.

When this object is selected it will appear in wireframe mode as shown here.

Simulation Polar Paths

This is a collection of four objects shaped
as curved arrows which indicate the loca-
tion of the polar paths. These are drawn on
a radius of SPL Distance from the origin.

These objects cannot be selected. If you

alter the SPL Distance by editing the loca-
tion of the primary target, the new location
of the polar paths will not be drawn until
you exit and reenter the dialog again.

These paths are useful for visualizing the

location of the polar plots. For some
designs the paths may cross into the enclo-
sure, indicating that the SPL Distance
should be increased.

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Enclosure
The enclosure object is a group of polygons. These
polygons or faces are linked together adjacently to form
the enclosure. The sides of the polygons are also known
to as edges. The faces and edges of an enclosure define the
external shell.

The faces of the enclosure must also have holes cut into
them to allow for transducers and ports. This is handled
automatically by the program through boolean construc-
tion operations, and track the locations of the transducers
and ports as they are moved.

The internal construction of the enclosure is not important

to external field computations, and therefore is not visu-
ally represented. Only the external shell is required.

Transducers and ports may be external or internal within

the enclosure. Only the external sources of radiation will
be visible. Internal transducers and ports are not visible.

The enclosure may be selected, and when selected will

appear as transparent. Using a wireframe approach was
not satisfactory due to the low density of edges.

The selected enclosure can be moved by its X, Y, Z

coordinates and rotated around the three axis. Any
transducers or ports mounted on the enclosure will follow
these translations together as a group.

When the enclosure is selected, the transparent shell

allows you to see through the walls into the interior. The
internal structure of any transducers and ports will also be
visible.

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Transducers
The transducer is a complicated collection of many graphic entities that
provide a realistic portrayal of the physical device. The transducer may
appear in many different shapes, sizes, and configurations depending on the
transducer parameters.

When multiple transducers are mounted in acoustic series (compound),

they will be drawn as a back-to-back pair. This is shown below.

Transducers can be positioned on any face of an enclosure. Their move-

ment is automatically locked to the plane of the face. Therefore they can
only be moved in the X and Y directions, relative to the face, but cannot be
changed in the Z direction. They can be rotated around the Z axis. All edges
of the transducer must fit within the face.

Note: All coordinates of a transducer are relative to the centroid of the face.

Transducers can be selected, and will then appear in a wireframe mode as

shown below. Transducers can also be drawn with an axial reference line
through their center. This can be helpful in alignment of scene objects. This
option is provided in the Preferences dialog.

Whenever a transducer is moved from one face to another the position will
be initialized at the center of the face. From there it can be moved to other
locations around the face.

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Ports
There are two different types of ports: air vents, and passive
radiators (drones). A vent can be nearly any shape and
contains a finite length. A wall thickness is also repre-
sented. All of these dimensions follow the parameters
specified in the enclosure model dialog.

For circular type vents the curved surfaces will be approxi-

mated with polygons. In general, curved surfaces are not
available in 3D graphics. In nearly all cases a curved
shaped will be approximated with polygons or a tessellated
mesh. This editor relies on the polygon representation. The
ResDeg parameter in the Area Parameters dialog will
control the angular resolution or steps for circular ports.

Drone radiators are drawn similar to a transducer, but

without any motor assembly as shown below. Drones by
default always have a round cone shape appearance.

Ports can be positioned on any face of an enclosure. Their

movement is automatically locked to the plane of the face.
Therefore they can only be moved in the X and Y direc-
tions, relative to the face, and cannot be changed in the Z
direction. They can be rotated around the Z axis. All edges
of the port must fit within the face.

Note: All coordinates of a port are relative to the centroid

of the face.

Ports can be selected. If the port is selected it will be drawn

using the wireframe mode. Ports can also be drawn with an
axial reference line through their center. This can be
helpful in alignment of scene objects. This option is
provided in the Preferences dialog.

Whenever a port is moved from one face to another the

position will be initialized at the center of the face. From
there it can be moved to other locations around the face.

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Selecting Objects
The domain objects (walls and boundaries) of the scene cannot be selected, and the
same is true for the polar path arrows. However the enclosure, transducers, ports,
and the primary simulation target can all be selected.

To select an object simply click the left mouse button while over the object. To
unselect the object, click on another object or the background (domain). Multiple
objects cannot be selected and generally have no importance as groups.

The status bar will display the name of the selected object, and the position and
rotation values will become active in the edit fields. It is possible to edit the location
of an object using these fields directly, but in most cases the editing cubes provide
better control and manipulation. Some fields may remain disabled if those values
are not relevant to the object selected. The enclosure is shown selected below.

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When the enclosure is selected it becomes semitransparent and you will be able
to see the internal structure and rear sides of transducers and ports.

A selected transducer is shown below, and a selected port in the view below
that. Both transducers and ports are shown selected in the wireframe mode.
Both are known as sources since they are each sources of radiation.

The status bar displays the name of the selected object, and the position and
rotation values will become active in the edit fields.

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Editing Objects: Moving & Rotating

The position and rotation of a selected object can be edited using the fields in the
status bar. However, in most cases you will wish to use the editing cubes located
Position & Rotation in the toolbar as shown here on the left.
Editing Cubes
These two cubes provide 3D manipulation of the position and rotation of an object
merely through movement of the mouse. The object to be moved is represented by
the brown cube in the center of the two graphics. These graphics are active, and will
change as you move the mouse over them. In reality they behave very much as
sensors to detect the desired axis for editing based on the region highlighted.

After you have selected an object in the scene, move the mouse over one of the
cubes. Note that as you move the mouse over the cube different axis orientations
will be highlighted as shown here below. The cube will also change position to
show the effect of changes in that axis.

Move along X-Axis Move along Y-Axis Move along Z-Axis

Rotate around X-Axis Rotate around Y-Axis Rotate around Z-Axis

When the proper axis indicator is shown for the movement you desire, press the left
mouse button and hold it down. Then move the mouse horizontally left and right
from its current screen location to adjust the parameter. You will see the object
move or rotate in the scene as you move the mouse. The coordinate readouts in the
status bar will also be updated.

Note: Regardless of the axis of the parameter, editing is always performed by

horizontal movement of the mouse.

You can then release the mouse button to keep the change in the parameter. 3D
editing takes some practice before you will have a feel for the spatial orientation and
usage of the controls.

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Axis Lines
Three X,Y,Z axis lines can be displayed in the scene. These are sometimes
useful for orientation and alignment of the enclosure or primary target.
Enabling the check boxes will make the lines visible. The color of the lines can
be changed by clicking the small color buttons. The menu item Show | Axis
Lines can also be used to enabled/disable these objects.

Simulation Locations
The visibility of the various locations of the primary target and polar paths can
be enabled/disabled with the check boxes shown here. The color of each item
may also be changed by clicking the small color buttons. The menu item Show
| Simulation Locations can also be used to enabled/disable these objects.

Simulation Objects
The visibility of the various parts of the domain and enclosure can be enabled/
disabled with the check boxes shown here. The color of each item may also be
changed by clicking the small color buttons. The menu item Show | Objects can
also be used to enable/disable these entities.

Edit Dialog Tool Buttons

Three tool buttons are provided on the toolbar which invoke the various edit
dialogs for Transducer, Enclosure, and Analysis parameters. These functions
are also provided on the menu.

During the process of editing a design it is often more efficient to perform all
of the dialog editing operations from within the 3D editor. These buttons allow
you to open the dialogs within the 3D editor, without the need of repeatedly
moving back and forth between the main window and 3D editor.

Whenever changes take place in the parameters of an enclosure, the 3D layout

may require updating. This can happen if you change the shape or dimensions
of the shell specification. This situation also occurs if the number or type of
transducers and ports change.

The capability of performing these tasks from within the 3D editor allows the
changes to be picked up without opening and closing the 3D editor from the
main window.

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View & Utility Tool Buttons

There are nine tool buttons arranged on the toolbar as shown here on the left. These
provide a number of special view operations and utility processing functions. Some
of the functions are repeated on the View menu while others are located on the Utility
menu.

Default Enclosure Layout

Clicking this button will cause the enclosure to be reset to its default position for the
current domain. No selection is required. The default enclosure position will be
different for the various domains.

Default Spkr/Port Layout

Clicking this button will cause all of the transducers and ports of the enclosure to
be reset to their default position. No selection is required. This will move all of the
external sources to the origin of the baffle board - face #1.

Expand Face
When using enclosures with many faces, it is common that the transducers or ports
may not fit on a face. This function will expand the size of a face, automatically
moving all adjacent vertex nodes and updating the other adjacent faces. Note that
these changes will be destroyed if the shell specification is reset in the enclosure
model dialog later.
First, select the transducer or port whose face
needs to be enlarged. This is shown here on the
left. Then click the Expand Face tool button. The
face will be enlarged. The button may be clicked
more times to enlarge the face further. The final
result is shown here in the right picture.

Note that the transducer face has been enlarged

and the adjacent faces have become smaller. The
program takes care of all the details calculating
the proper vertex nodes to maintain flat surfaces
on all faces. The source will be automatically
snapped to the new surface plane of the face.

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View Front, Side, Top

Clicking either of these three buttons will instantly adjust the camera position
to show the Front, Side, and Top of the enclosure respectively. This provides
a quick means of looking at the enclosure from different perspectives. An
example is shown below for each of the three enclosure views.

Zoom In, Zoom Out, Auto Rotate

Clicking the ZoomIn or ZoomOut buttons will change the zoom factor for the
scene. The Auto Rotate is a toggle button, and when enabled will continuously
rotate the camera to fly around the scene 360°. The increment size is about 3°
per step. The rotation will continue until the button is disabled.

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Popup Menu
A popup menu will appear as shown here on the left when the Right Mouse Button
is clicked. Most of the functions here have already been described, and are simply
alternative methods of activating the tool button or menu items.

However, two special functions

will be described here: Move
Source and OpenGL Information.

The OpenGL Information item

will open a dialog which displays
information on the 3D video
driver and hardware.

The Move Source function is of-

ten used to change the location of
a transducer or port to a different
face. The popup menu provides
the only access to this function.

First, select the source you wish

to move. Then move the mouse
over the new face destination, Right Click to open the popup menu, and then select
the Move Source function. The pictures below show the sequence of operations and
the result. In this example, the transducer is moved from the front face to the side.

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Preferences Dialog
The preferences dialog can be accessed
from the Control menu. This dialog
contains a number of options.

Anti Aliasing
If you have an Nvidia TI model video
card or higher, you will be able to use
this function. Most other models do
not have the ability to control anti
aliasing under programming control.

Primary Target Object

You can select one of two dif-
ferent graphics entities for the
target as shown here. In some
cases, one of these may be pref-
erable over the other when ed-
iting in the scene.

Reference Objects
This group box contains a number of options to draw special
alignment and reference entities in the scene. In most cases,
these can be described as diagnostic tools and generally
unneeded for normal work.

Show Source Axis will project lines from the center of the
sources and is sometimes useful for alignment to the target.

Show Small Sources will display the locations of the source

elements inside the transducers and ports. This is rarely used.

Show Src Abs Vertex will display small cubes at the locations
of the small sources. This is rarely used.

Show Enc Abs Vertex will display small cubes at the locations
of the enclosure face vertex. This is rarely used, but can be
helpful if working with imported enclosure shells..

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Colors Dialog
The colors dialog can be ac-
cessed from the Control menu.
This dialog allows you to edit
the colors used for all of the
scene objects in one location.

The primary reason for this dia-

log is when the toolbar is not
visible.

Print Dialog
The print dialog can
be accessed from the
Control menu. This
dialog allows you to
print the contents of
the 3D scene.

The DPI value is im-

portant and should be
chosen based on your
resolution require-
ments. Keep in mind that high resolution values such as 300 DPI can produce an
extremely long print time or large file size if rendering the print to a disk file.

All of the other print dialog parameters are covered in the File | Print dialog of the
main window.

A sample of a printed scene is shown on the next page. The format of the page is
identical to that of the graphs. A title block is provided with all of the necessary
information for documentation purposes.

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Notes
Enclosure Person: C. Strahm Project: Manual Doc Oct 19, 2002
5.0.0.278 Oct/19/2002 Shop Company: LinearX File: Test.led Sat 5:34 am

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Chapter 7 Edit Menu

Export Raster Graphics Dialog

The scene may also be exported as a raster image file using the Export Graphics
dialog on the Utilities menu. This dialog is shown below, and provides many
different parameters for controlling the colors, size, and resolution of the image.

The actual width and height of the exported image can be defined. Since the aspect
ratio of these dimensions may be different than the screen display, the scene may
be clipped somewhat differently. You may need to experiment with different width
and height ratios if you do not receive the desired representation of the scene in the
exported image file.

There are many different kinds of graphics applications. The type of file format to
use depends entirely on the application. Generally you will be opening or placing
the file in some other application program. Obviously a file format must be chosen
which is supported by the other program. The import capabilities of most programs
are constantly changing with each revision, so it is impossible to give any general
recommendations here. Please consult the documentation of the other program.

The DPI (dots per inch) controls the resolution of the image. Use the two stepper
buttons to increase or decrease the DPI value. The next field allows you to choose
the color format. The possible choices are: B&W, 16 Color, 256 Color, 16M Color,
16 Gray, 256 Gray. Depending on the format, not all color choices may be available.

Some of the raster file formats have op-

tional compression. If so, you will be
able to choose either compressed or un-
compressed. For other file formats this
selection will be chosen for you.

The following formats are supported:

■ BMP Windows Bitmap Format
■ JPG Joint Photo Experts Group
■ PCX ZSoft Picture Format
■ PNG Portable Network Graphics
■ TIF Tagged Image File Format

If you desire other formats, use a paint

type program to convert one of these into
the other format.

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When using raster images, you must choose a DPI (dots per inch) value which
will determine the resolution. With raster images it is very easy to produce
extremely large files. Be careful to note the Image Bytes parameter value given
on the last line of the group box. If you attempt to construct an image size that
is larger than your available resources permit, you will receive an error message
or your system may lock up.

File Path
This group box provides selection of the folder where you wish to export the
file, and an editing field to enter the file name. The program will automatically
add the proper extension for the selected file format. The default file extension
is controlled by the type of file format that will be exported. It is not
recommended that you change it.

An example of an exported image is shown below. The image is purely the 3D

scene without any title block or other documentation information. The Print
dialog can be used to produce that type of output. If your scene does not have
the desired aspect ratio, change the with and height values as needed.

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Import Enclosure Object Dialog

This dialog allows you to import a 3D object to be used as the enclosure shell. While
the Volume Parameters dialog provides over 18 different 3D shape definitions for
enclosure shells, there may be occasions where you wish to model a custom shape.

The enclosure import dialog is shown below. Three file formats are supported:
OBJ, DXF, and 3DS. The OBJ and DXF formats are text while the 3DS format is
binary. The OBJ format was created by Alias/Wavefront (now Silicon Graphics Inc
SGI) and is commonly used in the Maya program. DXF is a common CAD format
originated by AutoCAD. 3DS is the file format generally exported by 3D Studio.

Note: Importing custom enclosures is not trivial nor necessarily simple. The object
must be constructed properly with a clean structure according to specific rules.

The Options group box provides additional flexibility for importing objects. The
Scale Factor parameter can be used to change the size of the imported object. The
Coord Snap value will cause any face vertex near each other to be snapped to the
same values. This is sometimes needed for certain imports where the coordinates
of the vertex may not be exactly identical at adjacent faces. The Reverse Winding
option will change the order of the vertex around the faces. This controls whether
a face is treated as the inside or outside of the enclosure.

The File Path group box provides selection of the folder and file for import. The
properties button at the end of the file name can be clicked to inspect the file using
the currently assigned text editor.

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True Polygon Object Tessellated Mesh

Representation
Tessellation
The pictorial above shows two hexagon objects. The first is composed of a
single six sided polygon entity. The second is a tessellated mesh represented
by four triangle entities. Tessellation is a process of representing complex
objects by using simple primitive triangles and in some cases rectangles.

Enclosure shells are composed of faces, and each face is a single entity.
Therefore the polygon would be treated as a single face, but the mesh would
be viewed as four separate faces. Obviously placing a transducer in the center
of the tessellated mesh hexagon would be impossible.

For this reason, enclosure shells must be created using pure multisided polygon
objects and not tessellated versions.

File Formats
Unfortunately the tessellated mesh representation is common in many 3D file
formats, and is largely useless for defining enclosure shells. The DXF format
only allows for 3 or 4 sided objects. All representations are by mesh. This
means that only shells with faces of 3 or 4 sides may be imported using this
format. The same is true of the 3DS format, which appears to support only
triangular meshes. This is only useful for shells with triangular faces.

The OBJ format is by far the most suitable for this application. This format
provides full support for multisided polygons. Furthermore, by its structure
it also ensures that all vertex are identical for adjacent faces. The OBJ format
can be considered the native import/export format for this application.

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There are a number of rules which must be followed

when creating custom enclosure shells. The drawings
on the left demonstrate some of the problems which
must be avoided. These can be summarized as follows:
WRONG CORRECT
Colinear Vertex Unique Segments • Vertex points of a face cannot be colinear
• Adjacent face vertex must be identical
• All faces must lie on unique planes
• Each edge must have 2 adjacent faces
• All vertex of a face must lie on the same plane

The import dialog will perform numerous checks on the

enclosure object and its structure. Error or warning
messages will result if any of these rules are violated.
WRONG CORRECT
Errors will not permit the object to be imported.
Vertex corners Vertex corners
are not identical identical While it is possible to use many 3D CAD or graphics
programs to work out the design of your enclosure shell,
you will probably find that very few are capable of
exporting the object properly with the required clean
polygon structure.

Most graphics programs do not allow polygon editing

with the precision required. Even when you can create
the proper polygons, many do not provide a means to
WRONG CORRECT
export the objects whole and will force tessellation.
Mutiple faces on Mutiple faces with
same plane unique planes One possible exception to this is the Maya program.
This program does allow for advanced polygon vertex
editing, and also provides export with the OBJ format.

No vertex here
on this face
However, a proper OBJ file can also be created rela-
tively easily by manual means by using any text editor.
In many cases this method may be the only choice.

The coordinates of the face vertex may be taken from

WRONG CORRECT
your 3D CAD or graphics program and then used to
Each edge must have Each edge has create the proper OBJ definition. This information can
2 adjacent faces 2 adjacent faces also be obtained from any typical 2D drawing.

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An example of generating a proper OBJ file will now be given for the enclosure
shown in the pictorial below. The drawing shows a simple multisided
enclosure with a flat front and faceted sides. This information would be
commonly available from any blueprint style 2D drawing.

When generating the enclosure shell model for a physical enclosure, some
simplification is often appropriate and necessary. It is not important to model
each and every detail. This would only complicate and lengthen the diffraction
analysis. The contribution of any edge or face is roughly proportional to its size
on the enclosure. Therefore, small shell details are relatively insignificant.

Curved surfaces must be represented as one or more faceted flat planes. The
example below shows the curved sides as a sequence of five flat vertical strips.
The vertex nodes around the top and bottom of the shell are assigned numbers
as shown below. The axis and origins are shown for each of the three views.

7 6
8 5
9 4

10 3 Top View
11 2

12 X 1
1.6
Z

2.0
Vertex 1-12
Y Around Top Y

1.0 X Z

Face #1 Vertex 12-24

Around Bottom
Front View Side View

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# Example OBJ Import file for LEAP OBJ File Format

# Date: Oct/21/2002, Author: C. Strahm The listing on the left gives the OBJ file contents for
the enclosure example. Any line beginning with a #
v 1.00 0.50 0.00
sign is treated as a comment. Vertex coordinates are
v 1.50 0.50 -0.50
v 1.60 0.50 -1.00 listed beginning with a v in the line, followed by the
v 1.50 0.50 -1.50 x,y,z values. The vertex points are listed first for the
v 1.10 0.50 -1.80 entire enclosure.
v 0.50 0.50 -2.00
v -0.50 0.50 -2.00
v -1.10 0.50 -1.80 Note: All coordinates are given in meters.
v -1.50 0.50 -1.50
v -1.60 0.50 -1.00 The faces of the enclosure follow, and each face
v -1.50 0.50 -0.50
begins with f, followed by the vertex indexes that
v -1.00 0.50 0.00
define the face.
v 1.00 -0.50 0.00
v 1.50 -0.50 -0.50 Note: The order of the vertex list for a face is
v 1.60 -0.50 -1.00
important. This determines which side of the face is
v 1.50 -0.50 -1.50
v 1.10 -0.50 -1.80 inside and outside. The points should be listed in
v 0.50 -0.50 -2.00 counterclockwise order when the face is viewed
v -0.50 -0.50 -2.00 from the outside.
v -1.10 -0.50 -1.80
v -1.50 -0.50 -1.50
v -1.60 -0.50 -1.00 The entire enclosure only requires 44 lines of text in
v -1.50 -0.50 -0.50 the OBJ file. The OBJ file format is very elegant in
v -1.00 -0.50 0.00 its simplicity and power.
f 1 12 24 13
f 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 It should also be noted that the first face defined will
f 24 23 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 be treated by the 3D editor as the baffle board. This
f 2 1 13 14 is important for some operations such as Default
f 3 2 14 15
Enclosure Layout, which will position the enclosure
f 4 3 15 16
f 5 4 16 17 based on the location of the baffle board.
f 6 5 17 18
f 7 6 18 19 After the enclosure is imported, the transducer(s)
f 8 7 19 20
and port(s) will automatically be moved to the new
f 9 8 20 21
f 10 9 21 22 face locations. For this example one transducer and
f 11 10 22 23 a pair of ports are used. The enclosure was also
f 12 11 23 24 scaled by 0.25 (25%) of its original OBJ dimensions.

The imported enclosure is shown on the following

page, both from the front and rear. The sources were
moved into their desired locations on face #1.

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Imported example enclosure, with single transducer and dual ports.

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Export Enclosure Object Dialog

This dialog allows you to export the 3D enclosure shell object currently in use by
the program. It should be noted that only the OBJ format can be assured of exporting
the object correctly. Other formats may tessellate the object into triangles or
rectangles and may destroy the pure polygon structure.

The enclosure export dialog is shown below. Three file formats are supported: OBJ,
DXF, and 3DS. The OBJ and DXF formats are text while the 3DS format is binary.
The OBJ format was created by Alias/Wavefront (now Silicon Graphics Inc SGI)
and is commonly used in the Maya program. DXF is a common CAD format
originated by AutoCAD. 3DS is the file format generally exported by 3D Studio.

The Options group box provides additional flexibility for exporting the shell object.
The Scale Factor parameter can be used to change the size of the exported object.
The Reverse Winding option will change the order of the vertex around the faces.
This controls whether a face is treated as the inside or outside of the enclosure.

The File Path group box provides selection of the folder and file for export. The
default extension will be applied automatically and should not be changed. The
OBJ format is by far the most suitable for this application. This format provides full
support for multisided polygons. The OBJ format can be considered the native
import/export format for this application.

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The following is an export of the previous enclosure using the OBJ format:

# OBJ by LEAP(TM) 5.0.0.278 Oct/20/2002

# DateTime Oct 20, 2002 Sun 3:49 am
# Design D:\Program Files\Doc\File Formats\OBJ\Samples\Test.led

g Enclosure

v 0.2500000000 0.1250000000 0.0000000000

v -0.2500000000 0.1250000000 0.0000000000
v -0.2500000000 -0.1250000000 0.0000000000
v 0.2500000000 -0.1250000000 0.0000000000
v 0.3750000000 0.1250000000 -0.1250000000
v 0.4000000060 0.1250000000 -0.2500000000
v 0.3750000000 0.1250000000 -0.3750000000
v 0.2750000060 0.1250000000 -0.4499999881
v 0.1250000000 0.1250000000 -0.5000000000
v -0.1250000000 0.1250000000 -0.5000000000
v -0.2750000060 0.1250000000 -0.4499999881
v -0.3750000000 0.1250000000 -0.3750000000
v -0.4000000060 0.1250000000 -0.2500000000
v -0.3750000000 0.1250000000 -0.1250000000
v -0.3750000000 -0.1250000000 -0.1250000000
v -0.4000000060 -0.1250000000 -0.2500000000
v -0.3750000000 -0.1250000000 -0.3750000000
v -0.2750000060 -0.1250000000 -0.4499999881
v -0.1250000000 -0.1250000000 -0.5000000000
v 0.1250000000 -0.1250000000 -0.5000000000
v 0.2750000060 -0.1250000000 -0.4499999881
v 0.3750000000 -0.1250000000 -0.3750000000
v 0.4000000060 -0.1250000000 -0.2500000000
v 0.3750000000 -0.1250000000 -0.1250000000

f 1 2 3 4
f 1 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 2
f 3 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 4
f 5 1 4 24
f 6 5 24 23
f 7 6 23 22
f 8 7 22 21
f 9 8 21 20
f 10 9 20 19
f 11 10 19 18
f 12 11 18 17
f 13 12 17 16
f 14 13 16 15
f 2 14 15 3

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When the same example enclosure is exported using the DXF format, the result is
a tessellated version of the original polygon shell. This cannot be re-imported back
into the 3D editor.

The DXF file listing is too long to be included here, but the image represented by
the file is shown below in a wireframe view. Note that the top and bottom multisided
polygons have been tessellated into triangles. This is why the DXF and 3DS formats
are very limited for use in this application.

The OBJ format should be utilized whenever accurate shell representation is

required. The DXF or 3DS formats can be used if tessellated versions are acceptable
or required for use in other graphics programs.

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7.4 Analysis Parameters

The Edit | Analysis Parameters menu item will open a dialog which provides
access to the parameters which control the analysis of the design. The Analysis
Parameters dialog is shown below with six group box sections.

The sections are: Generator, Frequency, Acoustic, Polar, Diffraction, and Op-
tional. Each of these control a different area of the analysis. The following pages
will describe each section in detail.

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Generator Section
This section controls how the transducers of the enclo-
sure will be driven and at what power level. The
Voltage field defines the output voltage from the
generator. In the real world, the analogy would be the
output voltage from a power amplifier.

A check box is shown above the adjacent large list box which enables the use
of an arbitrary transfer function to be applied to the voltage. The H Curve
Transfer Function can be either a ratio or voltage curve in the Guide Curve
library. The Voltage field value will be multiplied by this curve.

The next numeric field below is the Resistance. This is the output resistance
of the generator. In the real world, the analogy might be the cable resistance
from the power amplifier to the enclosure. As with the voltage drive, a check
box is shown above the adjacent large list box which enables the use of an
arbitrary impedance function to be added to the resistance. The Z Curve Source
Impedance is an impedance curve in the Guide Curve library. The Resistance
field value will be added to the complex impedance represented in this curve.

The next two fields provide the power per transducer and the total power for
the enclosure. These fields are calculated by the program based on the voltage
given above and the impedance rating of the transducer used in the enclosure.
If you change the values here, the Voltage value will be recalculated to match.

However, these power levels will only apply to enclosures with a single multi-
transducer set. In multiple transducer set enclosures the power per transducer
may not be uniform, since the transducer sets could have different impedance
ratings. Therefore, these fields will be disabled for those types of enclosures.

The final field is the ambient temperature. This parameter will only have an
effect on enclosures using transducers with the LTD model.

Frequency Section
The analysis frequency range, axis, and point density are all controlled by the
fields in this section. The frequency range for analysis may or may not be the
same as the Scale frequency range displayed on the graphs. For proper
diffraction analysis, a wide frequency range should always be used spanning
several decades. It is not recommended that narrow ranges such as 100Hz-
1000Hz be used.

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Acoustic Section
This section controls the acoustic simulation locations. The primary simulation
point is the location where the detailed acoustic frequency response curves will be
produced. This is shown in the 3D Layout Editor as the primary target point.

This target point may be on-axis or may be located at any position in 3D space. The
SPL Distance, Horz Angle, and Vert Angle specify this location using polar
coordinates. The SPL Distance value also defines the radius of the polar curves.

The Phase Distance option determines whether or not the basic path length delay
will be included in the phase. If the Zero selection is chosen, the path delay of the
SPL Distance value will be removed from the acoustic response curves. This
generally provides a more readable transfer function type phase without the
excessive phase rotation caused by the path delay. The SPL selection will produce
the true phase at the primary simulation target location. This will contain delay.

Polar Section
This section controls the creation of the polar response curves. The two check boxes
at the top enable or disable the horizontal and vertical groups of polar curves. If
neither is checked, no polar curves will be produced in the System Curve library.

The special edit and list box combination maintains the list of polar frequencies.
You may add, modify, or delete frequency entries as needed. Each frequency listed
will produce a pair of Horz and Vert polar curves, assuming that both of the above
check boxes are enabled.

The Normalize Zero Deg check box will normalize the polar response curves to their
values at zero degrees. Thus, the true SPL values will be destroyed, and all curves
will be 0 dBspl at the polar angle of 0 degrees.

The final list box provides selection for the density of polar curve points or
Resolution. For example, a value of 1 degree will produce 360 points in each polar
curve. However, a portion of the diffraction computation requirements is depen-
dent on the number of polar locations. Therefore using less points will reduce the
analysis time. For most general purpose work a polar resolution of 2 degrees is
sufficient.

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Diffraction Section
This section controls the diffraction analysis with two fundamental param-
eters: the Diffraction Resolution, and the Diffraction Order. The resolution is
given both in terms of frequency and element length. Editing either value will
change the other accordingly. The diffraction order determines the depth of
sound propagation around the enclosure. It is the number of edges from the
source for which diffraction will be computed.

The adjustment of these parameters will dramatically affect the analysis run
time. High resolution frequencies will result in a very large number of
elements. Likewise, a high diffraction order will result in enormous permuta-
tions. Increasing either or both will increase the time required for analysis.

However, a minimum value of each is generally required for accurate diffrac-

tion analysis. This is somewhat dependent on the particular enclosure, and
must be determined through trial and error analysis using different values.

The general recommendation for typical six sided enclosures of average size
would be a resolution frequency of 3kHz with 3rd order diffraction. If the
enclosure is larger or smaller, a lower or higher frequency may be used
respectively. If the enclosure is more complex with more faces, a higher
diffraction order may be necessary.

Note: To understand the issues of enclosure diffraction more fully, please read
the section on diffraction in the chapter-5 on Enclosure Modeling.

Optional Section
This section provides switches to enable or disable certain features of the
enclosure analysis. It is subject to change, and may contain a different set of
options in the future. They are largely self explanatory by their names

Port Nonlinear provides simulation of changes in the resistance of a port at

different drive levels. This provides indication of port saturation.
Port Reflections provides simulation of the standing waves in a port due to its
length. These are pipe resonance effects simulated by transmission line.
Chamber Leakage provides simulation of the acoustic leakage from a cham-
ber. This can produce significant changes in the losses at very low frequencies.
Chamber Reflections provides simulation of the standing waves in a chamber.
These are resonance effects simulated by transmission line.
Mutual Coupling simulates the interaction between transducers/ports.

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7.5 Calculate

The Edit | Calculate menu item will cause the program to analyze the diffraction
of the enclosure, solve the acoustic network, and generate the data curves in the
System Curve Library. The tool button as shown above on the Edit toolbar or the
accelerator key F9 can also be used to activate this item. This is one of the most
frequently used operations in the program.

The analysis of the design takes place in several stages. The status of the analysis
is shown in the status bar at the bottom of the main window as shown here below.
The elapsed time will also be shown, along with a numeric value giving the memory
utilized in the calculations. The mouse cursor will also change to the [Math/Model]
symbol during the analysis. The progress meter shows the completion of each stage
of the analysis.

The first stage of the analysis involves the numerical diffraction solution. This
portion contains many substages and can be very time consuming. Many complex
operations take place including over 500-2,000 large FFT solutions. If you wish to
abort the analysis press the [ESC] key.

The network analysis occurs in the final stage after which the system curves will be
updated with the new simulation data.

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Model Menu 8

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8.1 Reference Enclosure

The Model | Reference Enclosure menu item will select the Reference Enclosure
dialog to be used for the enclosure model, when it is opened as the Enclosure
Parameters dialog. The tool button as shown above on the Model toolbar can also
be used to activate this item. This is a toggle function and will remain selected until
changed. Different dialogs are used for different enclosure models. This selection
determines which dialog will be presented when editing enclosure parameters.

The Reference Enclosure dialog is shown below. This dialog actually contains four
different enclosure sub models. The graphic icon will change depending on the
model selected. These are specialized enclosures which require no parameters
other than the choice for the transducer. The configuration and dimensions for each
enclosure are predefined along with the required domain.

To select a transducer click the Folder button. A dialog will open with the available
transducer folders and files. The parameters of the enclosure transducer can also
be displayed by clicking the Properties button.

Reference enclosures provide simulation of transducers with known standard

benchmark environments.

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Infinite Baffle
The infinite baffle is one of the most
basic reference environments. The
simulation is performed with a trans-
ducer mounted on an infinite plane.

This model has no enclosure effects

whatsoever, so the response is purely
the behavior of the transducer itself.
Since there is no diffraction present the Infinite Baffle
analysis time is extremely fast.

An example of the 3D layout for the infinite baffle is shown below. The SPL and
horizontal Polar response (vertical would be identical) are given on the next page
for a typical 8 Inch (200mm) transducer. The simulation is performed based on 1W
and a distance of 1 meter.

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dBSPL
SPL vs Freq
100

95

90

85

80

75

70

65

60

55

50
10 Hz 20 50 100 200 500 1K 2K 5K 10K

SPL vs Angle
dBSPL 90
100 105 75
95 Curve Freq BW Q DI
120 60
80.00 180 2.0 3.0
90
135 45 320.00 180 2.0 3.0
85
640.00 180 2.0 3.0
80
1.28K 180 2.0 3.0
75 150 30
2.56K 72 5.0 7.0
70 3.84K 48 7.5 8.8

65 5.12K 36 10.0 10.0

165 15
6.40K 28 12.9 11.1
60
12.80K 20 18.0 12.6
55

50 -180
180 0 Deg

55

60

65 -165 -15

70

75
-150 -30
80

85
-135 -45
90

95 -120 -60
100 -105 -75
-90

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IEC Baffle
The IEC baffle is an approximation to the infinite
baffle. The dimensions are shown here in the drawing.
22.5cm
The transducer is slightly offset from the center of the
panel to reduce the diffraction ripples. The IEC baffle CL
1.65m CL
is commonly used for testing transducers. 15cm

An example of the 3D layout for the IEC baffle is

shown below. The SPL and horizontal Polar response 1.35m

are given on the next page for a typical 8 Inch (200mm)

transducer. The simulation is performed based on 1W
and a distance of 1 meter. IEC Baffle

The SPL response for the infinite baffle is also shown in the dotted line for
comparison. Note that the IEC baffle does produce ripples in the response. Most
significant is the 5dB crest at 150Hz along with notches at 410Hz and 880Hz. The
simulation included 4th order diffraction analysis with a resolution of 2kHz. The
nulls at ±90° in the polar response are due to perfect cancellation of the front and
rear waves. In reality, the cancellation would not be perfect due to differences in
the front and rear directivity of the transducer.

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dBSPL
SPL vs Freq
100

95

90
Infinite Baffle
85

IEC Baffle
80

75

70

65

60

55

50
10 Hz 20 50 100 200 500 1K 2K 5K 10K

SPL vs Angle
dBSPL 90
100 105 75
95 Curve Freq BW Q DI
120 60
80.00 136 2.6 4.2
90
135 45 320.00 160 2.3 3.5
85
640.00 164 2.2 3.4
80
1.28K 166 2.2 3.4
75 150 30
2.56K 74 4.9 6.9
70 3.84K 44 8.2 9.1

65 5.12K 36 10.0 10.0

165 15
6.40K 28 12.9 11.1
60
12.80K 20 18.0 12.6
55

50 -180
180 0 Deg

55

60

65 -165 -15

70

75
-150 -30
80

85
-135 -45
90

95 -120 -60
100 -105 -75
-90

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Infinite Tube
In this model the transducer is mounted at the
end of a long tube. It is assumed that the tube
is long enough and absorbent enough that the
rear waves are completely dissipated and never
reflect back to the transducer. The tube iso- Infinite Tube
lates the rear waves from the front.

An example of the 3D layout for the infinite tube is shown below. The SPL and
horizontal polar response are given on the next page for a typical 8 Inch
(200mm) transducer. The simulation is based on 1W at a distance of 1 meter.

The SPL response for the infinite baffle is also shown in the dotted line for
comparison. The diffraction analysis for this model is very demanding since
the round tube is approximated with a 12 sided polygon. This requires high
order diffraction for accurate simulation. This simulation employed 6th order
diffraction analysis with a resolution of 3kHz. Note that the polar plot still
shows offsets in the curves indicating that convergence remains somewhat
incomplete. The dead region at 180° is the location occupied by the tube.

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dBSPL
SPL vs Freq
100

95

90

Infinite Baffle
85

80

Infinite Tube
75

70

65

60

55

50
10 Hz 20 50 100 200 500 1K 2K 5K 10K

SPL vs Angle
dBSPL 90
100 105 75
95 Curve Freq BW Q DI
120 60
80.00 348 1.0 0.1
90
135 45 320.00 348 1.0 0.1
85
640.00 228 1.6 2.0
80
1.28K 140 2.6 4.1
75 150 30
2.56K 68 5.3 7.2
70 3.84K 44 8.2 9.1

65 5.12K 40 9.0 9.5

165 15
6.40K 28 12.9 11.1
60
12.80K 20 18.0 12.6
55

50 -180
180 0 Deg

55

60

65 -165 -15

70

75
-150 -30
80

85
-135 -45
90

95 -120 -60
100 -105 -75
-90

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Free Air
The free air model assumes that the transducer is located in free
space. The actual enclosure is a flat baffle only slightly larger than
the diaphragm. This model demonstrates the strongest diffraction
of any enclosure, since the edges of the baffle are at the perimeter
of the diaphragm. Free Air

An example of the 3D layout for the free air model is shown below. This model
appears as a free standing transducer in space. The SPL and horizontal Polar
response are given on the next page for a typical 8 Inch (200mm) transducer.
The simulation is performed based on 1W at a distance of 1 meter.

The SPL response for the infinite baffle is also shown in the dotted line for
comparison. The diffraction analysis for this model is very demanding since
the diffraction occurs very close to the edge of the diaphragm. Waves continue
to bounce from edge to edge with very little decay. Consequently the response
is slow to converge requiring high order analysis. This simulation employed
6th order diffraction analysis and a resolution of 5kHz. The nulls at ±90° in the
polar response are due to perfect cancellation of the front and rear waves. In
reality the cancellation would not be perfect due to differences in the front and
rear directivity of the transducer.

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dBSPL
SPL vs Freq
100

95

90

Infinite Baffle
85

80

75

Free Air
70

65

60

55

50
10 Hz 20 50 100 200 500 1K 2K 5K 10K

SPL vs Angle
dBSPL 90
100 105 75
95 Curve Freq BW Q DI
120 60
80.00 172 2.1 3.2
90
135 45 320.00 148 2.4 3.9
85
640.00 132 2.7 4.4
80
1.28K 108 3.3 5.2
75 150 30
2.56K 64 5.6 7.5
70 3.84K 44 8.2 9.1
65 5.12K 40 9.0 9.5
165 15
60 6.40K 32 11.3 10.5
12.80K 20 18.0 12.6
55

50 -180
180 0 Deg

55

60

65 -165 -15

70

75
-150 -30
80

85
-135 -45
90

95 -120 -60
100 -105 -75
-90

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8.2 Flat Baffle Enclosure

The Model | Flat Baffle Enclosure menu item will select

the Flat Baffle Enclosure dialog to be used for the enclo-
sure model, when the Enclosure Parameters dialog is
opened. The tool button as shown above on the Model
toolbar can also be used to activate this item. This is a
toggle function and will remain selected until changed. Different dialogs are used
for different enclosure models. This selection determines which dialog will be
presented when editing enclosure parameters.

The Flat Baffle Enclosure dialog is shown below. This dialog contains a shell,
domain, and transducer specification. Flat baffles do not have a chamber, and are
merely a flat panel. The baffle may be any shape. Because this is an open back style
enclosure, cancellation will occur between the front and rear waves. This will cause
a substantial decrease in output at low frequencies.

The baffle (2D shell) may be edited by clicking the Area dialog button. The domain
can be specified with any of these available choices and with infinite or finite
volume. The transducer specification may be single or multiple, with options for
acoustical mounting and electrical wiring configurations. To select a transducer
click the Folder button. A dialog will open with the available transducer folders and
files. The parameters of the enclosure transducer can also be displayed by clicking
the Properties button.

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An example of the 3D layout for a flat baffle

model is shown below. In this example, an egg
shaped baffle was employed using a single 8
Inch (200mm) transducer.

The SPL, Impedance, Excursion, and hori-

zontal Polar response are given on the follow-
ing pages. The SPL response for an infinite
baffle is also shown in the dotted line for
comparison. A typical 8 Inch (200mm) trans-
ducer is employed. The simulation is per-
formed based on 1W at a distance of 1 meter. Flat Baffle

The SPL response shows reduced output at low frequencies due to the cancellation
with the rear. A peak at 550Hz and a null near 1200Hz also appear as a result of the
diffraction around the flat baffle and combined rear radiation. For this example 5th
order diffraction was used with a resolution of 2kHz.

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100
dBSPL SPL vs Freq

95

90

Infinite Baffle
85

80 Flat Baffle

75

70

65

60

55

50
10 Hz 20 50 100 200 500 1K 2K 5K 10K

100
Ohm Impedance vs Freq Deg
180

150

50
120

90

60
20

30

10 0

-30

5
-60

-90

-120
2

-150

1 -180
10 Hz 20 50 100 200 500 1K 2K 5K 10K

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10m
M Excursion vs Freq

5m

2m

1m

500u

200u

100u

50u

20u

10u
10 Hz 20 50 100 200 500 1K 2K 5K 10K

SPL vs Angle
dBSPL 90
100 105 75
95 Curve Freq BW Q DI
120 60
80.00 152 2.4 3.7
90
135 45 320.00 120 3.0 4.8
85
640.00 104 3.5 5.4
80
1.28K 176 2.0 3.1
75 150 30
2.56K 76 4.7 6.8
70 3.84K 48 7.5 8.8

65 5.12K 36 10.0 10.0

165 15
6.40K 28 12.9 11.1
60
12.80K 20 18.0 12.6
55

50 -180
180 0 Deg

55

60

65 -165 -15

70

75
-150 -30
80

85
-135 -45
90

95 -120 -60
100 -105 -75
-90

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8.3 Sealed Highpass Enclosure

The Model | Sealed Highpass Enclosure menu item

will select the Sealed Highpass Enclosure dialog to be
used for the enclosure model, when it is opened as the
Enclosure Parameters dialog. The tool button as
shown above on the Model toolbar can also be used to activate this item. This
is a toggle function and will remain selected until changed. Different dialogs
are used for different enclosure models. This selection determines which
dialog will be presented when editing enclosure parameters.

The Sealed Highpass Enclosure dialog is shown below. This dialog contains
a shell/chamber, domain, and transducer specification. In this model the shell
and chamber are the same entity.

The shell/chamber may be edited by clicking the Volume dialog button. The
domain can be specified with any of these available choices and with infinite
or finite volume. The transducer specification may be single or multiple, with
options for acoustical mounting and electrical wiring configurations. To select
a transducer click the Folder button. A dialog will open with the available
transducer folders and files. The parameters of the enclosure transducer can
also be displayed by clicking the Properties button.

Lock Shell
Since the chamber volume and shell defini-
tion are defined at the same time (by clicking
the Volume button), a means must be pro-
vided to prevent the shell from being changed.
This is necessary when a custom 3D shell
object has been imported. When this is
checked, only the chamber volume will be
modified and the existing shell is maintained.
This option should be enabled if you are
using imported shells.

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An example of the 3D layout for a sealed Highpass model is

shown below. In this example, a beveled box was employed
using a single 8 Inch (200mm) transducer.

The SPL, Impedance, Excursion, and horizontal Polar re-

sponse are given on the following pages. The SPL response
for an infinite baffle is also shown in the dotted line for Sealed Highpass
comparison. A typical 8 Inch (200mm) transducer is em-
ployed. The simulation is performed based on 1W at a
distance of 1 meter.

The SPL response shows a typical result for a sealed box. If the transducer was
moved around the face of the enclosure, different diffraction ripples would result.
Changes in the size of the bevel would also have an effect on the ripples. Since this
box has a bevel front, a higher order of diffraction with more resolution was
necessary. The simulation here used 4th order diffraction with 4kHz resolution.

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100
dBSPL SPL vs Freq

95

90
Infinite Baffle

85

80 Sealed Highpass

75

70

65

60

55

50
10 Hz 20 50 100 200 500 1K 2K 5K 10K

Ohm
Impedance vs Freq Deg
100 180

150

50
120

90

60
20

30

10 0

-30

5
-60

-90

-120
2

-150

1 -180
10 Hz 20 50 100 200 500 1K 2K 5K 10K

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10m
M Excursion vs Freq

5m

2m

1m

500u

200u

100u

50u

20u

10u
10 Hz 20 50 100 200 500 1K 2K 5K 10K

SPL vs Angle
dBSPL 90
100 105 75
95 Curve Freq BW Q DI
120 60
80.00 360 1.0 0.0
90
135 45 640.00 164 2.2 3.4
85
1.28K 148 2.4 3.9
80
1.80K 124 2.9 4.6
75 150 30
2.56K 76 4.7 6.8
70 3.84K 48 7.5 8.8

65 5.12K 36 10.0 10.0

165 15
6.40K 28 12.9 11.1
60
12.80K 20 18.0 12.6
55

50 -180
180 0 Deg

55

60

65 -165 -15

70

75
-150 -30
80

85
-135 -45
90

95 -120 -60
100 -105 -75
-90

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8.4 Ported Highpass Enclosure

The Model | Ported Highpass Enclosure menu item

will select the Ported Highpass Enclosure dialog to be
used for the enclosure model, when it is opened as the
Enclosure Parameters dialog. The tool button as shown above on the Model
toolbar can also be used to activate this item. This is a toggle function and will
remain selected until changed. Different dialogs are used for different
enclosure models. This selection determines which dialog will be presented
when editing enclosure parameters.

The Ported Highpass Enclosure dialog is shown below. This dialog contains
a shell/chamber, domain, transducer, and port specification. In this model the
shell and chamber are the same entity.

The shell/chamber may be edited by clicking the Volume dialog button. The
domain can be specified with any of these available choices and with infinite
or finite volume. The port may be single or multiple, and can be edited by
clicking the Port dialog button.
The transducer specification may be single
or multiple, with options for acoustical
mounting and electrical wiring configura-
tions. To select a transducer, click the Folder
button. A dialog will open with the available
transducer folders and files. The parameters
of the enclosure transducer can also be dis-
played by clicking the Properties button.

Lock Shell
Since the chamber volume and shell defini-
tion are defined at the same time (by clicking
the Volume button), a means must be pro-
vided to prevent the shell from being changed.
This is necessary when a custom 3D shell
object has been imported. When this is checked, only the chamber volume will
be modified and the existing shell is maintained. This option should be enabled
if you are using imported shells.

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An example of the 3D layout for a ported Highpass model is

shown below. In this example a U shaped box was employed
using a single 8 Inch (200mm) transducer and two ports.

The SPL, Impedance, Excursion, and horizontal Polar re-

sponse are given on the following pages. The SPL response
for an infinite baffle is also shown in the dotted line for Ported Highpass
comparison. A typical 8 Inch (200mm) transducer is em-
ployed. The simulation is performed based on 1W at a distance of 1 meter.

The SPL and Impedance response graphs show a typical result for a ported box. The
excursion graphs shows both the excursion of the transducer and the air within the
port. The chamber and ports were tuned to 45 Hz. Since this box has a multi-face
front, a slightly higher order of diffraction was necessary. The example here was
analyzed with 4th order diffraction and with 3kHz resolution.

The excursion graph shows that the port excursion is much greater than the
transducer excursion, due to the difference in diaphragm and port areas.

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100
dBSPL SPL vs Freq

95

90

Infinite Baffle
85
Ported Highpass
80

75

70

65

60

55

50
10 Hz 20 50 100 200 500 1K 2K 5K 10K

100
Ohm Impedance vs Freq Deg
180

150

50
120

90

60
20

30

10 0

-30

5
-60

-90

-120
2

-150

1 -180
10 Hz 20 50 100 200 500 1K 2K 5K 10K

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30m
M Excursion vs Freq
20m

10m

5m Port

2m

Transducer
1m

500u

200u

100u

50u

30u
10 Hz 20 50 100 200 500 1K 2K 5K 10K

SPL vs Angle
dBSPL 90
100 105 75
95 Curve Freq BW Q DI
120 60
80.00 360 1.0 0.0
90
135 45 640.00 160 2.3 3.5
85
1.28K 152 2.4 3.7
80
1.80K 140 2.6 4.1
75 150 30
2.56K 76 4.7 6.8
70 3.84K 44 8.2 9.1

65 5.12K 36 10.0 10.0

165 15
6.40K 28 12.9 11.1
60
12.80K 20 18.0 12.6
55

50 -180
180 0 Deg

55

60

65 -165 -15

70

75
-150 -30
80

85
-135 -45
90

95 -120 -60
100 -105 -75
-90

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8.5 Sealed Bandpass Enclosure

The Model | Sealed Bandpass Enclosure menu item

will select the Sealed Bandpass Enclosure dialog to be
used for the enclosure model, when it is opened as the
Enclosure Parameters dialog. The tool button as
shown above on the Model toolbar can also be used to activate this item. This
is a toggle function and will remain selected until changed. Different dialogs
are used for different enclosure models. This selection determines which
dialog will be presented when editing enclosure parameters.

The Sealed Bandpass Enclosure dialog is shown below. This dialog contains
a shell, domain, two chambers, transducer, and port specification. In this
model the shell and chambers are separate entities.

The shell may be edited by clicking the Volume dialog button. The domain can
be specified with any of these available choices and with infinite or finite
volume. The port may be single or multiple and can be edited by clicking the
Port dialog button.

The transducer specification may be single or multiple, with options for

acoustical mounting and electrical wiring configurations. To select a trans-
ducer click the Folder button. A dialog will open with the available transducer
folders and files. The parameters of the enclosure transducer can also be
displayed by clicking the Properties button.

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An example of the 3D layout for a sealed Bandpass model

is shown below. In this example, a simple box was em-
ployed using a single 8 Inch (200mm) transducer and port.

Note that only the external port is shown on the enclosure.

The SPL, Impedance, Excursion, and horizontal Polar re- Sealed Bandpass
sponse are given on the following pages. The SPL response
for an infinite baffle is also shown in the dotted line for comparison. A typical 8 Inch
(200mm) transducer is employed. The simulation is performed based on 1W at a
distance of 1 meter.

The SPL response graph shows a typical result for a sealed Bandpass enclosure. The
polar graphs shows only a large circle with some smaller details in the center. Since
the Bandpass enclosure only has significant response at a narrow range of low
frequencies, only the 80Hz curve stands out. At low frequencies the response
around the enclosure is omnidirectional, and the polar curve appears as a circle.

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dBSPL
SPL vs Freq
95

90

Infinite Baffle
85

Sealed Bandpass
80

75

70

65

60

55

50

45
10 Hz 20 50 100 200 500 1K 2K 5K 10K

Ohm
Impedance vs Freq Deg
100 180

150

50
120

90

60
20

30

10 0

-30

5
-60

-90

-120
2

-150

1 -180
10 Hz 20 50 100 200 500 1K 2K 5K 10K

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30m
M Excursion vs Freq
20m

10m
Port

5m

Transducer
2m

1m

500u

200u

100u

50u

30u
10 Hz 20 50 100 200 500 1K 2K 5K 10K

SPL vs Angle
dBSPL 90
90 105 75
85 Curve Freq BW Q DI
120 60
80.00 360 1.0 0.0
80
135 45 640.00 156 2.3 3.6
75
1.28K 164 2.2 3.4
70
1.80K 208 1.7 2.4
65 150 30
2.56K 176 2.0 3.1
60 3.84K 188 1.9 2.8

55 5.12K 180 2.0 3.0

165 15
6.40K 180 2.0 3.0
50
12.80K 188 1.9 2.8
45

40 -180
180 0 Deg

45

50

55 -165 -15

60

65
-150 -30
70

75
-135 -45
80

85 -120 -60
90 -105 -75
-90

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8.6 Ported Bandpass Enclosure

The Model | Ported Bandpass Enclosure menu item

will select the Ported Bandpass Enclosure dialog to
be used for the enclosure model, when it is opened as
the Enclosure Parameters dialog. The tool button as shown above on the
Model toolbar can also be used to activate this item. This is a toggle function
and will remain selected until changed. Different dialogs are used for different
enclosure models. This selection determines which dialog will be presented
when editing enclosure parameters.

The Ported Bandpass Enclosure dialog is shown below. This dialog contains
a shell, domain, two chambers, a transducer, and two port specifications. In
this model the shell and chambers are separate entities.

The shell may be edited by clicking the Volume dialog button. The domain can
be specified with any of these available choices and with infinite or finite
volume. The ports may be single or multiple and can be edited by clicking the
Port dialog button. Each is tuned with a different chamber.

The transducer specification may be single

or multiple, with options for acoustical
mounting and electrical wiring configura-
tions.

To select a transducer click the Folder

button. A dialog will open with the avail-
able transducer folders and files. The
parameters of the enclosure transducer
can also be displayed by clicking the Prop-
erties button.

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An example of the 3D layout for a ported Bandpass model is

shown below. In this example, a simple box was employed
using a single 8 Inch (200mm) transducer and port.

The SPL, Impedance, Excursion, and horizontal Polar re-

sponse are given on the following pages. The SPL response
for an infinite baffle is also shown in the dotted line for Ported Bandpass
comparison. A typical 8 Inch (200mm) transducer is em-
ployed. The simulation is performed based on 1W at a
distance of 1 meter.

The SPL response graph shows a typical result for a ported Bandpass enclosure. The
polar graphs shows only a large circle with some smaller details in the center. Since
the Bandpass enclosure only has significant response at a narrow range of low
frequencies, only the 80Hz curve stands out. At low frequencies the response
around the enclosure is omnidirectional, and the polar curve appears as a circle.

The excursion graphs shows the excursion of the transducer and the air displace-
ment within each of the two ports.

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95
dBSPL
SPL vs Freq

90

85
Infinite Baffle
Ported Bandpass
80

75

70

65

60

55

50

45
10 Hz 20 50 100 200 500 1K 2K 5K 10K

100
Ohm Impedance vs Freq Deg
180

150

50
120

90

60
20

30

10 0

-30

5
-60

-90

-120
2

-150

1 -180
10 Hz 20 50 100 200 500 1K 2K 5K 10K

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30m
M Excursion vs Freq
20m

10m

5m

Port - Rear
2m

1m Transducer

500u

200u

100u

Port - Front
50u

30u
10 Hz 20 50 100 200 500 1K 2K 5K 10K

SPL vs Angle
dBSPL 90
90 105 75
85 Curve Freq BW Q DI
120 60
80.00 360 1.0 0.0
80
135 45 640.00 172 2.1 3.2
75
1.28K 184 2.0 2.9
70
1.80K 224 1.6 2.1
65 150 30
2.56K 180 2.0 3.0
60 3.84K 200 1.8 2.6

55 5.12K 176 2.0 3.1

165 15
6.40K 196 1.8 2.6
50
12.80K 180 2.0 3.0
45

40 -180
180 0 Deg

45

50

55 -165 -15

60

65
-150 -30
70

75
-135 -45
80

85 -120 -60
90 -105 -75
-90

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8.7 Double Bandpass Enclosure

The Model | Double Bandpass Enclosure menu item

will select the Double Bandpass Enclosure dialog to
be used for the enclosure model, when it is opened as
the Enclosure Parameters dialog. The tool button as
shown above on the Model toolbar can also be used to activate this item. This
is a toggle function and will remain selected until changed. Different dialogs
are used for different enclosure models. This selection determines which
dialog will be presented when editing enclosure parameters.

The Double Bandpass Enclosure dialog is shown below. This dialog contains
a shell, domain, three chambers, two transducers, and three port specifications.
In this model the shell and chambers are separate entities. The two multi-
transducer sets may have the same specification or different.

The shell may be edited by clicking the Volume dialog button. The domain can
be specified with any of these available choices and with infinite or finite
volume. The ports may be single or multiple and can be edited by clicking the
Port dialog button. Each is tuned with a different chamber.

The transducer specifications may be single

or multiple, with options for acoustical
mounting and electrical wiring configura-
tions.

To select a transducer click the Folder

button. A dialog will open with the avail-
able transducer folders and files. The
parameters of the enclosure transducer
can also be displayed by clicking the Prop-
erties button.

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An example of the 3D layout for a double Bandpass model

is shown below. In this example, a U box was employed
using a single 8 Inch (200mm) transducer and port.

The SPL, Impedance, Excursion, and horizontal Polar re-

sponse are given on the following pages. The SPL response
for an infinite baffle is also shown in the dotted line for
comparison. A typical 8 Inch (200mm) transducer is em- Double Bandpass
ployed. The simulation is performed based on 1W at a
distance of 1 meter.

The SPL response graph shows a similar response to that of the ported Bandpass
enclosure. Note that the impedance graph shows three curves, one for each
transducer and the total enclosure impedance. The excursion graph shows five
curves including both transducers and the three ports.

The polar graphs show only a large circle with some smaller loops in the center.
Since Bandpass enclosures only have significant response at a narrow range of low
frequencies, only the 80Hz curve stands out. At low frequencies the response
around the enclosure is omnidirectional and the polar curve appears as a circle.

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95
dBSPL SPL vs Freq
Infinite Baffle
90

85

Double Bandpass
80

75

70

65

60

55

50

45
10 Hz 20 50 100 200 500 1K 2K 5K 10K

200
Ohm Impedance vs Freq Deg
180

150

100
120

90

50
60

30

20 0

-30

10 Spkr - Left
-60

-90
Spkr - Right
5
-120

-150
Enclosure

2 -180
10 Hz 20 50 100 200 500 1K 2K 5K 10K

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M
Excursion vs Freq
60m
50m

20m

10m
Port
Right
5m

Port
Left
2m Port
Center

1m

500u

Spkr-Left
200u

Spkr-Right
100u

60u
10 Hz 20 50 100 200 500 1K 2K 5K 10K

SPL vs Angle
dBSPL 90
95 105 75
90 Curve Freq BW Q DI
120 60
80.00 360 1.0 0.0
85
135 45 640.00 48 7.5 8.8
80
1.28K 176 2.0 3.1
75
1.80K 20 18.0 12.6
70 150 30
2.56K 14 25.7 14.1
65 3.84K 18 20.0 13.0

60 5.12K 14 25.7 14.1

165 15
6.40K 6 60.0 17.8
55
12.80K 6 60.0 17.8
50

45 -180
180 0 Deg

50

55

60 -165 -15

65

70
-150 -30
75

80
-135 -45
85

90 -120 -60
95 -105 -75
-90

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8.8 Custom Multipass Enclosure

The Model | Custom Multipass Enclosure menu

item will select the Custom Multipass Enclosure dia-
log to be used for the enclosure model, when it is
opened as the Enclosure Parameters dialog. The tool button as shown above
on the Model toolbar can also be used to activate this item. This is a toggle
function and will remain selected until changed. Different dialogs are used for
different enclosure models. This selection determines which dialog will be
presented when editing enclosure parameters.

The Custom Multipass Enclosure dialog

is shown below. This dialog provides the
capability to model any arbitrary enclo-
sure structure.

The user creates the structure by adding

chambers and connecting them with trans-
ducers and/or ports. These may be com-
bined in almost any configuration.

There are six group boxes located in the

dialog: Shell, Domain, Chambers, Ports,
Transducers, and Structure. The Shell
and Domain selections are performed in
the usual manner.

However, operation of the Chambers,

Ports, and Transducers is handled some-
what differently then in other model dia-
logs. Since the structure is arbitrary each
of these items is referenced by index num-
bers. The structure drawing gives the
location of each of the indexed items. To
edit the parameters of an item, first select
the appropriate Index in each list box.

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Editing the Structure

To edit the structure of the enclosure either select the
Structure tab panel at the top of the dialog, or Double
Click on the graphic in the Structure group box as
shown here on the right.

The structure tab panel is shown here on

the left. The grid indicates where possible
chambers can be located. Within each
chamber, port and transducer symbols
will be displayed along the walls.

At the bottom of the panel are three but-

tons: Delete All Chambers, Delete All
Speakers, and Delete All Ports. These
functions allow you to quickly remove all
of the specified items.

Note: If you delete the chambers, all of the

speakers and ports will also be deleted.

A status field is also provided that is

updated as you move the mouse over the
structure window. It will display the cham-
ber number and side of the chamber where
the mouse is currently located.

Editing is performed using a popup menu. When you Right Click the mouse over
the grid, a popup menu will be displayed. This is shown within the grid above. The
popup menu contains all of the functions necessary to create and modify the
enclosure structure. The various menu items will be enabled/disabled based on the
current location of the mouse.

Due to the free form editing it may be possible to create invalid or illegal structures.
The dialog will perform many checks on the data when it is closed. However, it may
not be able to catch every possible error situation which the user could create.

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Insert Single Chamber

This will create a single wide chamber in the grid at the current location.

Insert Double Chamber

This will create a double wide chamber in the grid at the current location.

Insert Triple Chamber

This will create a triple wide chamber in the grid at the current location.

Insert Quad Chamber

This will create a quad wide chamber in the grid at the current location.

Delete Chamber
This will delete the chamber (and contents) at the current location.

Multi wide chambers are necessary when you wish to connect

several chambers to a single chamber. This situation is shown
here on the left, with a triple chamber ported to three single
chambers.

Note: Each wall of a chamber can hold a single port set or

single transducer set.

Note: Transducers or ports that connect to the outside region,

are the external radiation sources.

Insert Speaker
This will create a transducer in the chamber along the side/wall at the current
location. Transducers are always located on a wall of a chamber.

Delete Speaker
This will delete the transducer in the chamber wall at the current location.

Reverse Speaker
This will reverse the transducer in the chamber wall at the current location.

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Insert Port
This will create a port in the chamber along the side/wall at the current location.
Ports are always located on a wall of a chamber.

Delete Port
This will delete the port in the chamber wall at the current location.

Reverse Port
This will reverse the port in the chamber wall at the current location.

Reversing Transducers & Ports

Transducers have polarity. Reversing a transducer will change the polarity. Ports
do not have polarity, but they are tuned with a specific chamber. Reversing a port
will change the chamber used to perform the tuning calculations.

For example, this is the normal position of a transducer

located on the right wall of chamber 1.

When the transducer is reversed, it appears on the

opposite side of the chamber wall. The polarity of the
acoustic output of the transducer will be reversed.
Note that the color is also highlighted.

Here a port is located on the right wall of chamber 1.

This indicates that the port resonance will be computed
using chamber 1.

When the port is reversed, it appears on the opposite

side of the chamber wall. Now it will be tuned using
chamber 2. Note that the color is also highlighted.

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Custom Enclosure Example

An example of a custom enclosure structure is now shown below, along with
the resulting simulation data given on the following pages. Three chambers are
used with two direct radiating transducers and three ports. The structure is
shown in the dialog below. A V style shell was used with the rear port located
on the back of the enclosure and the two transducers on the split baffle board.

Two 8 Inch (200mm) transducers are used, with staggered tuning of the
chambers/ports. The 3D layout is shown for both front and back views. Only
external sources of radiation appear in the shell layout.

The first graph shows the total SPL. The second graph gives the near field
pressure for both transducers, along with the internal pressure for all three
chambers. The impedance graph shows the impedance for each speaker and
the parallel combination. The excursion graph also shows the displacement on
both transducers and each of the three ports. The final two polar plots give both
the horizontal and vertical directional characteristics.

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100
dBSPL SPL vs Freq

95

90

85

80

75

70

65

60

55

50
10 Hz 20 50 100 200 500 1K 2K 5K 10K

dBSPL
SPL vs Freq
140
Cham/Int
Right Cham/Int
135
Left

130

125

Cham/Int
120 Rear

115

110
Spkr/Near
Right
105

Spkr/Near
100 Left

95

90
10 Hz 20 50 100 200 500 1K 2K 5K 10K

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100
Ohm
Impedance vs Freq

50

20

Spkr - Left
10
Spkr - Right

2 Enclosure

1
10 Hz 20 50 100 200 500 1K 2K 5K 10K

50m
M
Excursion vs Freq

20m
Port
Left
10m Port
Rear

5m
Port
Spkr
Rght
Rght
2m

1m
Spkr
Left
500u

200u

100u

50u
10 Hz 20 50 100 200 500 1K 2K 5K 10K

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SPL vs Angle
dBSPL 90
100 105 75
95 Curve Freq BW Q DI
120 60
10.00 360 1.0 0.0
90
135 45 20.00 360 1.0 0.0
85
40.00 360 1.0 0.0
80
640.00 76 4.7 6.8
75 150 30
1.28K 42 8.6 9.3
70 1.80K 24 15.0 11.8

65 2.56K 16 22.5 13.5

165 15
3.84K 108 3.3 5.2
60
5.12K 108 3.3 5.2
55
6.40K 116 3.1 4.9
50 -180
180 0 Deg
12.80K 104 3.5 5.4
55

60

65 -165 -15

70

75
-150 -30
80

85
Horizontal
-135 -45
90

95 -120 -60
100 -105 -75
-90

SPL vs Angle
dBSPL 90
100 105 75
95 Curve Freq BW Q DI
120 60
10.00 360 1.0 0.0
90
135 45 20.00 360 1.0 0.0
85
40.00 360 1.0 0.0
80
640.00 156 2.3 3.6
75 150 30
1.28K 160 2.3 3.5
70 1.80K 132 2.7 4.4

65 2.56K 84 4.3 6.3

165 15
3.84K 44 8.2 9.1
60
5.12K 44 8.2 9.1
55
6.40K 68 5.3 7.2
50 -180
180 0 Deg
12.80K 12 30.0 14.8
55

60

65 -165 -15

70

75
-150 -30 Vertical
80

85
-135 -45
90

95 -120 -60
100 -105 -75
-90

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Graph Menu 9

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9.1 Parameters

The Graph | Parameters menu item will open a dialog which controls the
appearance of graphs throughout the program. The tool button as shown above can
also be used to activate this item.

This dialog allows you to define the colors, lines, and fonts commonly used on the
graphs of the program. By using these parameters a very wide range of different
graph designs can be easily produced. Graphics dimensions are always given in
mils (1/1000 of an Inch). For example a 10 mil line is 0.010 Inches.

Frame Parameters
The Background color is applied across the entire area of the graph page. The Note
Underline controls the color and width of the lines under the user note text. The
Large Frame Line controls the color and line width of the border around the graph.
The Small Frame Line controls the color and line width of the sub divider border
lines between different sections of the title block, note block, and map block.

Grid Parameters
The Background color is applied inside the
region of the grid itself. The Border Line
controls the color and width of the border sur-
rounding the grid. The Major Div controls the
color, width, and line style of the major division
lines drawn on the grid. The Minor Div controls
the color, width, and line style of the minor
division lines drawn on the grid.

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Text Parameters
There are six tabs in this group box that control the fonts used in different
regions of the graph artwork. The titles are self explanatory. The color can be
changed directly by clicking the Color button, and the font can be changed by
clicking the Font button.

Note: Win9X has no support for line styles other than Solid when using line
widths larger than 1. WinNT4 does support this, however non-Solid line
drawing is extremely slow. PostScript printing/export is always supported.

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9.2 System Curves

The Graph | System Curves menu item will open a dialog which controls the
appearance of the System Curves in the program. The tool button as shown above
can also be used to activate this item, or the accelerator key F4. This is one of the
most frequently used dialogs in the program. The size of the dialog can be adjusted.

System Curves are analytic data calculated from the analysis of your design. There
is a maximum of 99 system curves. The active number of curves will depend on
your analysis options and the complexity of your design. System curves are
generated automatically and colored by the sequence of buttons shown at the top for
each type of curve data. Most system curve parameters are not editable.

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Grid Table
The large grid table displays the active System Curve entries. There is a
maximum of 99 entries. The points column informs you whether each entry
actually contains data or is empty. A library curve is actually a pair of curves,
with a left side vertical data type, and a right side vertical data type. In most
cases these represent magnitude and phase respectively.

The G column provides an array of check boxes which are used to select the
curve entry for display on the graph. The Name column can be edited to enter
a name for each curve entry.

The Info column provides access to some additional notes which can be
attached to each curve. The System Curves have a Date/Time stamp applied.
To modify the curve Info text, copy the curve into the Guide Curve library.

The Horz Data Range column provides an abbreviated message giving the
range of horizontal data. If it is a frequency axis, it will show the lowest and
highest frequency values in the curve.

The Left Vert and Right Vert columns show the type of data for each left/right
data set. The type of units defined here determine which scale set will be used
when drawing the curve, and on which graph the curve will appear.

The Points column displays the number of data points in the curve. The
maximum number of data points in a curve entry is 4096.

The Style, Width, and Color columns determine the line attributes used to draw
each curve. The width parameter is given in mils (1/1000 of an Inch). If the
Right Lighter check box is enabled, the right side curve (generally phase) will
be drawn with a lighter shade of the specified color.

Note: Win9X does not support drawing complex lines larger than 1 pixel width.
This means dash, dot, etc. WinNT is required to support these styles.

In general System Curves cannot be edited. For example, you can change the
color of an individual curve but it will be changed back to the previous color
after the next analysis, if Auto Color is enabled. Each time the circuit is
analyzed the existing system curves are deleted and a new set generated.

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The number of points, frequency range, and curve names cannot be changed in the
System Curve library. The only parameter that will be preserved after analysis is
curve Enable. Thus you can control which individual curves are displayed.

Keep in mind that the number of System Curves is very dynamic. If changes are
made to the model itself, or analysis parameters, the number of curves can easily
change. Since individual colors are assigned on an index basis, any specific curve
may not be located at the same index after the next analysis.

The curves are displayed on different graphs depending on their type of data. For
example, SPL curves appear on the SPL graph, Impedance curves appear on the
Impedance graph, etc.

If you wish to make changes to these curves, they must be copied and pasted into
the Guide Curve library where full editing is then possible.

System Curves & Naming Conventions

Curves generated by the system analysis are named automatically, and do not allow
for any user modification. All curve names are derived from the enclosure model
structure and the number of chambers, ports, and transducers.

The System Curves are generated as groups in the following order:

• SPL at primary simulation trget location (1).

• SPL power response (1).
• Impedance of enclosure (1).
• Voltage response to the enclosure (1).
• Group Delay of SPL (1).
• Horz Polar SPL (# Polar Freq).
• Vert Polar SPL (# Polar Freq).
• SPL-Internal for Chambers (# of Chambers).
• SPL-Near, Imp, Excur, Vel, Accel, Vol for each spkr (# of Spkrs).
• SPL-Near, Imp, Excur, Vel, Accel, Vol for each port (# of Ports).

Depending on what analysis options you have chosen, some of these curves may not
be present. If you have a large design and enable many options the number of curves
can exceed the 99 curve capacity of the library. In that case some curves will be
dropped past the end of the library and you will need to reduce your options.

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Show All
This button will enable all curves for display. You can also toggle selected
curves for display by using CTRL-G.

Hide All
This button will disable all curves for display. You can also toggle selected
curves for display by using CTRL-G.

Copy
This button will copy all selected curves to the Clipboard. Before using this
button you will typically want to select one or more curves in the grid table.
Selection of multiple curves can be done by holding down the CTRL or SHFT
keys while clicking additional curve entries.

Auto Color Set

This is a master color table used to automatically color the curves. All curves
of the same data type will be assigned colors in this order. The color buttons
can be clicked to change their colors. The changes will affect the next curves
generated by analysis if the Auto Color option is enabled.

Auto Color
This option will enable automatic coloring of the curves during each analysis.
Normally this option is enabled, but can be disabled if you have some specific
color scheme you wish to preserve.

Right Lighter
This option will enable an automatic color variation for the Right vertical data
of all curves. The Right data is generally phase. Thus the phase curve line will
be given a lighter colored version of the magnitude color. This helps to
distinguish the left/right curve lines from each other. If disabled, the phase
curve line will have the same color as the magnitude line.

Note: If there are no Left (Magnitude)

curves using either the This option enables the Left (typically magnitude) curve line for display.
Left/ Right sides of a
graph, then the Scale on Right (Phase)
that side will not appear. This option enables the Right (typically phase) curve line for display.

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9.3 Guide Curves

The Graph | Guide Curves menu item will open a dialog which controls the
appearance of Guide Curves in all of the graphs of the program. The tool button as
shown above can also be used to activate this item, or the accelerator key F6. This
is a frequently used dialog, and its size can be adjusted as needed.

Guide Curves are arbitrary data that is transferred (copied) from the System Curves,
generated by processing functions, or externally imported into the program. There
are a maximum of 99 guide curves. A curve actually contains two data arrays, Left/
Right which generally hold magnitude and phase data respectively. The type of
units in the Left/Right vertical data arrays determine the graph used for display.

Since guide curves contain arbitrary data, they cannot be directly recalculated when
the system frequency range is changed. Therefore guide curves can contain data
which is not necessarily in the same frequency range as that of the system.

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Grid Table
The large grid table displays the curve entries. There are a maximum of 99
entries. The headers at the top give the title of each column. The columns may
be resized or rearranged in order by dragging them with the mouse.

The G column provides an array of check boxes which are used to select the
curve entry for display on the graph.

The Name column can be edited to enter a name for each curve entry.

The Info column provides access to some additional notes which can be
attached to each curve. Click the mini button to open the Curve Info dialog.

The Horz Data Range column provides an abbreviated message giving the
range of horizontal data. If it is a frequency axis, it will show the lowest and
highest frequency values in the curve. Click the mini button to open the Curve
Realign dialog. This dialog can be used to modify the curve's frequency range,
resolution, or to create flat line curves from empty curves.

The Left Vert and Right Vert columns show the type of data for each left/right
data set. The type of units defined here determine which scale set will be used
when drawing the curve, and on which graph the curve will appear.

The Points column displays the number of data points in the curve. The
maximum number of data points in a curve entry is 4096.

The Style, Width, and Color columns determine the line attributes used to draw
each curve. The width parameter is given in mils (1/1000 of an Inch). If the
Same Line Type check box is enabled, all curves will have the same style, width,
and color. If the Right Lighter check box is enabled, the right side curve
(generally phase) will be drawn with a lighter shade of the specified color.

Note: Win9X does not support drawing complex lines larger than 1 pixel width.
This means dash, dot, etc. WinNT is required to support these styles.

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Show All
This button will enable all curves for display. You can also toggle selected curves
for display by using CTRL-G.

Hide All
This button will disable all curves for display. You can also toggle selected curves
for display by using CTRL-G.

Copy
This button will copy all selected curves to the Window's Clipboard. Before using
this button you will typically want to select one or more curves in the grid table.
Selection of multiple curves can be done by holding down the CTRL or SHFT keys
while clicking additional curve entries.

Cut
The Cut button will first copy the selected curves to the Windows's Clipboard, and
then delete them from the library.

Paste
The Paste button will paste the copied curves from the Window's Clipboard starting
at the currently selected curve entry. If the block of copied curves extends past the
last entry, they will be wrapped around to the top of the library. This provides the
means to move or copy curves from one location to another. Since the clipboard
is used, a different library can be loaded and the curves pasted into that library.

The Paste button will only be enabled if one or more curves are present in the
clipboard. When a curve is present, the Paste button will show hint text containing
the name and parameters of the curve. For multiple curves, a list of the original
curve entry numbers will be displayed.

Delete
The Delete button will delete the selected curves from the library. Deleting all of
the curves at once can be performed by pressing CTRL-A and then using Delete.

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Same Line Type

This option will force the same line attribute settings for all guide curves. This
means color, width, and line style.

Right Lighter
This option will enable an automatic color variation for the Right vertical data
of all curves. The Right data is generally phase. Thus the phase curve line will
be given a lighter colored version of the magnitude color. This helps to
distinguish the left/right curve lines from each other. If disabled, the phase
curve line will have the same color as the magnitude line.

Note: If there are no Left (Magnitude)

curves using either the This option enables the Left (typically magnitude) curve line for display.
Left/ Right sides of a
graph, then the Scale on Right (Phase)
that side will not appear. This option enables the Right (typically phase) curve line for display.

Curve Info Dialog

When an ellipse mini button in the Info column is clicked, the Curve Info dialog
will appear as shown below. This dialog allows you to enter/edit additional
notes for each curve entry.

The Transfer options panel provides

some handy features for displaying
the curve info text on the graph page.

Since there are 8 text lines in the

graph notes, and only 4 lines in a
curve entry info, you may select
which side to place the text.

The two options Copy Info Text to

Left/Right Notes provide the selec-
tion. The text will be copied after Ok
is clicked.

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Curve Realign
When an ellipse mini button in the Horz Data
Range column is clicked, the Curve Realign
dialog will appear as shown here. This dialog
performs re-indexing of the horizontal data points
of a curve entry. It can also be used to create flat
line curves from empty curve entries.

In most cases the horizontal data is frequency, but it could also be time or angular
position information. This dialog reprocesses and interpolates the vertical data
based on a new linear or log array of horizontal values.

A common use for this operation is to reduce the resolution of a curve. For example,
a curve containing 500 data points can be realigned into a 100 point curve. This
could be within the same frequency range, or a different frequency range.

This routine can also be used to simulate higher resolution using quadratic or cubic
interpolation, and increasing the number of data points. Both of these methods will
produce curvature rather than straight line segments.

However, be aware that it is impossible to create data that was not originally present.
For example if the original frequency range was 100Hz-1kHz, and you realign the
data to 10Hz-1kHz, there is no original data below 100Hz. The result is a flat line
segment from 10Hz-100Hz at the value of the original 100Hz data point.

When changing the horizontal data from linear to log, there will be a loss of
resolution either at the low end or high end of the spectrum.

Since the curve's data will be altered you may wish to make a copy of the curve
before performing this operation. This will prevent loosing your original data curve
should you wish to run the operation again on the original data.

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9.4 Notes & Comments

The Graph | Notes & Comments menu item will open a dialog which allows
you to enter user defined notes and identification information. The tool button
as shown above can also be used to activate this item.

Left Page / Right Page

There are eight lines of possible notes which can be entered, four on each of
these two tabs. The note lines will appear on all of the graphs. The amount of
text which can be entered depends on the size of font currently selected.

Title Block Data

There are three fields provided to enter personal, company, and project names.
The fields could also be used for engineering project numbers, drawing
numbers or other record keeping data. The fields will appear in the title block
of all graphs.

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Processing Menu 10

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10.1 Unary Math Operations

The Processing | Unary Math Operations menu item will

open a dialog which performs mathematical operations on
a single curve. The tool button as shown above on the
Processing toolbar can also be used to activate this item.

Unary math operations involve only a single curve hence

the term unary. The result of the operation is returned in the
same curve entry. In some cases you may wish to copy the
curve into another entry, if you wish to reuse the original
data later.

Several different types of operations are provided: Magnitude Offset, Phase Offset,
Delay Offset, Exponentiation, Smooth Curve, Frequency Translation, Mul (jω),
Div (jω), Real (cos), Imag (sin).

The dialog use is straightforward. Simply select the library curve to process the
operation and enter the desired numeric value for the operation. Only the numeric
field for the selected operation will be enabled, with all other fields disabled.

The following examples demonstrate

some various applications of each
operation.

The Guide Curve list box provides

selection of the library curve for the
operation. This special list box shows
the type of data contained in each
curve. Any curve which is currently
being displayed on the graph is de-
noted by Red vertical lines between
the zones of each curve entry.

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■ Magnitude Offset
This operation simply adds the numeric dB value to the magnitude curve data.
It is the equivalent of scaling the magnitude response. You can also click the
units button and enter a linear ratio, if desired.

This operation is commonly used to move the magnitude data to a specific

value, perhaps at a specific frequency. In the graph below, the Brown curve
was dropped -3.0dB so that the average level on the curve is 90dB. The result
is shown in the Red curve.

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■ Phase Offset
This operation simply adds the numeric Deg value to the phase curve data. It is the
equivalent of shifting the phase response. If the Zero check box is enabled, the curve
will be cleared to zero before the offset is applied.

This operation is commonly used to change the polarity of a curve, by entering a

value of +180 or -180 degrees. However, any other value can also be used for
unusual effects. For example, a quadrature response can be generated by shifting
the phase by 90 degrees.

In the graph below, the Blue curve was shifted by +180Deg to reverse the polarity
of the response. The result is shown in the Red curve.

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■ Delay Offset
This operation modifies the phase function of a curve to increase or decrease
the equivalent delay specified in the edit field. You can also click the units
button and enter a value in different units, including length based on the speed
of sound in air if desired. It is the equivalent of shifting the phase response by
a finite delay offset.

This operation is commonly used to move a response forward or backward in

time. However, many other purposes can be found for unusual effects. For
example, to move an SPL response backward by 1 Inch, offset the response
by 73uSec.

In the graphs below, the Blue curve was shifted by +500uSec, with the resulting
curve shown in Red. The Group Delay Transform was run on each curve, and
is shown in the second graph. The additional 500uS of delay is clearly visible.

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■ Exponentiation
This operation raises the curve to the exponent power specified by the numeric Pwr
value. This operation effects both magnitude and phase.

The operation is commonly used to square the response of a curve (Pwr=2.0), or

perhaps take the square root of a curve (Pwr=0.5). By using an exponent power of
-1.0 the curve can be inverted.

In the graph below, the Yellow curve is the square root (0.5) result of the original
Blue curve, the Red curve is the squared (2.0) result, and the Green curve is the
inverted (-1.0) result.

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■ Smooth Curve
This operation performs an averaging of the data to smooth the response by the
bandwidth specified in octaves. Each frequency data point becomes the
average of a group of points above and below, each spanning the specified
octave width of that curve's frequency range. This operation effects both
magnitude and phase.

The operation is generally used when you wish to remove excess noise or detail
from a response curve. In the graph below, the Black curve was smoothed by
a value of 0.5 Octaves as shown in the Red curve.

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■ Frequency Translation
The frequency translation operation shifts the frequency locations of the curve data
by a numeric Ratio value. This operation effects both magnitude and phase.

The operation is rarely used, but sometimes is necessary when producing digital
filters, and can also be used to correct imported measured data. Many other
applications are also possible.

In the graph below, the Black curve was frequency translated by a ratio of 0.50 as
shown in the Red curve.

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■ Multiply by jw
This operation multiplies the curve data by the complex radian frequency at
each point. This operation effects both the magnitude and phase. The phase
curve will also have +90 degrees added everywhere.

It is useful for converting inductance curves to impedance, or impedance

curves to inverse capacitance, and other applications.

In the graph below, the Red curve is the result of the operation applied to the
Blue curve.

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■ Divide by jw
This operation divides the curve data by the complex radian frequency at each point.
This operation effects both the magnitude and phase. The phase curve will also have
-90 degrees added everywhere.

It is useful for converting impedance curves to inductance, or inverse capacitance

curves to impedance, and other applications.

In the graph below, the Red curve is the result of the operation applied to the Blue
curve.

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■ Real (cos)
This operation returns the real portion of the complex curve data by applying
the cos() function to the phase and magnitude data. The resulting phase curve
will be either 0 or 180 degrees. This operation effects both magnitude and
phase. This operation can be useful in separating the resistance from complex
impedance, or other similar applications. In the first graph below, the Red
curve is the result of the operation applied to the Blue curve.

■ Imag (sin)
This operation returns the imaginary portion of the complex curve data by
applying the sin() function to the phase and magnitude data. This operation
effects both the magnitude and phase. The phase curve will be either +90 or
-90 degrees.
This operation can be useful in separating
the reactance from complex impedance, or
other similar applications.

In the graph below, the Red curve is the

result of the operation applied to the Blue
curve.

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10.2 Binary Math Operations

The Processing | Binary Math Operations menu item

will open a dialog which performs basic arithmetic opera-
tions on a pair of curves. The tool button as shown above
on the Processing toolbar can also be used to activate this
item.

Binary math operations involve two curves hence the term binary. The two operand
curves are selected from the Guide Curve library, and the result is placed into
another Guide Curve entry. The result curve will be given a default name which
denotes the operation performed. The fundamental operations of mul, div, add, and
sub can be performed on the two operand curves.

The frequency ranges in the two operand curves can be anything, but the result
curve is always created using the operand A curve frequency range. The program
performs automatic frequency translation for the operand curves.

The dialog use is straightforward. Simply select the math op, the two operand
curves, and the location for the result curve. The Mul and Div operations attempt
to keep track of the units when possible. For example, when dividing two curves
with identical units, the result curve will be given the Ratio type. If you are
multiplying impedance and current, the result curve will be voltage. If you are
dividing voltage by current, the result curve will be impedance, etc.

If you wish to change the type of

units on the curve, either operand,
or result curves, you can do so in
the curve library dialog. See the
chapter Graph | Curve Library.

Auto increment buttons are also

provided for repeated operations
on a block of similar curves.

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An example of using the Div operation is shown below. This operation is

frequently used to obtain the ratio between two curves. In this case we have two
voltage curves. Dividing the Bandpass filter (Blue) by the Highpass/Lowpass
(Black) curve, produces the ratio curve shown in the lower graph.

The result curve is always enabled for display after the operation is performed.
However often it will have different units then the operand curves and cannot
be shown on the graph simultaneously with the operand curves.

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7.3 Minimum Phase Transform

The Processing | Minimum Phase Transform menu item

will open a dialog which provides a method of generating
phase response data from magnitude only data. The tool
button as shown above on the Processing toolbar can also
be used to activate this item.

The minimum phase transform is very valuable when you do not already have a
phase function for your magnitude data. In some cases this phase is more usable
than the measured phase produced by some analyzers and software due to errors or
other processing issues.

In other cases, magnitude only data may be imported into the program. This routine
can be used to construct a phase curve to provide full complex valued data. Once
the phase data is constructed, group delay and time domain data can also be
produced using other transforms on this menu.

Operating the transform is relatively simple. The most important factor is the
selection of the frequency range. In order for a minimum phase transform to
produce accurate results, all of the magnitude changes must be contained within the
system frequency range. The magnitude curve data should reach asymptotic
response at the low and high frequency limits. This means that the derivative ( or
slope) of the magnitude curve reaches a fixed constant at the frequency extremes.

Once the transform knows the as-

ymptotic slopes at the low and high
frequency limits, it can properly inte-
grate the entire magnitude response
from 0Hz to Infinity. Either Log or
Linear frequency axis can be used,
but Log is the most common.

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Parameters
The Guide Curve containing the magnitude data should be selected first. The
Guide Curve list box provides selection of the library curve for the operation.
This special list box shows the type of data contained in each curve. Any curve
which is currently being displayed on the graph is denoted by Red vertical lines
between the zones of each curve entry.

After this is selected the low/high slopes will be automatically calculated and
presented in the two editing fields with units of dB/Octave. The graph below
illustrates the asymptotic slope at both the low and high frequency limits. For
impedance curves, the Automatic Tail Correction and Mirroring provides
additional special advanced processing.

The calculated slope values may require adjustment. If the magnitude curve
contains ripple or noise, the slope near the frequency limits may not be stable.
In these cases you should adjust the values to represent the true asymptotic
slopes as the frequency goes to 0Hz and Infinity.

The asymptotic slope of a 1st order function is of course 6.02dB/Octave. If you

know the actual Lowpass and Highpass orders of the response represented in
the magnitude data, you can enter the appropriate values as multiples of 6.02.

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For example, in the previous graph the magnitude data was relatively rough, and
it was known that both the Lowpass and Highpass slopes should be 4th order. The
slopes were corrected to +24.08 and -24.08 dB/Octave. The resulting phase and
group delay are shown below.

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To demonstrate the accuracy of this minimum phase transform, an analytic

filter function was processed and compared to the known data. The magnitude,
phase, and group delay graphs below show the original analytic response in
Black, and the minimum phase transformed response in Blue. The generated
phase and group delay closely match those of the true analytic response.

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10.4 Group Delay Transform

The Processing | Group Delay Transform menu item will

open a dialog which provides a method of generating group
delay response data from phase response data. The tool
button as shown above on the Processing toolbar can also
be used to activate this item.

The group delay transform is commonly used when you

wish to view a phase response in terms of its group delay
characteristics.

The phase response curve is specified as Right vertical data in the Source Curve
entry. The transform will write the resulting group delay response to the Left
vertical data of the Result Curve entry.

The curve list boxes provide selection of the library Guide Curve for the operations.
These special list boxes show the type of data contained in each curve. Any curve
which is currently being displayed on the graph is denoted by Red vertical lines
between the zones of each curve entry.

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The first graph below shows the magnitude and phase response of a Highpass
filter. After the Group Delay Transform is applied to this data, the lower graph
of group delay is produced. The ripples in the response are due to the
measurement variations typical of empirical data. The group delay transform
is very much like a derivative, and accentuates any variations or instabilities in
the phase response.

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10.5 Delay Phase Transform

The Processing | Delay Phase Transform menu item will

open a dialog which provides a method of generating phase
response data from group delay data. The tool button as
shown above on the Processing toolbar can also be used to
activate this item.

The delay phase transform can be very useful when you do

not already have a matching phase function for your
magnitude data and wish to generate the phase based on known or a desired group
delay response. This situation often occurs when you are creating an arbitrary group
delay curve using the Curve Editor and wish to construct a corresponding phase
function.

This transform can also be used to create transfer functions with prescribed
magnitude response, but different group delay characteristics. For example, a
normal analog minimum phase type filter response could be generated in the target
system, and then a custom group delay curve created using the Curve Editor. The
new group delay response could be a simple flat line for linear phase. This transform
can then produce a new phase curve representing that linear phase response.

The group delay curve is specified as Left vertical data in the Source Curve entry.
The transform will write the resulting phase response to the Right vertical data of
the Result Curve entry. Generally you will have the magnitude that you wish to keep
already in the Result Curve entry.

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The curve list boxes provide selection of the Guide Curve library entry for the
operations. These special list boxes show the type of data contained in each
curve. Any curve which is currently being displayed on the graph is denoted
by Red vertical lines between the zones of each curve entry.

The graphs below demonstrate a linear phase example. A group delay curve
was created using the Curve Editor, which is merely a flat line of 40mS. After
the transform is run, the resulting phase is shown below.

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In this example the group delay was modified to include a tilt towards zero at the
higher frequencies. The resulting phase is shown below.

Using this transform, proper phase functions can be generated for almost any type
of desired group delay response.

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10.6 Fast Fourier Transform

The Processing | Fast Fourier Transform menu item will

open a dialog which performs an FFT on a time domain
library curve. The tool button as shown above on the
Processing toolbar can also be used to activate this item.

An FFT transforms a time domain response into a fre-

quency domain response. If the frequency domain result is
to represent a transfer function, then the time domain
response must be an Impulse type response.

The time domain entry to be transformed is specified in the Source Curve list box.
The resulting frequency domain response entry is selected in the Result Curve list
box.

When you choose the source curve, the number of data points will be shown above
the list box. The number of data points produced in the frequency domain result
curve will be 1/2 this value. The frequency axis will be linear.

The curve list boxes provide selection of the library curve for the operations. These
special list boxes show the type of data contained in each curve. Any curve which
is currently being displayed on the graph is denoted by Red vertical lines between
the zones of each curve entry.

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The first graph below shows a typical Impulse response curve. The graph at
the bottom shows the FFT transformed response in the frequency domain. If
you compare this to the other frequency domain curve in the following Inv FFT
section, you will note that much of the low frequency resolution has been lost.
This is due to the linear frequency resolution and 4096 sample size.

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10.7 Inverse Fast Fourier Transform

The Processing | Inverse Fast Fourier Transform menu

item will open a dialog which performs an Inverse FFT on
a frequency domain library curve. The tool button as
shown above on the Processing toolbar can also be used to
activate this item.

An Inverse FFT transforms a frequency domain response

into a time domain Impulse response. This dialog also
provides convolution to automatically yield a Step re-
sponse as well.

Prior to performing the Inverse FFT, the frequency domain source curve must be
converted into a specific number of linear frequency data points. This process is
fully automatic, and the user only needs to specify how many linear frequency data
points are to be used. The list box at the top provides a list of available choices.

The frequency domain entry to be transformed is specified in the Source Curve list
box. The resulting time domain Impulse and Step response entries are selected in
the following two list boxes.

The curve list boxes provide selec-

tion of the library curve for the opera-
tions. These special list boxes show
the type of data contained in each
curve. Any curve which is currently
being displayed on the graph is de-
noted by Red vertical lines between
the zones of each curve entry.

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The three graphs below show a sample frequency domain curve transformed
into the equivalent time domain Impulse and Step response curves. The
number of frequency data points used here was 2048.

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10.8 Tail Correction

The Processing | Tail Correction menu item will open a

dialog that provides a means to fix the low and high ends
of a curve so that the asymptotic slopes are precisely
defined. The tool button as shown above on the Processing
toolbar can also be used to activate this item.

Many of the process operations require data at frequencies beyond the range over
which the curve was originally measured. The Minimum Phase Transform is
particularly sensitive, and requires correct magnitude slopes at both the low and
high ends of the frequency range.

These routines extrapolate the response based on the slopes found at the ends of the
measured frequency range. Since practical measurements often have large varia-
tions in the response at the frequency extremes, Tail Correction provides the means
to reliably fix the tails of the response with a known asymptotic slope.

The library curve list box provides selection of the library curve for the operation.
This special list box shows the type of data contained in each curve. Any curve
which is currently being displayed on the graph is denoted by Red vertical lines
between the zones of each curve entry.

When the curve entry is selected, the four numeric fields are updated. The initial
frequency values will be set at 50% above and below the lowest and highest points
in the curve.
The magnitude slopes of the curve are
also measured and their values pre-
sented in the other two fields. Once
you have selected your curve entry,
and the initial values have been calcu-
lated, you can then edit these values
as desired.

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Since the curve's data will be altered, you may wish to make a copy of the curve
before performing this operation. This will prevent loosing your original data
curve should you wish to run the operation again on the original data.

An example of Tail Correction is shown below. The two frequency thresholds

used here were 15Hz and 7kHz. The slopes were set to +24dB/Oct and -24dB/
Oct respectively.

The upper graph shows

the original data in Blue
and the corrected data
in Red. The lower graph
shows the phase as pro-
duced from the Mini-
mum Phase Transform
for both the original and
corrected curves.

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10.9 Curve Averaging

The Processing | Curve Averaging menu item will open

a dialog which performs averaging of multiple curves into
a single curve. The tool button as shown above on the
Processing toolbar can also be used to activate this item.

It is sometimes desirable to average multiple measure-

ments to come up with a single representative curve. Curve
Averaging can mathematically average up to 99 curves and
store the data in a separate library entry, or on top of one of
the data curves being averaged.

A common use for this utility is generating a true power response curve from
multiple curves taken at different off axis angles around a transducer. Other uses
include averaging of multiple curves to determine the mean, and then worst case
max/min variations from that average response.

Four different types of mathematical averaging are provided. The Guide Curve
Parameters group box shows a data grid with the 99 library curves. Each curve
entry can be enabled or disabled for averaging. A weighting value can also be
specified for each curve. Below the grid
is another selection box for the resulting
average curve. Two additional buttons
are provided for quickly enabling/dis-
abling all curves.

The Result Curve list box provides se-

lection of the library curve for the result
of the operation. This special list box
shows the type of data contained in each
curve. Any curve which is currently
being displayed on the graph is denoted
by Red vertical lines between the zones
of each curve entry.

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Note: The result curve entry can be the same as one of the data curves used to
construct the average. However, the original data will be overwritten when the
operation is completed.

The following is an exact description of each of the averaging methods:

■ Scalar AVE
This is a simple weighted arithmetic average of the magnitude data for each of
the curves. The phase is ignored in the averaging.

WT = Σ Wi SAVE = (1/WT) • Σ Wi • | vi|

■ Scalar RMS
This is an RMS weighted average of the magnitude data for each curve. The
phase is ignored in the averaging.

WT = Σ Wi SRMS = {(1/WT) • Σ Wi • | v i2 |}½

■ Vector AVE
This is a weighted average performed using vector mathematics in the complex
plane with the magnitude and phase at each data point. The phase is used in this
method.

WT = Σ Wi VAVE = (1/WT) • Σ Wi • v i

■ Vector RMS
This is an RMS average performed using vector mathematics in the complex
plane with the magnitude and phase at each data point. The phase is used in this
method.

WT = Σ Wi VRMS = {(1/WT) • Σ Wi • v i 2 }½

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The top graph shows an example of 12 SPL curves, representing the response of a
speaker at different angles of rotation. The bottom graph shows the resulting Scalar
RMS average of these curves.

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10.10 Polar Convertor

The Processing | Polar Convertor menu item will open a

dialog for compiling a group of frequency curves into polar
curves. The tool button as shown above on the Processing
toolbar can also be used to activate this item.

This dialog is very useful for manually constructing polar

plot data, from a group of normal frequency response
measurements. Each frequency response curve is taken at
a different location radially around the transducer. Using
this dialog, the representative locations of each curve are entered, and then an
output list of curves is established with specific frequencies for which the polar
curves will be generated.

Since there are a maximum of 99 curve entries in a library, the total number of input
and output curves must fit within a single library. Typically there are many more
input curves than output curves. The process can be repeated while changing the
output polar frequencies, saving multiple libraries, thereby producing a larger
number of output polar curves.

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Only the Function and Deg or Freq column fields

require editing. The remaining columns reflect
the data of the curve library entries.

The Function field has three possible selections:

Not Used, Input Deg, and Output Freq.

The Not Used selection simply indicates that the

curve is not involved in the conversion.

The Input Deg selection is chosen for input curves

containing the normal frequency response curves
as measured at different radial locations around
the transducer. The position of each curve is then
specified in Degrees. The Deg values can be
entered as either ±180, or 0 to 360, but will be
automatically converted to the ±180 range.

The Output Freq selection is chosen for output

curves which will contain a polar response at a
specified frequency.

All Off
This button will reset the Function column to Not
Used, and set the Deg or Freq values to zero.

Standard 360
This button will produce a standard setup for 36
input curves covering 10 Deg radial resolution,
across the ±180 range. There will be 14 output
curves in 1/2 octave intervals from 40kHz and
lower.

Standard 180
This button will produce a standard setup for 36
input curves covering 5 Deg radial resolution,
Note: When you select Input Deg in the function across the ±90 range. There will be 14 output
column, the curve name will be scanned for special curves in 1/2 octave intervals from 40kHz and
text and if found the Deg Value will be set automati- lower.
cally. Naming the curves (eg. +45H or -15V) will
enable faster setup for their locations here.

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The standard setup buttons provide an example of how to setup the polar conversion
process and its parameters. However in many cases you will wish to modify or
change these values for your own specific purposes.

There is no particular order required for either the input or output curves. They can
be mixed or out of sequence in any order. The conversion routine reads the Function
and the Deg or Freq values to determine what is contained in each curve, and applies
automatic sorting to properly construct the polar response output curves.

■ Example of Polar Conversion

To illustrate how this utility can be used, an example is probably the best way to
demonstrate the process. The directivity characteristics of a 1/2 Inch microphone
are to be measured.

A series of ground plane

measurements were
made by rotating the mic
by 7.5 Degree incre-
ments through the entire
360 Degree circle. This
resulted in 48 frequency
response curves mea-
sured across 10Hz-
40kHz.

The curves were then

normalized to the on-axis
0 Degree curve. This
was accomplished by di-
viding all curves by the 0
Degree curve. In this way the response at each location around the transducer is
relative to the on-axis response.

It was desired to produce 5 polar curves for the higher frequencies of 2kHz, 5kHz,
10kHz, 20kHz, and 40kHz. Since there are 48 input curves, and 5 output curves are
required, it was decided that a couple of the input curves would be deleted. Since
the response near the 0 Degree on-axis location is relatively smooth, the deleted
curves were chosen to alternatively skip every other curve near 0 Deg. Thus the
resolution near the ±30 Degree on-axis region was 15 Degrees.

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The dialog view shown here

illustrates the setup for the in-
put curves, and the lower dia-
log below shows the output
curves. The order for some of
the input curves was mixed.
The Deg values for each input
curve were entered to match
their locations.

The frequency values for the

output curves were entered as
well for the last five entries.

When the Ok button is clicked,

the polar curves are generated.
This routine also enables the
polar curves for display auto-
matically when the processing
is completed, and disables the
input curves.

The graph view of the polar

curves is now shown on the
following page.

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The beam width, Q, and Directivity Index are also calculated on the graph for each
polar curve frequency The curves show the expected directivity increase with
frequency. At 40kHz the response is highly directional. At 2kHz and below the
response is virtually omni directional.

If the Polar Convertor dialog is now reopened, the output curve names appear as
shown on the following page. A view of the Curve Library is also shown.

The routine automatically provides names for the polar curves, and also places a
date/time stamp into the last Info field of the curves.

Since polar curves made by this process are of low resolution (a small number of
points), it can be helpful to use the Data Realign operation to increase the point
density. This process will produce much better interpolation than the simple
straight line segments which would normally be drawn by the graphing system. The
polar plot on the next page shows cubic interpolation for 400 points.

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10.11 Data Transfer

The Processing | Data Transfer menu item will open a

dialog that allows you to move individual vertical data
arrays from one curve to another. The tool button as shown
above on the Processing toolbar can also be used to activate
this item.

A library curve entry actually contains a pair of data arrays,

one for the Left vertical parameter and one for the Right
vertical parameter. In most cases the Left data represents the magnitude of a given
response, and the Right represents the phase of that response.

However it is possible to construct curves which contain a different pair of vertical

data arrays using this dialog. Probably the most common example of this is an SPL-
Z type curve entry. In this case the Left vertical data contains the SPL magnitude,
and the Right vertical data contains the Impedance magnitude.

This Data Transfer operation moves a single vertical data array from one curve
entry to another. The vertical data can be from either the Left or Right arrays, and
can be transferred to either the Left or Right arrays of the Result curve entry.

The curve list boxes provide selection of the library curve for the operations. These
special list boxes show the type of data contained in each curve. Any curve which
is currently being displayed on the graph is denoted by Red vertical lines between
the zones of each curve entry.

The example on the following page shows a normal SPL

curve graph, an impedance curve graph, and the resulting
SPL-Z combination curve graph.

If you are going to be working with double magnitude

curves, such as the type just described, you will probably
need to enable the Auto/Up/Dn Right Vertical Data item in
the File | Preferences dialog. In order for the right data to
respond to scaling commands, this feature must be enabled.
Otherwise only the Left scale will be controlled.

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10.12 Data Splice

The Processing | Data Splice menu item will open a dialog

that allows you to combine data from two curves into
another curve. The tool button as shown above on the
Processing toolbar can also be used to activate this item.

A splicing frequency is chosen by the user. Data below this

frequency will come from one curve, and data above the
frequency will come from the second curve. This can be
very useful for combining two curves taken under different
conditions into a final result curve.

One common example is combining near field measurements to cover the low
frequency region, with gated measurements to cover the mid and high frequency
regions. This operation allows a finished combined result to be produced using data
from both.

Both low/high data curves must be of the same type of units, these cannot be mixed.
The units of the result curve will be the same as those of the low/high data curves.
The frequency points will be the same as the low curve below the splice frequency,
and the same as those of the high curve above the splice frequency.

If the two low/high curves were not of the same frequency

range, then the result curve points will not have consistent
frequency density. This can be corrected by using the Data
Realign processing operation. This can be done directly in
the curve library or from the Processing menu.

The curve list boxes provide selection of the library curves

for the operations. These special list boxes show the type of
data contained in each curve. Any curve which is currently
being displayed on the graph is denoted by Red vertical lines
between the zones of each curve entry.

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The splice frequency should be chosen at a point where the curves have similar,
if not identical, values. The cursor system can be very helpful in selecting the
splice frequency.

In the top graph below, two SPL curves are shown. The curves cross in the
frequency region of 1500Hz. A splice frequency of 1550Hz was selected. The
resulting curve is shown in the bottom graph.

The minimum phase

response for this curve
could now be gener-
ated using the Mini-
mum Phase Transform.
Tail Correction might
also be useful prior to
generating the phase.

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10.13 Data Realign

The Processing | Data Realign menu item will open a

dialog which performs re-indexing of the horizontal data
points of a curve entry. The tool button as shown above on
the Processing toolbar can also be used to activate this
item.

In most cases, the horizontal data is frequency, but it could

also be time or angular position information. This dialog
reprocesses and interpolates the vertical data based on a
new linear or log array of horizontal values.

A common use for this operation is to reduce the resolution of a curve. For example,
a curve containing 500 data points can be realigned into a 100 point curve. This
could be within the same frequency range, or a different frequency range.

This routine can also be used to simulate higher resolution using quadratic or cubic
interpolation and increasing the number of data points. Both of these methods will
produce curvature rather than straight line segments.

However, be aware that it is impossible to create data that was not originally present.
For example, if the original frequency range was 100Hz-1kHz, and you realign the
data to 10Hz-1kHz, there is no original data below 100Hz. The result is a flat line
segment from 10Hz-100Hz at the value of the original 100Hz data point.

When changing the horizontal data from linear to log, there will be a loss of
resolution either at the low end or high end of the spectrum.

The curve list box provides selection of the

library curve for the operation. This special list
box shows the type of data contained in each
curve. Any curve which is currently being dis-
played on the graph is denoted by Red vertical
lines between the zones of each curve entry.

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Since the curve's data will be altered, you may wish to make a copy of the curve
before performing this operation. This will prevent loosing your original data
curve should you wish to run the operation again on the original data.

An example of data realignment is shown below. The first graph shows a 500
point log frequency SPL response from 10Hz - 40kHz. The second graph
shows the result of realigning the data to 100 points from 20Hz - 20kHz, again
with log resolution.

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Utilities Menu 11

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11.1 Import Curve Data File

The Utilities | Import Curve Data File menu item will

open a dialog which imports text file data into Guide
Curve library entries. The tool button as shown above on
the Utilities toolbar can also be used to activate this item.

This dialog supports many different kinds of formats, and

will generally operate in a universal fashion for almost any
kind of file data. The only requirement is that the data be contained in ASCII
columns of data points. It also provides many different kinds of automatic
translations during the import process.

The maximum number of data points allowed is 4096. If your file contains more
points than this, an error message will appear and truncation of data will result. The
data file format is relatively simple as follows:

• Lines starting with any char other than space or numeric are treated as comments
• Data lines have two or more columns as defined by the format.
• Each value in a data line can be delimited by space, commas, or tabs.
• If a line contains additional columns of data, they are ignored.
• If a line does not contain enough columns, zero values are assumed for the rest.
• Numeric real formats of both scientific and engineering are supported.

Note: It is best if comment lines start with a special character such as: /, *, or ;

The file to be imported is selected using the features in the File Path group box. You
can select the drive/folder in the left tree view, and the file itself in the right list view
windows. You can also view/edit the file with your external editor by clicking on
the editor button shown at the end of the file name field.

When you click the Execute button, data is processed from the file and placed into
the selected curve entry. You may also select multiple files which will be imported
in sequence starting at the selected curve entry. These files must have the same type
of units since they will be processed with the same settings.

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Horizontal, Left Vertical, and Right Vertical Data

Understanding the use of these three group boxes is key to the proper import
of external data. Each group box corresponds to the data in one of the file
columns. The general format is assumed to contain three data columns.
Typically this may be frequency, magnitude, and phase. If you have less than
three columns, such as frequency and magnitude, use the phase selection for
the third column anyway. This will automatically substitute zeros for the
missing column.

The type of data and units prefix is critically important to define what it is you
are importing. Always verify that the Units field displays the exact units that
the data column contains. For example, a voltage measurement could have a
magnitude column with data in units of Volts, dBV, or dBm. The program
treats each of these differently. Linear/Log would be used for Volts, and the
dB selection would be required for dBV or dBm. For dB units, the dB Ref value
then defines whether it is dBV (1.000V) or dBm (0.775V).

If your file contains an index column of numbers as the first column, then use
the Skip First Column option to ignore this column.

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11.2 Export Curve Data File

The Utilities | Export Curve Data File menu item will

open a dialog which exports text file data from System or
Guide curve library entries. The tool button as shown
above on the Utilities toolbar can also be used to activate
this item.

The type of data and the units to be exported are controlled

entirely by the current parameters in the scale system. In other words, the data is
exported in exactly the same units as it is currently being viewed on the graph.

For example, if a curve contains voltage data and is currently being displayed on the
graph in dBm units, the data is therefore exported in dBm units. If it was viewed
in Volts, it will be exported in Volts. This allows the user to automatically translate
and export data into whatever units are desired, simply by displaying the data in the
desired units on the graph. This is controlled by the Scale | Parameters dialog.

The export dialog displays the units for the

data curve that will be exported. The curve
list box provides selection of the library
curve for the operation. This special list
box shows the type of data contained in
each curve. Any curve which is currently
being displayed on the graph is denoted by
Red vertical lines between the zones of each
curve entry.

The File Path group box allows you to

choose the file to be exported. Use the tree
view on the left to select the drive/folder,
and the list view on the right to select the file
name, or enter it in the edit field.

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When you click the Execute button the file will be written. If a file of the same
name already exists, you will be prompted to confirm the overwrite of that file.

The sample listing below shows a typical file export. The columns are
delimited with commas for easy export into spreadsheet programs.

Note: Regional language settings can affect the format of the output. The
decimal point may be set to commas in some languages. This may cause a
problem for import in some programs. You may need to change this setting to
a decimal point in the Control Panel | Regional Options.

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11.3 Export Graphics

The Utilities | Export Graphics to File menu item will

open a dialog which produces graphical export of the
artwork from the graph window in the program. The tool
button as shown above on the Utilities toolbar can also be
used to activate this item.

This dialog supports an extensive variety of both vector and raster image formats.

There are many different kinds of graphics applications. The type of file format to
use depends entirely on the application. Generally you will be opening or placing
the file in some other application program. Obviously a file format must be chosen
which is supported by the other program. The import capabilities of most programs
are constantly changing with each revision, so it is impossible to give any general
recommendations here. Please consult the documentation of the other program.

If your primary application is to embed the images as part of a word processing

document, then the EMF, WMF, and EPS formats are most commonly supported.
However using the EPS format generally requires printing to a PostScript printer to
obtain the full resolution. For non PostScript printing, use EMF or WMF formats.
The PDF format is very useful for email attachments and other general use.

If your primary application is for graphical editing, where you wish to modify the
graphics content, you will need to choose a format that your drawing or illustration
program supports. This could be any of the formats. Please consult the documen-
tation of the drawing/illustration program.

Artwork
The name of the graph is shown here as the title above the grid on the graph.

Format
When Raster is selected, the format, resolution, color, and compression controls
will be active. The raster image data will also be displayed in the fields at the bottom
of the group box. When Vector is selected, the only active control is the vector
format list box.

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Resolution DPI
Use the two stepper buttons to increase or
decrease this value. The value will be
changed in units of 8.

Color Format
The possible color choices are: B&W, 16
Color, 256 Color, 16M Color, 16 Gray,
256 Gray. Depending on the file format,
not all color choices may be available.

Compression
Some of the raster file formats have op-
tional compression. If so, you will be
able to choose either compressed or
uncompressed. For other file formats
this selection will be chosen for you.

File Path
This group box provides selection of the folder where you wish to export the
file, and an editing field to enter the file name. The program will automatically
add the proper extension for the selected file format. The default file extension
is controlled by the type of file format that will be exported. It is not
recommended that you change it.

Raster Images
Raster images are bitmap representations of the artwork. They are formed by
rows of pixels. They can be color or black & white. The resolution of the image
is fixed at the time it is created. While raster images are probably the most
portable form of graphic representation, they are very bulky and inefficient for
high precision resolution. Moreover, printing a low resolution raster image on
a higher resolution output device does not improve the image quality.
The following industry standard raster formats are supported:

■ BMP Windows Bitmap Format

■ JPG Joint Photo Experts Group
■ PCX ZSoft Picture Format
■ PNG Portable Network Graphics
■ TIF Tagged Image File Format

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If you desire other formats, use a paint type program to convert one of these into
the other format. There are many commonly available programs on the Internet as
shareware which can do the job. For more extensive editing capabilities, PaintShop
Pro or Adobe PhotoShop can most certainly be used.

Note: We do not provide native support for the GIF format due to patent (4,558,302)
issues involved with the Lempel Ziv Welch (LZW) compression algorithm owned by
Unisys Corporation.

When using raster images, you must choose a DPI (dots per inch) value which will
determine the resolution. With raster images it is very easy to produce extremely
large files. Be careful to note the Image Bytes parameter value given on the last line
of the group box. If you attempt to construct an image size that is larger than your
available resources permit, you will receive an error message or your system may
lock up.

Not all of the raster formats support all of the different color and compression
options. Also, some formats do not store the DPI information for absolute scaling.
If one format does not work for your application, just try another.

Vector Images
Vector images are mathematical formula representations of the artwork. They
contain coordinates and special commands unique to each format. They can be both
color or black & white. The resolution of the image is virtually infinite, and will
print with the full resolution of the final printing device. While vector images are
sometimes a less portable form of graphic representation, they are extremely
efficient and provide the highest quality resolution. The following industry
standard vector formats are supported:

■ WMF Windows Metafile Standard

■ WMF Windows Metafile Placeable
■ EMF Windows Enhanced Metafile
■ EPS EncapPostScript B&W & TIF
■ EPS EncapPostScript CMYK & TIF
■ AI Adobe Illustrator Format
■ PDF Acrobat Portable Document Format

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Fonts
When dealing with vector formats, the issue of fonts becomes very important.
If the file you are producing will only be used on your computer system, then
the font issue is somewhat irrelevant. However if the generated files are to be
viewed on other computers, then you must choose fonts for your designs which
will be available as well on those computers. Typically you will need to use
standard Windows TrueType fonts such as MS-Sans, Arial, etc.

Editing & Placing Vector Images

Vector formats provide the most powerful editing capabilities. You can
modify the content, change the colors, reassign fonts, or add/delete items from
the artwork. Unfortunately, they also produce the most trouble with portability
and have a nasty habit of locating any and all bugs in the other application's
import filters. However, with a little experimentation and testing you should
be able to determine which formats and applications will achieve the desired
results. For best editing, use the AI format with Adobe Illustrator.

WMF Formats
If you will be importing WMF files into other graphics applications, you may
often need to use the WMF-Placeable format, and not the WMF-Standard. The
placeable format contains an additional header which many applications
require. Both WMF formats contain full RGB color information. The fonts
used in your design must be available on the computer where the WMF file is
used.

Note:
Many applications do not handle rotated text correctly in the WMF format.

EMF Format
This is the new 32-Bit version of the previous 16-Bit WMF format. This
version has many improvements over the old WMF format. When possible,
use this format instead of the WMF. The EMF format contains full RGB color
information. The fonts used in your design must be available on the computer
where the file is used.

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EPS Formats
The EPS format is very popular for professional graphics. They contain PostScript
vector code to produce the final high resolution output, and also contain a low
resolution TIF raster image preview. The two EPS formats provide both gray scale
Black&White or full CMYK color. The fonts used in your design must be available
on the computer where the file is used.

AI Format
The Adobe Illustrator format technically requires Adobe fonts. If you have
assigned TrueType fonts in the program to some text items, you will receive a
warning message when you open the AI file in Adobe Illustrator of an unknown
font. However, you can easily reassign the font as needed in Illustrator or other
drawing programs. Other graphics programs often ignore the font name informa-
tion altogether. The fonts used in your design should be available on the computer
where the file is used.

PDF Format
The Adobe Acrobat PDF format is becoming heavily used on the Internet for
documentation download. The format is very powerful, very efficient, and
viewable by almost everyone using the free Acrobat Reader. The files also use ZIP
compression which makes them very small and easy to attach to emails.

While the PDF format contains the ability to embed the fonts directly, this function
is not supported at this time with this version of the program. Therefore, the fonts
used in your design should be available on the computer(s) where the file is used.
However, if the font is not available on the computer, Acrobat Reader will
substitute or synthesize the closest font automatically.

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11.4 Copy Graphics to Clipboard

The Utilities | Export Graphics to Clipboard menu item

will open a dialog which transfers the graph artwork to the
Windows Clipboard. The tool button as shown above on
the Utilities toolbar can also be used to activate this item.

This function can be very useful when you wish to paste

the graphics into another open application program. The
graphics can be stored in the clipboard in one of three different formats: EMF,
WMF, or BMP. The EMF and WMF are vector formats, while the BMP format is
a raster image. Not all programs can place some types of images, but most
graphically oriented programs should take one of these.

It should be noted that the Windows Clipboard can only hold one item at a time.
When you transfer an item to the clipboard, the previous item is then discarded.

When the dialog opens, the title of the active graph window appears.

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The example below shows a schematic transferred to the Clipboard, as seen in

the Clipboard Viewer.

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11.5 Copy Design Data to Clipboard

The Utilities | Copy Design Data to Clipboard menu

item will open a dialog which transfers the enclosure
design data to the Windows Clipboard. The tool button
as shown above on the Utilities toolbar can also be used to
activate this item.

Using this function allows you to paste the data into another program if needed.
Design data can be very extensive, with hundreds of lines of text. If you have a need
for this data, this is probably the easiest way to obtain a copy. The data is also
contained in the LED file itself.

It should be noted that the Windows Clipboard can only hold one item at a time.
When you transfer an item to the clipboard, the previous item is then discarded.

When the dialog opens, it prompts you to confirm the transfer. To copy the data
simply click Ok. An example of design data is shown on the next page.

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11.6 View Clipboard

The Utilities | View Clipboard menu item will open a

special viewing dialog which allows you to inspect the
contents of the Windows clipboard. The tool button as
shown above on the Utilities toolbar can also be used to
activate this item.

The viewing window will be adjusted to the size of the program's client area. To
close the viewer simply click the Close button in the upper right corner.

The viewer will also display the format of the data within the clipboard in the title
caption. This may be text, a raster image, vector image, or a proprietary format.
Depending on the type of data the display may be text or graphical.

It should be noted that the Windows Clipboard can only hold one item at a time.
When you transfer an item to the clipboard, the previous item is then discarded.

A sample of the viewer is shown on the following page.

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11.7 Curve Capture

The Utilities | Curve Capture menu item will open a

dialog which will capture a data curve from a raster image
file. The tool button as shown above on the Utilities
toolbar can also be used to activate this item.

It sometimes happens that you have a printed graph, or image file, that contains
curve data you would like to use in the program. Printed graphs can be transferred
to file form by use of a scanner. This dialog provides the capability to distill vector
curve data directly from a raster image.

In order to perform this operation, three basic requirements must be met:

• The image file must be a BMP format.

• The curve(s) in the image must be colored differently than other items.
• The graph axis should be square with the image boundary.

The first requirement can easily be achieved by use of a Paint program, which can
perform the needed file conversion. If the original file format was TIF, JPG, PCX,
GIF, etc. use of a Paint program is required to convert the file to BMP. Many such
programs are commonly available on the Internet as shareware.

The second requirement involves image color. The capture process picks the curve
out of the image by a color matching technique. The color of the curve must be
somewhat unique to enable it to be identified from other items in the image. For
handling images that are Black & White, they must be imported into a Paint
program where the curve can be colored manually as needed.

The last requirement is that the graph on the image not be rotated or skewed. The
processing routines assume that the graphical image is square with the edges.

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Graph Image
The large region displays the raster image currently loaded. The display is
always a 1:1 pixel ratio, and has scroll bars on both axis. The Load File button
will open a dialog to select the BMP file you wish to load. The path of the
currently loaded file is shown adjacent to the button.

Cursor Parameter Selection

There are four parameters which must be defined with the image: Lower Left
coordinate, Upper Right coordinate, the Left Curve Color, and the Right Curve
Color. The color panel next to the Curve buttons displays the currently selected
color for the curves. Two curves (Left/Right) will be captured from the image.

To set a parameter, click one of the four toggle buttons and move the mouse
cursor over the image. A different cursor will appear which denotes the
parameter to be set. Click the left mouse button and the parameter will be
defined at that cursor location. The button will then reset. If you wish to cancel
a parameter, click the button again and it will reset.

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For curve color, the color panels will be updated with the color of the pixel at the
cursor location. For the two coordinates, a marker will be dropped on the image
at the cursor location.

Reference Data Point, Upper Right / Lower Left

Each of these two group box displays coordinate information based on two selected
points on the graph image. You must choose two points at opposite corners of the
graph: Lower Left, and Upper Right. Along with the X/Y coordinates of these two
reference points, you must define the represented horizontal and vertical parameter
values of the graph in the edit boxes. The horizontal value is usually frequency, but
the vertical values will depend on the type of graph curve being captured.

Horz Data, Left Vert Data, & Right Vert Data

Understanding the use of these three group boxes is key to the proper import of
external data. Each panel corresponds to a data parameter. Typically this may be
frequency, magnitude, and phase. If you have only frequency and magnitude, use
the phase selection for the Right Vert Data anyway.

The type of data and units prefix is critically important to define what it is you are
capturing. Always verify that the Units field displays the exact units that the image
contains. For example, a voltage measurement could have a magnitude curve with
data in units of Volts, dBV, or dBm. The program treats each of these differently.
Linear/Log would be used for Volts, and the dB selection would be required for dBV
or dBm. For dB units, the dB Ref value then defines whether it is dBV (1.000V)
or dBm (0.775V).

Note: Please pay close attention to whether you have linear or log axis data.

Library Curve
The data that is obtained from the capture process will be written to a Guide Curve
entry. The entry is selected from one of the 99 possible choices in this list box. The
default name given to the entry will be Capture: Filename, and the curve will be
enabled for display.

Scan Direction
The curve scanning process can be performed from either the Top Down or from the
Bottom Up. This can be significant if there are other colors on the image similar to
that of the curves. Scanning from either direction may avoid picking up other
similar colored pixels above or below the curve.

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Color Match
The slider controls a tolerance matching value in ±% for pixel colors scanned
in the image. The current value is displayed here. If the value is zero, then
pixels will only be selected as part of the curve if their color matches the exact
Curve Color selection described above. A higher tolerance value will allow
more latitude in pixel matching. The Preview button will run the curve
scanning process, and draw a sample curve on top of the image. This shows
you how the pixel curve colors will be mapped. The Clear button will erase the
preview curve. The small color button allows you to change the color used for
the preview curve and LL/UR markers.

Using the Capture Dialog

The first step is to load the desired file with the Load File button. Once the file
is loaded you should probably next go to the Horizontal and Vertical group
boxes to select the type of graph and the frequency axis.

The two LL/UR reference coordinates must now be defined. Click the Lower
Left button, and then select a reference point in the lower left corner of the
graph. A small LL marker will be placed on the image. Next do the same thing
for the upper right marker. A UR marker will be placed on the image. The two
graphics below illustrate this process.

Once the two reference point coordinates are defined, go to the editing fields
for the frequency/vertical parameters and enter the appropriate graph values at
these two locations.

Now the color representing the curve must be chosen.

Click the Curve button at the top, and then select a point
somewhere along the curve as shown here on the left. For
some images there may be many different shades of color
around the curve. The curve may have soft edges. Select-
ing different points on the curve may pick slightly differ-
ent colors.

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The last step is to choose a color matching tolerance on the slider. For a reasonable
starting value choose ±10%. The proper choice for this parameter depends on how
much color purity is in the image, or color noise.

You can now click the Preview

button and observe the curve map-
ping. For this example the curve
was captured perfectly with a tol-
erance of 10% as shown here on
the left.

If the slider is now changed to 5%

color matching, and the Preview
button clicked again, the resulting
curve shows downward spikes. The
tolerance was too tight, and the
mapping fell through to a similar
color below the desired curve.

Now if the slider is adjusted to 20%

color matching, the resulting curve
shows upward spikes. This is be-
cause the mapping process found
pixel colors above the desired curve
within the color tolerance. The scan-
ning was from top to bottom.

These examples illustrate the im-

portant use of the color matching
tolerance. It is a trial and error
process to discriminate between
color variations, color noise, and
the color of the desired curve. The
selection of curve color, adjust-
ment of the color matching slider,
and use of the scan direction, are
all filtering mechanisms to pull out
the desired curve from the back-
ground image.

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Once you are satisfied with the preview, you can click Ok to write the final data
to the selected Library Curve entry. In some cases where the image is very
dirty, you may not be able to remove all spikes from the captured curve. In
these cases you can use the Curve Editor utility to clean up the curve data
afterwards.

The final captured curve is shown below.

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11.8 Curve Editor

The Utilities | Curve Editor menu item will open a dialog

which provides graphical editing and creation of curve
data. The tool button as shown above on the Utilities
toolbar can also be used to activate this item.

The Curve Editor is a specialized drawing program which allows you to modify or
create Guide Curves by editing an array of control points or nodes. This special edit
curve is drawn as an array of straight line segments between the nodes. Nodes can
be added, deleted, or moved to create virtually any desired curve shape.

The edit curve can also be created by reading the data of an existing Guide Curve
entry, or can be used to write a Guide Curve entry. The number of nodes on the edit
curve is typically different than a Guide Curve due to editing.

The Curve Editor is also equipped to display existing Guide Curves from the system
along with the edit curve. Many different alignment snap tools are provided for
editing the nodes. You can snap to the grid, guidelines, or existing curves. A scale
system is provided independent of the main system.

The Curve Editor operates on two different types of curves: Left Vertical, and Right
Vertical. An individual edit curve is provided for each of these types of data. You
may edit only a single curve, or both of the two curves depending on your
requirements.

The curve list box provides selection of the library curve for the read/write. This
special list box shows the type of data contained in each curve. Any curve which
is currently being displayed on the graph is denoted by Red vertical lines between
the zones of each curve entry.

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Curve Editor Screen

When the editor dialog window first appears, it is automatically sized to cover the majority of the program's
screen. This is a dialog window, and you cannot use other features outside this dialog while it is open.

The Curve Editor is virtually a program itself, with its own menu and toolbar. Vertical scale controls are
located on the toolbar along with several controls for reading/writing Library Curves located on the status
bar at the bottom.

The graph area displays a grid using the current system scale for the horizontal axis, and a vertical axis
dependent on scale settings and type of data. Two rulers are displayed in Black on the left and top sides
of the graph. The right and bottom sides contain scroll bars when necessary.

The graph displays the edit curve as straight line segments drawn between nodes which appear as dots.
When a node is unselected it is colored Gray. When a node is selected, it becomes Red. More than one
node can be selected simultaneously. Library Curves can also be shown on the graph, along with guidelines
pulled from the rulers.

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Control Menu
This menu contains operations similar to those listed on most File type menus.
However since the Curve Editor is part of the overall program, and does not handle
files directly, this menu is named Control.

New
This menu item will create/initialize a new set of the two graph edit curves using the
current system frequency range. The two edit curves will be given 10 nodes each
with flat line values at the center of the grids. This operation is generally used when
first starting an editing project, to move the nodes into the system frequency range.

Save
This menu item will save all the current settings and parameters of the Curve Editor
into an internal buffer. An initial Save is performed automatically when the dialog
is opened. This item can be used at any time during editing to update the internal
buffer with the latest parameters and settings. Both of the edit curves are saved, in
addition to guidelines and scale settings. A tool button is provided for this menu
item as well.

Revert
This menu item will restore all the previously saved settings and parameters of the
Curve Editor. An initial Save is performed automatically when the dialog is opened,
so the internal buffer always has at least the original data. A tool button is provided
for this menu item as well.

Cancel
This menu item reflects the usual Cancel button found on a dialog window. Using
this item exits the Curve Editor dialog without saving your changes. Using the Close
button in the right corner of the dialog is equivalent.

Ok
This menu item reflects the usual Ok button found on a dialog window. Using this
item exits the Curve Editor dialog and saves your changes. You must select this item
if you wish to and retain your changes to the edit curves when you exit the dialog.

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Graph Menu
This menu contains the two selections of the currently active editing graph.
You can move to a different graph to edit each of the different sets of edit nodes
for each of the different types of data. The scale and ruler values will change
to match each graph and type of data.

Node Menu
This menu provides the basic node operations of Insert, Delete, and Select All.
Tool buttons are also provided for each of these menu items.

Insert
This menu item begins an insert mode and changes the cursor to the node insert
icon. You can move the cursor to any location, click the left mouse button, and
a new node will be inserted. Nodes are always inserted between two closest
nodes.

To exit the insert mode, you can select the item again, press the ESC key, or
use the right mouse button and choose Edit Mode from the popup menu.

Note:
Another method of inserting nodes is also supported, while in the normal
editing mode. By simply pressing the Insert key a node will be placed at the
present cursor location.

Delete
This menu item begins a delete mode and changes the cursor to the node delete
icon. You can move the cursor to any existing node, click the left mouse
button, and the node will be deleted, whether or not it is selected. If you are not
within the capture range of a node, an error message will appear.

To exit the delete mode, you can select the item again, press the ESC key, or
use the right mouse button and choose Edit Mode from the popup menu.

Note:
Another method of deleting nodes is also supported, while in the normal editing
mode. By simply pressing the Delete key, all currently selected nodes will be
deleted. This is the fastest means to delete many nodes at one time.

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Show Menu
This menu allows you to selectively enable/disable various items for display. When
displaying Library Curves, only those curves which are enabled for display on the
system graph will be shown.

Guidelines are pulled from the rulers and can be enabled/disabled using this menu
item. The Delete Guidelines menu item will destroy all of the guidelines.

Guidelines can also be deleted individually by moving them back to rulers. To

create a guideline, move the cursor over a ruler, click and hold the left mouse button,
and drag the guideline on to the graph. Guidelines can be repositioned at any time.

Snap Menu
This menu allows you to selectively enable/disable different objects to be used for
snap alignment. Snapping the cursor to an object occurs when moving a node or
guideline and the cursor is near the object. The cursor will jump to the object, and
remain on the object for small cursor movements. Large movements will break the
cursor away from the object.

The horizontal axis is typically frequency on both graphs. However, since the
vertical axis has different units for each graph, the vertical axis is given the generic
name of Value.

When snap is enabled both for a frequency (horizontal) object and value (vertical)
object, the cursor will be snapped to the common intersection whenever possible.

When snapping to a Library curve, tracking may become difficult if the slope of
the curve reaches high values. This can happen on the nulls of elliptic response or
similar sharp transitions. The vertical density of points may be too low to provide
continuous tracking.

Snapping to the grid occurs at both major and minor divisions. The number of
divisions on the Curve Editor graphs are the same as those defined for the main
system graph.

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View Menu
This menu provides different commands for changing the display scale factor.
The Zoom In and Zoom Out menu items will change the cursor icon and allow
you to drag a rectangle around a region of the graph to zoom. The Zoom NNN%
items provide instant zoom to the specified value. The center of the graph will
be maintained. Redraw will refresh the display. Tool buttons are provided for
each of these menu items.

Note:
An alternate method of instant zoom is also provided using the Add/Sub keys
in the numeric keypad on the keyboard. Add will ZoomIn and Sub will
ZoomOut.

Popup Menu
The popup menu is activated when you right click the mouse button. This menu
will appear locally at the cursor position. The first item Edit Mode is only active
when a mode other than edit is currently in operation, such as zoom or node
insert/delete. This item will change the mode back to edit and restore the
default cursor.

The Question item activates an information mode and changes the cursor to a
question mark. When the cursor is moved to an object on the graph and clicked,
a message box will appear describing the object. This same function can be
activated by clicking on the [?] panel in the upper left hand corner of the graph.

This function is very useful if you wish to know the name of a curve on the
graph, or need to know its exact frequency or value. Clicking on a blank region
of the graph will display general information about the number of nodes and
guidelines. The frequency and value of the first and last nodes is also displayed.

The ZoomIn and ZoomOut provide instant zoom without changing the cursor.

Insert Node, Delete Node, and Select All perform identically to the functions
listed on the main menu. The same is true of Save and Revert.

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Tool Buttons
On the left of the toolbar, 16 tool buttons are located. These functions are identical
to the previously described menu items. Moving the cursor over each of the buttons
will display a hint which describes each button. The numeric field gives the number
of node points in the editing curve.

Scale and Smooth Buttons

A group of scale controls for the vertical value is located on the right side of the
toolbar. These operate in a similar fashion to the vertical graph controls in the Scale
Parameters dialog of the main program. The smooth button will cause the currently
selected points to be smoothed.

Guide Curve list box & Read/Write Buttons

The controls necessary to input/output data to the Guide Curve library are located
on the lower left of the status bar. The list box is used to select a single Curve for
reading or writing. When a Guide Curve is being displayed on the graph the
separator lines are shown in Red instead of the normal Gray. When the buttons are
clicked a dialog will be presented for operations on the selected curve.

Cursor Readouts
As the cursor is moved around the graph, the frequency and vertical value will be
displayed in the center of the status bar. The remainder of the status bar is used to
display system messages.

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Read Curve Dialog

This dialog appears when the Read
button is clicked. The group box at the
top gives the data for the currently
selected guide curve. The group box in
the center gives the data for the current
editing curve node points. The min/
max horizontal values and the number
of points (nodes) are displayed.

The last group box provides three op-

tions for controlling how the guide curve
data will be read into the editing curve.
Automatic quadratic interpolation be-
tween guide curve points is provided.
Use Curve points
This option is probably the most commonly used. In this case a new editing
curve is created with horizontal values identical to the selected guide curve.
The number of node points will be the same as the number of points in the curve,
and with identical horizontal values.

Note: Some nodes may be off the graph if the horizontal range of the curve is
wider than the graph range. For example, if your curve has data from 10Hz-
40kHz and the graph only covers 20-20kHz then some nodes at the hi/lo
extremes of the range would not be visible for editing on the graph.

Keep existing Node points

This option will maintain the existing horizontal node locations, but read new
vertical values from the curve. This assumes that the current positions of the
editing curve nodes are meaningful for the data you are reading. This special
option is used in rare cases where you do not wish to change the horizontal
locations of the editing nodes.

Equal density across scale range points.

This option creates a new editing curve with even spacing (log or linear) of
horizontal values across the range currently shown on the graph. The number
of points is defined by the user in the adjacent edit field.

Note: This option is often used to read the guide curve and generate an editing
curve which is realigned to the current range of the graph.

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Write Curve Dialog

This dialog appears when the Write button
is clicked. The group box at the top gives
the data for the current editing curve. The
min/max horizontal values and the number
of points (nodes) are displayed. The group
box in the center gives the data for the
currently selected guide curve.

The last group box provides three options

for controlling how the edit curve data will
be written into the guide curve. Automatic
quadratic interpolation between node points
is provided.

Keep existing Curve points

This option will maintain the existing horizontal guide curve locations, but read new
vertical values from the editing curve (nodes). This assumes that the current
positions of the guide curve points are meaningful for the data you are writing. The
scale units in the curve must match those of the graph. This option is used when you
do not wish to change the horizontal data within the guide curve.

Use Node points

This option is rarely used. In this case a new guide curve is created with values
identical to the nodes in the editing curve. The number of guide curve points will
be the same as the number of nodes, and with identical values.

Note: Due to editing of the nodes, the horizontal spacing may not be uniform. This
option will create a guide curve which is an exact copy of the nodes.

Equal density across scale range points.

This option creates a new guide curve with even spacing (log or linear) of horizontal
values across the range currently shown on the graph. The number of points is
defined by the user in the adjacent edit field.

Note: This option is often used to read the node edit curve and generate a guide
curve which is realigned to the current horizontal range of the graph, and with
uniform spacing of points.

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Question / Information
Clicking on the small square panel in the upper left corner of the graph activates
a query function. The cursor will be changed to a question mark. When you
then click on an object in the graph, or an empty area of the graph itself, a
message box will then display information about the object. An example is
shown above. Different kinds of information will be displayed depending on
the type of object selected.

Drag Scrolling
If you hold down the Shift key on the keyboard while clicking and
moving with the left mouse button, the graph page will be dragged
across the screen. The drag cursor will appear as shown here on the
left.

Note: Scrolling is disabled at 1X zoom since there are no scroll bars.

Guidelines
Guidelines can be pulled out of the rulers in the normal
fashion. Move the mouse cursor over a ruler, and then
click and hold the left mouse button. The guideline can
then be dragged out of the ruler on to the graph. Guidelines
can be repositioned at any time by dragging, and can be
removed by dragging them back into the rulers.

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Node Editing
Before a node can be moved it must first be selected. When a node is selected, its
color changes from Gray to Red. In order to select a single node the cursor must be
moved within the capture range of the node. When the cursor is in the capture range
it will change from the arrow to the crosshair as shown below. You can then Click
the left mouse button to select the node.

Nodes can be deselected by clicking on a different node, an

empty area of the graph, by rectangular selection of different
nodes, or by using the ESC key.

Multiple nodes can be selected by drawing a rectangle

around them, as shown here on the left. To append more
nodes to other currently selected nodes, hold down the CTRL
key while selecting more nodes by either the single click or
rectangle methods. Selected nodes can also be removed
from a group by the same method.

Once the nodes are selected, click and hold the left mouse
button over one of the selected nodes and move. All selected
nodes will be moved by the same change in cursor position.
When a move operation is started, the cursor is automatically
aligned to the center of the primary node being dragged by the
mouse. The arrow keys can also be used to move the node.

Selected nodes can also be deleted using the DELETE key.

Using the INSERT key will add nodes between any two
existing selected or unselected nodes at the cursor position.

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Reading Library Curves

Reading an existing library curve is one means of obtaining reasonable starting
values for a set of editing nodes. In some cases you may desire all of the original
guide curve points, and in other cases you may wish to use a smaller number
of points for easier editing. The user must decide how much node density/
resolution is desired. The three samples below show a Library Curve being
read using 20, 40, and 80 points.

The choice of density depends on your application. In some cases you may
wish to transfer hundreds of data points, and in other cases only a few. You can
always add or remove points as well during the remaining editing.

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Writing Library Curves

Library curves can be written as an exact copy of the nodal edit curve data, or
realigned to a uniform spacing of different density/resolution. How the points are
written to the selected guide curve entry is controlled entirely by the user in the
Write Curve dialog. However special considerations apply regardless.

All nodes must have consecutive frequencies (horizontal data). With the exception
of the end nodes, each interior node must have adjacent nodes above and below.

The sample here shows a node backcrossing over a

lower frequency node. This is an invalid condition.
The program will check your node data when you
attempt to write a curve, and inform you if this
condition exists.

Although the Curve Editor is always reading/writing

with data in two different vertical arrays, you may
only be editing or interested in the data of
a single array, and ignoring the data in the
unneeded vertical array. It is not required
that you edit the nodes in both of the
vertical arrays, but only the array required.

When writing the curve data, you may or

may not have edit nodes which cover the
entire frequency range. If the end nodes
do not reach the ends of the frequency
range, the final end values will be ex-
trapolated in the library curve.

The sample here shows a node curve that

does not reach the low frequency limit,
and the resulting library curve after being
written. The end node value is used to
complete the curve to the end frequency.

After the curve is written, it is also en-

abled for display. If you have enabled the
Show Guide Curves in the menu, it will
immediately appear in the graph.

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11.9 Quick Design

The Utilities | Quick Design menu item will open a dialog

for quick enclosure design solutions. The tool button as
shown above on the Utilities toolbar can also be used to
activate this item. This utility provides fast approxima-
tions of possible enclosure alignments and shows what
types of response shapes are possible from a given speaker.

It is often helpful to use this utility to determine starting values for an enclosure
design. Only three speaker parameters are required: Qts, Vas, and Fs. However it
should be understood that the simulations produced here are based on a very
simplistic model for the transducer. Therefore, these simulations are idealistic
approximations. The detailed design simulations may indeed be different.

Quick Design allows the user to choose from many different types of enclosure
families including: sealed/vented Highpass enclosures, and sealed/vented Band-
pass enclosures. In most cases three alignments will be given for each enclosure
type allowing the user to choose high, medium, and low Q response shapes.

For each possible alignment

the required chamber volume
and port tuning frequency will
be generated.

The design parameters can

also be manually edited. This
allows the user to change and
modify initial design data to
any other desired values.

The results are shown graphi-

cally on the Graph tab panel.
The curves can be transferred
into the Guide Curve library.

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Transducer
This group box specifies the transducer parameters. You may use
either an entry from the currently selected LTD library file, or
manually enter your own parameters. You may only select trans-
ducers from the currently selected library file. A different library
can be selected using the Transducer Parameters dialog.

The available transducers are shown in the grid list box. When the Use File is
checked, the list box will be enabled and the manual editing fields disabled. To
enter values manually, uncheck the Use File option.

Enclosure
The Qb value provides a crude measure of loss for the enclosure. If you plan
on lining the internal walls, a value of 5-10 is probably adequate. If you intend
to fill the entire chamber, then a value of 2-5 would be more realistic.

Domain
The Sad and Vad parameters provide additional options for the domain. These
allow a finite volume Vad for the domain, along with a leak area of Sad. To
enable the parameters click the small check box in the right end of the controls.
If Vad is unchecked then the domain is infinite. If you are using Sad then you
must also enable Vad to see an effect. Vad can be used without Sad.

Model
When the previous parameters have been set,
you can then select one of these models.
Based on this selection and the other param-
eters, the parameter data for the three align-
ment group boxes will be generated.

Alignments
There are four possible parameters here which may be used. These are the front
and rear port tuning frequencies, and the front and rear chamber volumes.
Some models will not require all of these, and the unused fields will be disabled.

When you have completed entering your parameters and making your choices,
you can switch to the Graph tab to view the response curves.

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The Significance of Qts

When choosing alignments for a desired response it is very important to recognize
the role which Qts plays in determining what types of alignments will even be
possible. For a given Qts, only certain alignment families area possible.

Often novice designers have held the mistaken belief that for any speaker, one can
simply tune the box to achieve any desired alignment. Nothing could be further
from the truth. When a speaker is chosen the Qts value is fixed. From this point on,
the enclosure design can only provide secondary control over what the final result
will be. The value of Qts defines the group of alignments which are possible.

All of the resulting alignments will have certain factors in common, because of the
value of Qts. For example, a speaker with a high Qts such as 0.8 will produce a
response that peaks regardless of the alignment. The frequency that the response
peaks at can be moved around, and the shape of the peaking can be changed, but the
response will nevertheless always have some sort of peaking behavior. This is
because the speaker is under damped itself, and changes in Vab and Fp will only be
able to control the response within a finite range. As well, speakers with low Qts
values such as 0.2 are over damped and will produce alignments with less output
at low frequencies near the knee relative to the mid band response.

Optimum Qts
The dividing line for Qts is in the range of 0.400. A Qts in this range can be
considered optimally damped for vented enclosures that desire true 4th order
Butterworth alignments. Speakers with Qts values above 0.400 can be considered
under damped producing Chebyshev type alignments, while speakers with Qts
values below 0.400 are considered over damped producing Bessel type alignments.

Depending on the Qts of the speaker, Quick Design will choose the proper set of
alignment families that apply for under damped or over damped Qts values. When
the Qts is near 0.400, many of the alignment families will generate almost identical
response patterns.

However, the farther Qts is away from 0.400, either higher or lower, the greater the
difference between the alignments. The drawing given here illustrates the concept.
Over Damped Optimum Under Damped
Qts = 0.1 Qts = 0.4 Qts = 1.0
Bessel Butterworth Chebyshev

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Sealed Highpass Models & Alignments

The possible models are characterized as either Highpass or Band-
pass enclosures. A Highpass enclosure is the usual one where there
is only a single chamber (rear) and the speaker is mounted as a direct
radiator on the external baffle board. This forms an acoustic
Highpass transfer function. A Bandpass enclosure is one where
there are both front and rear chambers with the speaker mounted
internally between them. These types are shown on the left.
Vented Highpass
Several different alignments of both the sealed and vented Band-
pass enclosures are provided to cover various possible bandwidths
and efficiencies. These are grouped into the Bessel, Butterworth,
and Chebyshev families. By choosing different alignments it is
very easy to test a speaker in different types of enclosures and see
what kinds of response curves are possible.
Drone Highpass
Alignments for Low Qts
Loudspeakers which have a low Qts are over damped, but are
usually of higher quality, higher efficiency, and almost always have
much larger magnet structures. These characteristics are in fact
related. It is not at all uncommon to find most professional loud-
speakers with Qts values in the range of 0.200 to 0.350. This can
present a problem when alignments are sought which have a
Sealed Bandpass maximum of bass response.

Disadvantages of QB3
When vented Highpass enclosures are the goal, the traditional
alignment used for this range of Qts has been the Quasi-3rd Order
Butterworth (QB3). One of the most significant problems with the
QB3 family is a reduction in bass output. The cause of this lies in the
small box required to bring the response up to a Butterworth shape.
Vented Bandpass
Along with this the Fp is moved above the Fs of the speaker. This
causes a very early roll off in the response. Another problem
resulting from this high Fp can be very large cone excursion caused
by the presence of low frequency program material below Fp.
Excursion dramatically increases at frequencies below Fp.

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The Extended Bass Shelf Alignment

To provide a different alternative to the problems of the QB3 alignment, the
Extended Bass Shelf (EBS) alignment is provided in Quick Design. The name was
derived simply from the visible appearance of the response curve. The bass
response is extended to a lower frequency than would be possible from the QB3
alignment, but at a lower level or shelf relative to the mid band level. Although the
EBS alignment is not a nice neat flat alignment such as the QB3, it is very often a
much better choice than the QB3.

The EBS alignment has some interesting features. Consider a loudspeaker with a
Qts of 0.300. The QB3 alignment would have about 2dB more output at a frequency
of twice the Fs, while the EBS alignment would have over 6db more output at Fs.
This is shown in the figure below for Fs = 30Hz.

In most cases the EBS alignments will have far more subjective bass than the QB3
alignments. Furthermore, if you were to equalize the responses flat to Fs, 6db more
boost would be required for the QB3 versus the EBS. This can dramatically
consume large amounts of headroom in the power amplifier, and may also far
exceed the linear excursion limits of the speaker. A benefit of the EBS alignment
is that Fp=Fs. The EBS alignment will maintain much lower cone excursion at
frequencies near Fs than is possible with the QB3 alignment. This can be very
important for high power systems.

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Response Curves
The three possible alignments are shown on the graph, and can be viewed by
clicking the Graph tab. The horizontal frequency axis and range is determined
by the Scale Parameters dialog same as the main graphs. The vertical range
can be adjusted using the dB/Div buttons. The three buttons marked with the
line colors identify the curves by alignment name, and when clicked will allow
you to copy the curve data into the Guide Curve library.

The magnitude levels are normalized to direct radiator mid band response
sensitivity. From these curves the user can view the general suitability of the
three possible choices and judge the performance.

When viewing Bandpass curves one can quickly see how much loss or gain
there will be in sensitivity relative to a Highpass type enclosure. Moreover the
bandwidth of the response curves can be observed.

When the curves are copied to the Guide Curve Library, the note fields within
the curves will contain all of the Quick Design data which produced them.
From the main graph system the curves and their data can be easily printed for
any documentation purposes.

Since these response curves are dimensionless transfer functions, magnitude

units for them will be Ratio and the curves will appear on the Ratio graph. The
following graphs give examples of various Quick Design response curves.

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dBR
5

-5

-10

-15

-20

-25

-30

-35

-40

-45

-50

-55
10 Hz 20 50 100 200 500 1K 2K 5K 10K

3: QuickDesign 6thBP/Butterworth Wide

4: QuickDesign 6thBP/Butterworth Medium

Map
5: QuickDesign 6thBP/Butterworth Narrow

Model: Vented Bandpass - Butterworth Model: Vented Bandpass - Butterworth

Transducer: Qts= 0.300 Fs= 40.0000 Hz Vas= 500.0000m M‡ Transducer: Qts= 0.300 Fs= 40.0000 Hz Vas= 500.0000m M‡
Domain: Vad=Infinite Domain: Vad=Infinite

Notes
Data: Fpr= 23.75 Hz Fpf= 65.01 Hz Vabr= 20.439 Ft‡ Vabf= 112.798m M‡ Data: Fpr= 44.16 Hz Fpf= 77.72 Hz Vabr= 10.949 Ft‡ Vabf= 210.556m M‡

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Ratio vs Freq
dBR
5

-5

-10

-15

-20

-25

-30

-35

-40

-45

-50

-55
10 Hz 20 50 100 200 500 1K 2K 5K 10K

8: QuickDesign Quasi 3rd Butterworth

9: QuickDesign Sub-Chebychev/Bessel

Map
10: QuickDesign Extended Bass Shelf

Model: Vented Highpass Model: Vented Highpass

Transducer: Qts= 0.300 Fs= 30.0000 Hz Vas= 500.0000m M‡ Transducer: Qts= 0.300 Fs= 30.0000 Hz Vas= 500.0000m M‡
Domain: Vad=Infinite Domain: Vad=Infinite

Notes
Data: Fpr= 38.50 Hz Vabr= 5.199 Ft‡ Data: Fpr= 30.00 Hz Vabr= 10.213 Ft‡

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dBR
5

-5

-10

-15

-20

-25

-30

-35

-40

-45

-50

-55
10 Hz 20 50 100 200 500 1K 2K 5K 10K

12: QuickDesign Bessel

13: QuickDesign Butterworth

Map
14: QuickDesign Chebychev

Model: Drone Highpass Model: Drone Highpass

Transducer: Qts= 0.600 Fs= 40.0000 Hz Vas= 500.0000m M‡ Transducer: Qts= 0.600 Fs= 40.0000 Hz Vas= 500.0000m M‡
Domain: Vad=Infinite Domain: Vad=Infinite

Notes
Data: Fpr= 17.32 Hz Vabr= 22.343 Ft‡ Vabf= 949.029m M‡ Data: Fpr= 16.79 Hz Vabr= 35.907 Ft‡ Vabf= 1.525 M‡

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Ratio vs Freq
dBR
5

-5

-10

-15

-20

-25

-30

-35

-40

-45

-50

-55
10 Hz 20 50 100 200 500 1K 2K 5K 10K

16: QuickDesign 4thBP/Butterworth Kv=0.5

17: QuickDesign 4thBP/Butterworth Kv=1.0

Map
18: QuickDesign 4thBP/Butterworth Kv=2.0

Model: Sealed Bandpass - Butterworth Model: Sealed Bandpass - Butterworth

Transducer: Qts= 0.600 Fs= 40.0000 Hz Vas= 500.0000m M‡ Transducer: Qts= 0.600 Fs= 40.0000 Hz Vas= 500.0000m M‡
Domain: Vad=Infinite Domain: Vad=Infinite

Notes
Data: Fpf= 51.17 Hz Vabr= 27.733 Ft‡ Vabf= 152.747m M‡ Data: Fpf= 51.17 Hz Vabr= 27.733 Ft‡ Vabf= 610.988m M‡

Enclosure Person: C. Strahm Project: Manual Doc Oct 23, 2002

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Chapter 11 Utilities Menu

11.10 Reverse Speaker

The Utilities | Reverse Speaker menu item will open a

dialog for determining the required speaker specifications
from design criteria . The tool button as shown above on
the Utilities toolbar can also be used to activate this item.
This utility can be used to find the needed speaker param-
eters to meet a design specification, or determine the
transfer function of a specific enclosure design.

This dialog performs the task of determining what kind of speaker parameters
would be required to produce a specified transfer function and sensitivity. It can
also be used to determine the transfer function fundamental parameters.

A target Highpass transfer function is selected which may be 2nd, 3rd, or 4th order.
An alignment family of Bessel, Butterworth, Chebyshev, or custom may be
selected. The user also specifies the desired SPL sensitivity, size of the speaker, and
size of the enclosure, from which the remaining speaker parameters are derived.

A solution to any particular set of

criteria may or may not exist. Re-
verse Speaker employs numerical
optimization to find the best fit
solution. It will also provide infor-
mation regarding the solution er-
ror after optimization.

The degree of difficulty in obtain-

ing a solution increases as the tar-
get transfer function order in-
creases. More parameter relation-
ships become critical and fewer
degrees of freedom exist. For this
reason it is always best to begin
with 2nd order target first before
attempting higher order solutions.

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Target
The parameters in this group box define the target transfer function.
The transfer function Order may be either 2nd, 3rd, or 4th. It is
common to think of 2nd order functions for sealed Highpass
enclosures and 4th order functions for vented Highpass enclosures.
However, many vented enclosure designs can be aligned to 3rd
order function with superior results.

Three standard Alignment families are provided: Bessel, Butterworth, and

Chebyshev. A custom option is also provided which allows the Fo and Q
values for the target to be specified by the user.

The theoretical sensitivity value is set by SPLo and is relative to 1Watt/1Meter.

If a standard alignment is used, Fc gives the corner frequency. If custom is
selected, then the other F1, F2, Q1, and Q2 parameters will be enabled instead
which provide direct control the transfer function. The exact parameters
enabled will depend on the order of the target.

Transducer
In this group box the basic speaker parameters are defined including Sd, Revc,
and Qms. These values must be specified by the user. The Qms value is not
critical. The value should be set based on the intended final construction. If
the voice coil will contain an aluminum former, then a lower Qms value such
as 3 would be reasonable. For nonconductive formers a value of 7 is typical.

Enclosure
In this group box the intended volume of the box must be specified, along with
some measure of the losses. The Qb value is not critical. If you plan on lining
the internal walls, a value of 5-10 is probably adequate. If you intend to fill the
entire chamber, then a value of 2-5 would be more realistic.

Optimization Buttons
After the above parameters have been entered the model is ready to optimize.
This process is activated using the Optimize Model button. When completed
the parameters in the Model group box will be updated.

It is also possible to optimize the target parameters from the current model.
This process is activated using the Optimize Target button. This will determine
the F1, F2, Q1, Q2 values which best fit the model response.

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Model
This group box contains the parameters
that will be optimized for the model.
The model is primarily speaker param-
eters, but it also contains the Fp value for
a port if 3rd or 4th order targets are in use. You may also edit any of the enabled
fields to change the response manually.

There is also an Error field and a small color panel. When the model optimization
is finished the error value in dB will be shown here. If the error is minimal, then a
Green result marker will be displayed indicating that the target response was
achieved. It the marker is Red, then the target response could not be met.

Response Curves
The target and model curves are shown
on the graph, and can be viewed by
clicking the Graph tab. The horizon-
tal frequency axis and range is deter-
mined by the Scale Parameters dialog
same as the main graphs. The vertical
range can be adjusted using the dB/
Div buttons.

The two buttons marked with the line

colors identify the curves, and when
clicked will allow you to copy the
curves into the Guide Curve library.

If the curves match, then a model solution was found. If the curves are different,
then no solution for the model parameters could be found that matched the target
response.

When the curves are copied to the Guide Curve Library, the note fields within the
curves will contain all of the Reverse Speaker data which produced them. From the
main graph system the curves and their data can be easily printed for any
documentation purposes.

Since these response curves are true SPL response functions, magnitude units for
them will be SPL and the curves will appear on the SPL graph.

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Model Optimization Example #1

The operation of this dialog can best be demonstrated by way of example. The
following criteria will be assumed:

• We wish to use a 15 Inch (380mm) woofer in a sealed 10 Ft³ (0.283 M³)

• We desire a 95dB sensitivity, a 50Hz corner frequency, and Butterworth
• The speaker assumptions will be Sd=0.089M², Qms=7, and Revc=6.5 Ohms
• The box assumption will be Qb=7

After these parameters are entered, the Optimize Model button is clicked. The
optimization runs for a few seconds, and then the results are displayed in the
Model group box. This run was successful as now shown below.

The Error was 0.00001dB meaning

that the target was fully met. This is
also indicated by the Green marker.

The derived speaker parameters are:

Fs = 36.5 Hz
BL = 14.7 TM
Vas = 8.7 Ft³
Cms = 217u M/N
Mms = 87 g
Qes = 0.325
Qts = 0.311

These are very reasonable parameters.

There would be little difficulty pro-
ducing this physical transducer.

The response curves for the target and

model can be seen on the Graph panel.
Both curves are identical and on top of
each other.

In some cases a matching solution

may be found, but the speaker param-
eters may be impossible to produce.

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Model Optimization Example #2

We continue using the previous parameters of example #1. However, for this
example we would like to decrease the Fc corner frequency from 50Hz to 40Hz. All
other parameters remain the same. After the Optimize Model button is used the
following results are obtained:

Once again the solution converged

and the error was merely the residual
0.00001dB.

The derived speaker parameters are:

Fs = 13.0 Hz
BL = 11.9 TM
Vas = 84.2 Ft³
Cms = 2108u M/N
Mms = 70 g
Qes = 1.122
Qts = 0.9767

Note that the Fs value is now 13Hz

and the Vas is 84 Ft³ with a Cms of
2108u M/N.

These values are not very practical.

They would require a suspension sys-
tem with extremely high compliance.
Such a suspension may not be able to
hold the cone adequately in position.

By changing the desired corner fre-

quency from 50Hz to 40Hz, we now
have a compliance which is ten times
larger than previous.

This example underscores the importance of inspecting the parameters carefully. A

successful solution does not guarantee usable speaker parameters. In theory they
may work, but in practice they would be unrealistic.

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Model Optimization Example #3

We continue using the previous parameters of example #1. However, for this
case we would like explore the possibilities of achieving the 50Hz corner
frequency with a smaller box, say 4 Ft³ instead of the previous 10 Ft³. After the
Optimize Model button is used the following results are obtained:

This solution failed. The error could

not be reduced below 0.5dB, and the
Red marker is shown.

The derived speaker parameters are:

Fs = 0.0058 Hz
BL = 16.2 TM
Vas = 292,000,000 Ft³
Cms = 7,313,000,000,000u M/N
Mms = 101 g
Qes = 1747
Qts = 6.972

These parameters are indeed very

impractical. However when one ex-
amines the curves there is only 0.5dB
error between them. But again, the
parameters are unusable.

If we wish to have this 50Hz cutoff

frequency with this speaker size in a 4
Ft³ box, we will need to compromise
on some other parameter. The only
available choice is SPLo.

Revc is not a degree of freedom, but merely a scaling factor for the impedance
function that determines BL. It is an independent constant. The loss factors
such as Qms and Qb have only a second order effect.

The fundamental parameters which determine a design are SPLo, Fc, Sd, and
Vab along with the target transfer function order and alignment.

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Model Optimization Example #4

If we wish to use the same size speaker Sd, corner frequency Fc, with a Vab of 4 Ft³,
we must compromise on the sensitivity SPLo. It must be reduced. If we decrease
the value 2dB from 95 to 93 dB, and then click Optimize Model the following results
are produced.

This solution converged with the fol-

lowing parameters:

Fs = 26 Hz
BL = 18.6 TM
Vas = 10.8 Ft³
Cms = 271u M/N
Mms = 138 g
Qes = 0.288
Qts = 0.276

These parameters are very practical.

We have succeeded in designing a
speaker that can provide the required
response shape in only a 4 Ft³ box.

However it was only possible by sac-

rificing 2dB of sensitivity. Yet this
small change in SPL made the differ-
ence between success and failure.

This example demonstrates how sen-

sitive parameters can be when work-
ing in reverse. In many cases a prac-
tical solution will only exist across a
narrow range of parameters.

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Model Optimization Example #5

The previous examples showed the difficulty with a 2nd order sealed box. In
this case a 4th order vented design is attempted. We begin with Vab=5 Ft³,
Fc=50Hz and SPLo=95dB. We now change to a 4th order Butterworth target.

This solution failed to converge on

the target response with nearly 2dB of
error. However the speaker param-
eters are not that bad.

Fs = 38.5 Hz
BL = 29.4 TM
Vas = 3.2 Ft³
Cms = 80.8u M/N
Mms = 211 g
Qes = 0.127
Qts = 0.125

Viewing the curves we see that the

model response is much sharper than
the target response.

To enable a solution with a 4th order

target more than one parameter will
probably need to be changed. This is
due to the relationships between the
parameters which must now be in the
correct range.

The four parameters at our disposal are: SPLo, Fc, Sd, and Vab. Since we wish
to keep the same speaker, Sd cannot be changed. This leaves SPLo, Fc, and
Vab. This now becomes a trial & error process. By watching the error that
results after each trial, one can generally determine the correct direction in
which to move the parameters.

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Model Optimization Example #6

After a couple minutes of experimenting with different values, a suitable solution
was found using SPLo=96 dB, Fc=36 Hz, and Vab=8 Ft³.

This solution converged with about

0.07dB error remaining. The result-
ing speaker parameters are:

Fs = 34.7 Hz
BL = 17.0 TM
Vas = 9.4 Ft³
Cms = 234u M/N
Mms = 90 g
Qes = 0.333
Qts = 0.318

These parameters are very realizable.

However this clearly shows that very
little parameter freedom exists when
working with 4th order targets. The
design parameters must be chosen
properly and in the correct range.

In fact it is indeed very difficult for

most vented enclosures to produce
standard alignments such as Butter-
worth, Bessel, and Chebyshev. Each
of these alignments represent one set
of relationships which must exist be-
tween SPLo, Fc, Sd, and Vab.

For this reason it is often helpful to relax the target by one order to increase the
degrees of freedom. Many vented box alignments resemble a 3rd order response
more than a 4th order response.

In most cases determining speaker requirements is best handled using 2nd order
systems (Sealed Highpass). The use of a vented enclosure reduces the options and
choices which often hinders the ability to illuminate trade-offs and compromises.

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Target Optimization Example

This example will demonstrate use of the target optimization ability. This is
the reverse of the previous where here we align the target to fit the actual model
response. The failed model response of example #5 will be used.

In example #5 the solution failed to converge. Since the model could not
achieve the Butterworth response, it may be of interest to know what response
it did produce. By clicking the Target Optimize button the F1, F2, Q1, and Q2
values will be determined.

It is always possible to optimize the

target to the model, since all four
degrees of freedom are available in
the target parameters. The values are:

F1 = 53.175 Hz
F2 = 36.015 Hz
Q1 = 2.362
Q2 = 0.337

Note that the two F1 and F2 frequen-

cies are entirely different. The F1 and
F2 frequencies of a Butterworth filter
would be identical.

Use of this operation is ideal when

you wish to know the fundamental
transfer function parameters of a par-
ticular model response.

Using the ability to edit the values in

the model fields directly, any specific
enclosure design can be entered di-
rectly and have its transfer function
parameters determined.

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11.11 Transducer Model Derivation

The Utilities | Transducer Model Derivation menu item

will open a dialog which derives numeric electromechani-
cal transducer parameters from one or more impedance
curves. The tool button as shown above on the Utilities
toolbar can also be used to activate this item.

This dialog supports three different transducer models: STD, TSL, and LTD. The
electromechanical parameters are generated from a few simple physical values and
one or more impedance curves. The dialog also generates impedance and acoustic
response simulations based on the derived parameters. This allows for easy
comparison of the model and the actual measured data.

The LTD model derivation utilizes advanced optimization techniques and highly
refined algorithms to distill sophisticated characteristics solely from impedance
data. The data may be measured at different power levels and temperatures.

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Transducer Measurements
The top portion of the first tab panel shows the numeric values that must be
entered for the transducer. Some fields may be disabled depending on the
model chosen. The following is a description of the parameters shown above.

Name
Enter a name here for the transducer.

Note
This field can be used to add additional information about the transducer. The
usage of this field is entirely up to the user.

Model
You may choose either the STD, TSL, or LTD model. The STD model is the
most primitive and represents the standard conventional modeling requiring
only minimal information. Therefore, it is also the least accurate and useful.
The TSL model provides much improved motor impedance modeling, and also
includes some ability to simulate large signal response via nonlinear BL
behavior. The LTD model provides the most advanced representation for the
transducer and includes both simulation of large signal and temperature
behavior. Moreover, the modeling of basic elements is also far superior.

If you only require a crude model for your transducer or have very limited
information, the STD model is probably the appropriate choice. The TSL model
is certainly the best for general purpose work and only requires the additional
knowledge of Xgap and Xcoil. The LTD model provides the highest level of
capabilities and accuracy but demands additional impedance measurements.

Note: See Chapter 4 for more details on the transducer models.

Domain
This will be either Free Air or Infinite Baffle depending on how the data was
measured. This affects the Mmr value for internal calculations, and will
produce slightly different parameters. If the transducer was measured using an
IEC baffle or other large baffle select InfBaf, otherwise use FreeAir.

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Shape
This parameter specifies the shape of the transducer diaphragm. The selection
controls modeling of the directional characteristics. The following choices are
provided: Point, Round, Ellipse-3:2, Hexagon, Triangle, Square, Rect-2:1, Rect-
3:1, Rect-4:1, Rect-5:1. The point source has no directivity.

Profile
This parameter specifies the profile of the transducer diaphragm. The selection
controls modeling of the directional characteristics. The following choices are
provided: Flat, Cone, and Dome.

Znom
The nominal rated impedance of the transducer, generally higher than Revc.

Revc
The DC voice coil resistance.

Sd
The equivalent acoustic diaphragm area. This is typically the area as measured
using a radius from the center to the middle of the surround. The properties button
at the end of the field can be used to open the Area Parameters dialog to aid in
calculation of the area if needed.

Pmax
The nominal rated power of the transducer. This will be used to relate the thermal
resistance Rtvc assuming a failure temperature of 250C°. Various values can be
used here depending on what
type of power behavior you
wish to describe. However, it
is important that some kind of
realistic value be entered. Voice Coil
Former
Coil Height (Xcoil)
Note: For underhung Xgap Magnetic Gap Xmax Gap Height (Xgap)
motors Xcoil will be The height of the magnetic
Top Plate Top Plate
less than Xgap, and field gap.
Center
the Xmax value will Magnet Pole Magnet
be displayed as nega- Xcoil
tive. This is normal. The height of the voice coil Bottom Plate

winding. Xmax = | Xcoil-Xgap | / 2

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Mmd
The physical mass of the diaphragm without air load. For most transducers this
value is very close to the physical mass of the diaphragm assembly itself, i.e.
a recone kit. If you know this value in advance, then enable the check box at
the end of the field. When using the Mmd parameter no delta curves are
required. Therefore the Md and Vab columns will be disabled.

Run Button
This button starts the model derivation. When all of the previous parameters
have been entered, and the impedance curves defined as discussed next, then
you may use this button to start the processing.

The lower portion of the Transducer Measurements panel displays a large

matrix of fields and list boxes. Each of the nine rows represent a definition for
an impedance curve. Depending on the model and Mmd option, one or more
impedance curves may be required.

Data
This is a toggle button used to indicate usage of the impedance curve set.

Ta
This parameter is only required for the LTD model. It is the ambient
temperature used for the impedance measurement.

Md
This is the delta mass used for the impedance measurement. If the measure-
ment did not use any additional mass then this value is zero.

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Vab
This is the delta compliance given by box volume used for the impedance
measurement. If the measurement was not taken in a box this value is zero. The
properties button at the end of the field can be used to open the Volume Parameters
dialog to aid in calculation of the volume if needed. The LTD model does not accept
delta compliance measurements and these fields are then disabled.

Note: For any delta impedance measurement either Md or Vab would be nonzero,
but typically not both. However, it is possible to utilize an impedance measurement
taken with both delta mass and delta compliance by using both fields.

Impedance Curve
This is the selection for the location of the impedance curve in the Guide Curve
library. You must have previously imported the impedance curve into the library.

Voltage Curve
This is the selection for the location of the voltage curve in the Guide Curve library.
You must have previously imported the voltage curve into the library. This
selection is only required for the LTD model. The LTD model requires that all
impedance measurements be taken under constant voltage drive conditions. This
curve provides the drive level information for the measurement which may or may
not be flat across the entire frequency range.

Processing
When all the parameters are entered and curve selections made, the Run button is
clicked to begin the processing. A dialog as shown below will appear. If the model
is STD or TSL the processing time will be short. However, the LTD model will
require much more time. Generally LTD run times range from 5 to 30 minutes
depending on the number of impedance curves involved.

When the processing is

completed this dialog will
close.

You may then view the

model results using the
other three tab panels.

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Transducer Parameters
This panel displays the model parameters. Some of the data is copied from the
user supplied values of the previous measurement panel, while most are the
derived parameters produced from the processing. This panel does not provide
full editing of all transducer parameters.

However, the high frequency SPL shaping parameters may be modified by the
user. These are not generated by the model processing but merely set to default
values. The user may wish to adjust these to improve the high frequency
representation as desired.

The Vs parameter is also available for editing. This value controls the speaker
voltage used for the response curves produced on the Parameter Graph. If the
LTD model is in use, the Ta parameter will also be enabled.

Note: The transducer parameters are explained in detail in Chapter-7.

If you intend to place this model into a transducer library, you will want to use
the Copy button. This will transfer the parameters as a set of text strings to the
Clipboard which can later be pasted using the Transducer Parameters dialog.
The text can also be pasted into any other Windows application.

The Print button can be used to print the model, and the File buttons provides
the ability to save the model as a text file.

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Impedance Graph
This tab panel displays a comparison of the model impedance and measured
impedance. Since more then one impedance curve may have been used to formulate
the model, an array of nine Data Curve buttons are provided on the left of the graph.
Each of the nine impedance sets correspond to these buttons. Only buttons with
active impedance data are enabled.

When a button is clicked the impedance curve of that set will be drawn on the graph.
The model will also be setup using the same conditions of the measurement and
drawn as well. For example, if the measurement used a delta mass value that same
mass will be employed with the model. Thus each button will test the model under
every one of the measurement conditions.

A cursor readout system is also provided. Any data point along the curve can be read
by holding down the left mouse button and moving the mouse to the desired
frequency. The frequency scale follows that of the Scale Parameters dialog.

By Right Clicking the mouse over the graph, a popup menu button will appear as
shown above. This allows you to Copy the transducer model curve in to the
Clipboard. You can then Paste it at a later time into the Guide Curve Library.

The Impedance Graph provides a convenient and powerful means of directly

comparing the model to the measured data under every measurement condition.

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Parameter Graph
This tab panel displays a variety of different model characteristics for the
model. Within the graph are 11 selection buttons to choose which transducer
characteristics are to be displayed. This provides easy viewing of any
transducer characteristic. A cursor readout system is also provided. Any data
point along the curve can be read by holding down the left mouse button and
moving the mouse to the desired frequency. The frequency scale follows that
of the Scale Parameters dialog.

Curve Description
By Right Clicking the mouse over the
graph, a popup menu button will appear
SPL The acoustic response of the transducer
as shown above. This allows you to
IMP The Impedance response of the transducer Copy the transducer curve or curves into
Rem The resistive portion of the motor impedance the Windows Clipboard. You could
Lem The inductive portion of the motor impedance then Paste them at a later time into the
Zem The total impedance of motor (Rem+jwLem) Guide Curve library.
Zeb The blocked impedance (Revc+Rem+jwLem)
The graph curves are generated at the
BL The magnetic flux-length product of the motor
drive voltage specified by the Vs pa-
Rms The mechanical suspension resistance rameter, and at a temperature of Ta if the
Cms The mechanical suspension compliance LTD model is in use. The table on the
Mms The mechanical mass w/ air load (Mmd+Mmr) left gives a description of the curves.
Xms The mechanical excursion of the diaphragm

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Impedance Measurement Data

The derivation of transducer parameters by this dialog requires that impedance
curves be taken across sufficiently wide frequency range. The curves must
then be imported into the Guide Curve library. Complex data is required
containing both magnitude and phase information. It is important that the data
span several orders of frequency covering both the low and high frequency
behavior with sufficient log resolution.

The actual frequency range to be used will depend on the characteristics of a

particular transducer. Woofers can usually be tested from 10Hz to 10kHz.
Tweeters may be handled best by a frequency range of 100Hz to 100kHz. In
most cases the range is not critical as long as it covers enough range.

Swept sinewave analyzers generally provide log frequency data by default, so

they are ideal for this application. If you have an analyzer such as LMS™ there
should be little difficulty in obtaining the required data.

However, if you intend to use an FFT type analyzer there may be problems with
adequate resolution at low frequencies. For woofers you will need to use the
maximum acquisition length along with a sampling frequency of at least
22kHz. You will generally need 10kHz bandwidth with very good frequency
resolution, preferably less than 1Hz. This may be a difficult task for many FFT
analyzers. Nevertheless it is vitally important that sufficient resolution at low
frequencies be provided. This is an absolute requirement for use with the LTD
model.

The curve library entries have a maximum limitation of 4096 points per curve.
Therefore you will not be able to import high resolution FFT data directly. It
must be converted first into log resolution before being imported. This will
need to be performed in the other analyzer software, or by some other means.

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Impedance Measurement Methods

The measurement of transducer impedance has traditionally been accomplished
through the use of constant current source CCS techniques. This method supplies
a constant drive current (typically 10mA) to the speaker, and produces a variable
voltage across the speaker which is proportional to the speaker’s impedance. While
this method is convenient to use it has the following well known problems:

• Extremely nonlinear drive level across frequency.

• No resonance damping provided by the current source.
• Setup and connections must be changed to measure SPL.
• Measurements taken at extremely low fixed power level (typically 1mW).

The operating conditions imposed by the CCS method are in reality the exact
opposite of normal loudspeaker operation. Typically a loudspeaker is driven
directly from a power amplifier at virtually zero source impedance. The drive
method is by constant voltage source CVS. In CVS operation the speaker is driven
with a linear voltage vs. frequency characteristic, with virtually zero source
impedance and at a much higher power level.

In order to determine impedance using the CVS method, a current shunt is

employed to measure the current flow through the device. Knowing the current
flow through the device, and the voltage across the device, the true impedance can
then be calculated using basic Ohm’s law as Z=V/I.

All loudspeakers are nonlinear resonant devices. When a resonant electroacoustic

device is driven from a current source of high impedance, all damping of the
resonance behavior is determined solely by the mechanical Qms losses in the
device. Under these conditions dynamically measured impedance can be greatly
effected by the type of stimulus and/or the rate at which a sinewave is swept. Under
CVS conditions, the damping is determined largely by the electrical system Qes,
and offers dramatically higher damping than the CCS method. This results in
substantially greater precision and consistency.

The nonlinear characteristics of electroacoustic devices imply that all measure-

ments should be taken under similar conditions as to which the device will operate.
For CCS methods, measuring the device at a drive level of 1mW is 1000 times lower
than the power level employed when commonly measuring SPL response at 1W.

The quality and accuracy of the parameters produced can be viewed as a direct
function of the quality and accuracy of the original impedance data.

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The CCS method will generally be adequate for STD or TSL model derivation.
However, the best impedance measurements will always be obtained from the
CVS method. When using the LTD model all measurements must be made
using the CVS voltage drive method. The LTD model requires information that
is dependent on drive level. This cannot be obtained from the CCS method.

Note: The VI-Box™ provides one means of obtaining voltage drive CVS data.

The VI-Box™ is ideally suited for this purpose. This device already contains
all of the necessary components to perform constant voltage measurements.

RED RED

MAXIMUM MAXIMUM
VOLTAGE CURRENT
100V RMS 25A RMS

TM

BLK LinearX Systems Inc, 9500 SW Tualatin-Sherwood BLK

Portland, OR 97062-8586 USA Made in USA

1V/100A (25A max) 1V/100V (-40dB)

SPEAKER CURRENT SPEAKER VOLTAGE
[ I ] OUTPUT C V [ V ] OUTPUT
U O
R L
R T
XLR-M E A XLR-M
N G
T E
1 2 1 2
S S
E E
3 L L 3
E E
C C
T T
1V/1A (2.5A max) 1V/1V (0dB)

RED
POWER VI
SPKR
AMP BLK BOX

I V
SIGNAL
ANALYZER

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Impedance Measurement Fixtures

There are two basic types of domains for these measurements: Free Air, and Infinite
Baffle. In either case some means of holding the transducer in a fixed position must
be provided. The transducer mounting system should be free of significant
vibrations and resonance across the entire measurement frequency range.

For the infinite baffle case the vibrational difficulties

are much less of a problem since the transducer is
generally mounted to a panel. An IEC sized baffle is
often used for this type of measurement. The dimen- 22.5cm

sions of the IEC baffle and transducer mounting loca- CL

tion are shown here on the right. 1.65m CL
15cm

However, the free air case presents more of a vibra-

tional problem. It is not uncommon for resonance 1.35m
conditions to be developed by the transducer and
fixture in this type of setup. The device must be held
firmly yet the free air condition around the device must IEC Baffle
not be obstructed by the fixture.

One solution to this problem is the engine vise fixture. This fixture can be
constructed very easily from any ordinary engine stand and a large bench
vise. The vise is mounted vertically to the engine plate. The transducer can
then be clamped into the vise using the rear magnet structure. Engine stands
can be obtained from local auto parts stores for around $40, and a bench vise
located at a tool supply store for a similar amount. Total cost is typically
less than $100.

When the stand is assembled, a number of large speakers should be tested

in the stand and swept across full frequency range at significant power to
examine potential undesirable resonance behavior of the stand and vise.
Any loose portions of the stand should be fixed so as not to vibrate. The
transducer will induce strong vibrational forces on the stand which will
energize any available loose members or resonant mass/springs.

In spite of the sturdy steel construction of these stands, there will often be
sharp resonance spikes at certain frequencies which will show up in the
impedance curves. This is typically seen as high Q ringing due to the heavy
vise at the end of the stiff steel column. Resistance must be introduced
between these interfaces to damp the resonance.

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Elimination of the self resonance will depend on the construction of the stand
itself. In the example shown here a JET OSV10 bench vise and JET JES2000C
engine stand were used. The struts and center column were unbolted. Five
rubber pads 3/16 Inch (4.7mm) thick were then placed between the junctions
and the assembly re-bolted. This eliminated all resonance.

The four wheels were removed from the stand base. Two were reused and
mounted on the back side at the rear of the base. This allows the stand to sit flat
on the floor, yet be tipped back on to the wheels for easy moving.

The picture below shows the actual finished stand in use. This type of fixture
provides very good performance and allows different types and sizes of
transducers to be mounted very quickly and easily. The stand provides a true
free field environment with little or no interference around the transducer.

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Example #1 - STD model of Woofer with Delta Mass

In this example a 12 Inch (300mm) woofer is used. A delta mass pair of impedance
measurements are taken from 10Hz to 5kHz by the constant current source CCS
method. The delta curve was obtained by attaching 75g of modeling clay to the
cone. The impedance curves are shown below and were then pasted from LMS into
the Guide Curve library of EnclosureShop.

The measured parameters and selections for the woofer are:

• Model = STD • Znom = 16 W

• Domain = FreeAir • Revc = 8.3 W
• Shape = Round • Sd = 0.048 M²
• Profile = Cone • Pmax = 700 W

Since a delta method will be used the Mmd field must be unchecked since this value
will be derived from the delta measurement. The parameter setup for the dialog is
shown on the following page.

Ohm
Impedance vs Freq Deg
200 180

150

100
120

90

50
60

30

20 0

-30

10
-60

-90

5
-120

-150

2 -180
10 Hz 20 50 100 200 500 1K 2K 5K

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Note that the Md value for the normal transducer measurement is zero, and the
Md value for the delta curve is 75 grams. The Vab fields are of course both zero
since this is not a delta compliance method. The Run button is then clicked, and
the resulting parameters are shown below.

Most of the fields are not relevant for the STD model and these are displayed
in dark gray. The only fields which can be edited are Fmd, Qmd, Flp, Qlp, and
Vs. Vs controls the drive level for the simulations on the Parameter Graph
panel and the others are used to control the high frequency SPL shaping.

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The final parameters for the woofer are:

• Model = STD • Znom = 16 W • Revc = 8.3 W

• Domain = FreeAir • Sd = 0.048 M² • BL = 19 T•M
• Shape = Round • Pmax = 700 W • Rtvc = 0.357 C°/W
• Profile = Cone • Mmd = 118 g • Mms = 124 g
• Fo = 32 Hz • Rms = 5.15 N•S/M • Levc = 8.6m H
• Qms = 4.85 • Qes = 0.571 • Qts = 0.511
• Cms = 198.6u M/N • Vas = 65 Ltr
• SPLo = 87.6 dB • ho = 0.362 %

You are now able to compare the model representation to the actual measured data
using the Impedance Graph tab panel. This is shown below. Note that two of the
Data Curve buttons on the left side of the graph are enabled. You may click either
of these to compare each measurement curve to the equivalent model curve.

A cursor readout system is provided. Any data point along the curve can be read
by holding down the left mouse button and moving the mouse to the desired
frequency. The frequency scale follows that of the Scale Parameters dialog.

By Right Clicking the mouse over the graph a popup menu button will appear as
shown here. This allows you to Copy the model into the Windows Clipboard. You
can then Paste it later into the Guide Curve library.

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The delta mass comparison is shown above. The match at mid- high frequen-
cies is poor since the STD model uses a simple fixed Levc value. The resonance
hump is also slightly different. The behavior of the transducer is far more
complex than the simple STD model can represent.

Using the Parameter Graph you can also inspect various other transducer
characteristics. The SPL response is shown below. These curves are generated
at the drive level specified by the Vs parameter. The response at mid-high
frequencies rolls-off considerably. In fact the all of the response above 60Hz
cannot be represented adequately due to the error in the impedance function.

Ordinarily we would adjust the higher frequency response using the shaping
parameters Fmd, Qmd, Flp, and Qlp. However, since the impedance function
is modeled so poorly by Levc in the simple STD model it is rather pointless.

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By using the Copy button in the Transducer Parameters tab panel the model listing
may be copied to the Clipboard. An example listing is shown here.

The parameter list can then be pasted into another Windows application, or into the
Transducer Parameters dialog to create a new library entry.

The parameter list may also be printed or saved as a file.

* Loudspeaker Enclosure Analysis Program

* LEAP® EnclosureShop 5.0.0.281 Oct/26/2002
* ©1993-2002 LinearX Systems Inc
* Date: Oct 26, 2002 Sat 9:37 pm
* LTD File=C:\Program Files\LEAP_ED\Examples\TDM.Ltd
* Electro Mechanical Parameters
Name= Woofer-12
Note= Example-1, STD
Model= STD
Domain= FreeAir
Shape= Round
Profile= Cone
Fmd= 3.0000 KA
Qmd= 1.0000
Flp= 8.0000 KA
Qlp= 2.0000
Znom= 8.0000 Ohm
Revc= 8.3000 Ohm
Sd= 48.0000E-3 M²
Mmd= 117.9989E-3 Kg
Pmax= 700.0000 W
Rtvc= 357.1430E-3 °C/W
Rms= 5.1510 N·S/M
Mms= 124.0460E-3 Kg
Cms= 198.6840E-6 M/N
Vas= 65.0030 Ltr
Fo= 32.0590 Hz
Qms= 4.8500
Qes= 0.5710
Qts= 0.5110
BL= 19.0505 T·M
Levc= 8.5890E-3 H
SPLo= 87.6110 dB
No= 362.4000E-3 %
* End

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Example #2 - TSL model of Woofer with known Mmd

In this example a 15 Inch (380mm) woofer is used. For this example we will
assume that the Mmd value is already known as 105g. Therefore only a single
impedance curve is needed, and this curve was measured from 10Hz to 10kHz
by the constant current source CCS method. The impedance curve is shown
below and was pasted from LMS into the Guide Curve library.

In order to use the TSL model we must also have the Xgap and Xcoil
dimensions of the motor. The values are 8mm and 28mm respectively.

The measured parameters and selections for the woofer are:

• Model = TSL • Znom = 8 W

• Domain = FreeAir • Revc = 6.88 W
• Shape = Round • Sd = 0.0888 M²
• Profile = Cone • Pmax = 500 W
• Xgap = 8 mm • Xcoil = 28 mm
• Mmd = 105 g

200
Ohm
Impedance vs Freq Deg
180

150

100
120

90

50
60

30

20 0

-30

10
-60

-90

5
-120

-150

2 -180
10 Hz 20 50 100 200 500 1K 2K 5K 10K

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The measurement panel is shown above with the appropriate data values. Note that
the Mmd field must now be active since we are supplying this as a known value. The
Run button is clicked and the resulting parameters are shown below.

There are now a few more parameters shown with this TSL model which were not
present in the STD model. These include Xgap, Xcoil, Xmax, Krm, Erm, Kxm, and
Exm. Note also that Levc has been grayed out since its function is now replaced with
the Kxm, Exm parameters.

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Comparing the measured impedance with that of the model shows far superior
results as compared to the previous STD model. The SPL response is also
shown in the lower graph below.

We can now adjust the high frequency response to achieve a better match to the
actual transducer. This assumes that a measurement of the actual transducer
response is available. The default values given are always:

Fmd = 3.0 ka Qmd = 1.0 Flp = 8.0 ka Qlp = 2.0

We can adjust these values to produce the desired high frequency response.

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For this particular woofer the response peaks near 1kHz and then rolls-off. By trial
& error the suitable values were found to be:

Fmd = 2.0 ka Qmd = 1.414 Flp = 4.0 ka Qlp = 1.414

The complete parameter listing is shown below. Adjusting the high frequency
shaping parameters only affects the acoustic response.

* Loudspeaker Enclosure Analysis Program Rtvc= 500.0000E-3 °C/W

* LEAP® EnclosureShop Oct/27/2002 Xgap= 8.0000E-3 M
* ©1993-2002 LinearX Systems Inc Xcoil= 28.0000E-3 M
* Date: Oct 27, 2002 Sun 10:13 am Xmax= 10.0000E-3 M
* LTD File=D:\Tests\TL1603_TSL.led Krm= 7.4066E-3 Ohm
* Electro Mechanical Parameters Erm= 733.1700E-3
Name= Woofer-15 Kxm= 26.4954E-3 H
Note= Example-2 Exm= 675.1800E-3
Model= TSL Rms= 3.9040 N·S/M
Domain= FreeAir Mms= 120.2160E-3 Kg
Shape= Round Cms= 208.2380E-6 M/N
Profile= Cone Vas= 233.1700 Ltr
Fmd= 2.0000 KA Fo= 31.8100 Hz
Qmd= 1.4140 Qms= 6.1540
Flp= 4.0000 KA Qes= 0.4480
Qlp= 1.4140 Qts= 0.4180
Znom= 8.0000 Ohm BL= 19.2079 T·M
Revc= 6.8800 Ohm Levc= 1.5470E-3 H
Sd= 88.8000E-3 M² SPLo= 94.1130 dB
Mmd= 105.0000E-3 Kg No= 1.6198 %
Pmax= 500.0000 W * End

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Example #3 - LTD model of Woofer/Midrange

In this example an LTD model is derived for a 4½ Inch (110mm) woofer/
midrange. The LTD model requires the constant voltage source (CVS)
impedance measurement method. The key issue is measuring the transducer
impedance under voltage drive conditions. Some kind of current shunt or
current probe must be employed to obtain the current data. For this reason a
VI-BoxTM was used to obtain the voltage and current data reported here.

For these tests a frequency range of 10Hz to 10kHz was used. Impedance data
for an LTD model must be measured at different drive levels, and may also be
measured at different temperatures. This example will demonstrate both.

The choice of drive levels should be based on covering the operating range.
Low drive levels should be represented as well as high drive levels. Determin-
ing the maximum drive level to use is somewhat critical. The goal is to measure
the majority of the nonlinear characteristics while avoiding total saturation.

Up to nine curves can be used in the derivation. The lowest level curve should
be taken where the transducer has minimal nonlinearity. For small speakers
such as in this case a drive level as low as 0.1 Vrms may be required. For large
speakers a minimum drive level of 1Vrms may be suitable.

The highest drive level to use is difficult to predict in advance, and often
requires a sequence of curves be taken after which the results can be inspected.
At some point the increasing drive level will cause massive nonlinear behavior.
The impedance curve will substantially deteriorate. In other cases the trans-
ducer may physically bottom out against the back plate during portions of the
sweep. Those conditions produce unusable data.

In most cases drive levels range from 0.1Vrms to 10Vrms in either a 1-2-5 or
1-3 progressive sequence. In the case of some large woofers with high
excursion capability, drive levels of 20 Vrms or perhaps 30Vrms may be
needed. However it is rarely necessary to go higher. Typically a 500W woofer
will barely tolerate drive levels of 50W in free air before excursion becomes
excessively high.

If the drive level is too high then the suspension and/or magnetic system
become extremely nonlinear and produce unusable data. As soon as the
impedance shows significant change, the highest drive level has been found.

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10
V
Voltage vs Freq Deg
180

144
5

108

2 72

36
1

500m
-36

-72
200m PL11_V_0.1V_16C PL11_V_3V_16C PL11_V_1V_16C_5g
PL11_V_0.3V_16C PL11_V_10V_16C PL11_V_1V_26C
PL11_V_1V_16C PL11_V_0.1V_16C_5g PL11_V_1V_26C_5g -108

100m
-144

50m -180
10 Hz 20 50 100 200 500 1K 2K 5K 10K

2
A Current vs Freq Deg
180

150
1

120
500m

90

200m 60

30
100m

0
50m

-30

20m -60
Import: PL11_I_10000MV_T1
Import: PL11_I_1000MV_T1
Import: PL11_I_1000MV_T1_MD -90
10m
Import: PL11_I_1000MV_T2
Import: PL11_I_1000MV_T2_MD
-120
Import: PL11_I_100MV_T1
5m
Import: PL11_I_100MV_T1_MD
Import: PL11_I_3000MV_T1 -150
Import: PL11_I_300MV_T1

2m -180
10 Hz 20 50 100 200 500 1K 2K 5K 10K

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Data Vrms Md (g) Ta C˚ For this example nine data sets were used taken at various drive
levels, temperatures, and in some cases with a delta mass of 5
1 0.10 0.0 16.0
grams. These are listed here in the table.
2 0.30 0.0 16.0
3 1.00 0.0 16.0 The voltage and current curves are shown on the preceding page.
4 3.00 0.0 16.0 Since a current shunt of 1 Ohm was used the voltage drive is not
5 1.00 5.0 26.0 perfectly flat. This is why the voltage data must also be supplied
and used in the dialog. The exact drive conditions must be known.
6 0.10 5.0 16.0
7 1.00 5.0 16.0 Data set #9 is taken at a drive level of 10 Vrms. Note that the hump
8 1.00 0.0 26.0 in the current response has been reduced significantly and has also
9 10.00 0.0 16.0 moved up in frequency. This indicates that the suspension is
becoming stretched tight and the compliance has decreased. This
drive level is very nonlinear and almost too high. However it will
be used for demonstration purposes.

When the voltage and current curves are divided, the resulting impedance
curves are shown below. Note that the 10V curve also shows significantly
increased impedance. This is due to heating of the voice coil.

30
Ohm
Impedance vs Freq Deg
180

150

20 120

90

60

30

10
0
9

8 -30

7
-60
6

-90
5

-120
PL11 10V 16C PL11 1V 26C PL11 0.1V 16C 5g
4 PL11 1V 16C PL11 1V 26C 5g PL11 3V 16C
PL11 1V 16C 5g PL11 0.1V 16C PL11 0.3V 16C -150

3 -180
10 Hz 20 50 100 200 500 1K 2K 5K 10K

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Heating of the voice coil is another indicator for the highest drive level which should
be used. In general it is best to avoid large voice coil temperature rise. While the
LTD model can represent this it becomes critical for the Pmax specification to be
defined accurately in order to duplicate the heating effect accurately.

Since the temperature rise of the voice coil will change with the duration and
number of sweeps, accurate determination of the appropriate values for Pmax
becomes problematic. In many cases the model will need to be run several times
trying different values for Pmax until the best match is found.

The large change in the resonance hump, along with the large rise in midrange
impedance, both suggest that the 10 Volt curve is actually too high for this speaker.
Using a 5 volt drive would probably have been more appropriate.

The measured parameters and selections for this woofer/midrange are:

• Model = LTD • Znom = 8 W

• Domain = FreeAir • Revc = 5.55 W
• Shape = Round • Sd = 0.00575 M²
• Profile = Cone • Pmax = 50 W
• Xgap = 4 mm • Xcoil = 10 mm

The measurement panel is shown below with the entered data values. Note that the
Voltage Curve selections are now also used with this LTD model.

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The Run button is clicked and the Model Optimizer

dialog appears. This dialog has four sections.
The optimization process alternates between two
different frequency bands, optimizing different
sets of parameters in each band. Multiple passes
will be made between these bands. The readout
fields display the progress in each band, evalua-
tions, errors, and passes completed. A total
average error of 0.25 dB or less typically indi-
cates a very good fit between the model and data.

Deriving an LTD model is a very complex time consuming process. The

optimized numerical solution requires processing of up to nine different data
sets using a model of 30 variables. Typical run times range from 5-30 minutes.

When the optimizer dialog disappears the resulting parameters can be in-
spected in the Transducer Parameters tab as shown below. For the LTD model
nearly all of the parameters are active except for those on the right side which
are now shown disabled in dark gray. These parameters are no longer model
constants, but are now dependent on the operating conditions as specified by
Vs and Ta. As you change Vs, Ta the other parameters will change accordingly.

The following pages show the derived LTD model compared to each of the nine
original impedance measurements.

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Eight of the nine data sets show extremely good model correlation. However,
the ninth set which used a drive level of 10 Vrms is a different situation. As
described this drive level produced substantial nonlinearity.

Equivalent RMS modeling of the transducer at this drive level is all but
impossible due to the extremely heavy distortion. An oscilloscope measure-
ment of the current and excursion waveforms would reveal completely non-
sinusoidal waveforms.

The complete listing of the LTD parameters is given below.

* Loudspeaker Enclosure Analysis Program Vrm= 10.1600E-3

* LEAP® EnclosureShop 5.0.0.282 Oct/28/2002 Trm= -446.9970E-6 Delta/°C
* ©1993-2002 LinearX Systems Inc Kxm= 2.8319 H
* Date: Oct 28, 2002 Mon 4:33 am Fxm= 676.2574 Hz
* LTD File=D:\LTD_Model\Model_PLWG\PL11WG_10.led Dxm= 929.4500E-3
* Electro Mechanical Parameters Exm= 604.0100E-3
Name= Woofer/Mid 4.5 Inch Vxm= 28.0800E-3
Note= Eample-3 Txm= 567.6650E-6 Delta/°C
Model= LTD Krs= 35.1082 N·S/M
Domain= FreeAir Xrs= 3.4895E-3 M
Shape= Round Drs= 2.9926
Profile= Cone Ers= 561.4700E-3
Fmd= 3.0000 KA Grs= 8.4204
Qmd= 1.0000 Trs= -14.5070E-3 Delta/°C
Flp= 8.0000 KA Kcs= 604.5333E-6 M/N
Qlp= 2.0000 Xcs= 1.8444E-3 M
Znom= 8.0000 Ohm Dcs= 82.9500E-3
Revc= 5.5500 Ohm Ecs= 76.9500E-3
Sd= 5.7500E-3 M² Gcs= 2.9425
Mmd= 7.0875E-3 Kg Tcs= 13.9510E-3 Delta/°C
Pmax= 50.0000 W Rms= 1.3220 N·S/M
Rtvc= 5.0000 °C/W Mms= 7.3370E-3 Kg
Xgap= 4.0000E-3 M Cms= 1.1510E-3 M/N
Xcoil= 10.0000E-3 M Vas= 5.4360 Ltr
Xmax= 3.0000E-3 M Fo= 54.9910 Hz
Xfrg= 2.0380E-3 M Qms= 1.9100
Efrg= 12.5371 Qes= 0.6060
BLo= 4.9614 T·M Qts= 0.4600
Ta= 25.0000 °C BL= 4.8566 T·M
Vs= 2.8284 V Levc= 552.8020E-6 H
Krm= 2.8928 Ohm SPLo= 83.5210 dB
Frm= 2.1696E3 Hz No= 141.3000E-3 %
Drm= 920.8700E-3 * End
Erm= 785.1100E-3

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The model acoustic SPL response and excursion Xms graphs are shown below for
a drive level Vs of 2.84 Vrms. Note that the excursion for this small transducer
reaches nearly 3mm RMS (4.2 mm Peak) even for this 1 Watt simulation. The
Xmax for the speaker was given as 4mm, and this is exceeded at the 1 Watt level.

It is now easy to appreciate why the 10 Vrms drive level caused so much
nonlinearity. If the speaker was linear the excursion requirement would be 10 mm
RMS or 14 mm Peak. This is far beyond the capabilities of this small transducer.

We could now normally use the shaping parameters to adjust the high frequency
response as desired, but this has already been covered in the previous example.

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Example #4 - LTD model of Subwoofer

In this example an LTD model is derived for a 10 Inch (250mm) subwoofer.
For these tests a frequency range of 10Hz to 10kHz was used. Impedance data
for an LTD model must be measured at different drive levels, but for this
example no temperature data was taken. Furthermore, the cone assembly was
cutout of the speaker after the tests and weighed to obtain Mmd directly.

The choice of drive levels for this large speaker ranged from 0.3
Data Vrms Md (g) Ta C˚ Vrms to 30 Vrms. Six curves were used as shown in the table. The
1 0.30 0.0 20.0 impedance curves are shown in the graph below.
2 1.00 0.0 20.0
3 3.00 0.0 20.0 Note that the impedance hump decreases from 80 Ohms to 20
Ohms across the 40dB drive range of 0.3 Vrms to 30 Vrms. Note
4 10.00 0.0 20.0
also that the resonance of the speaker can first be seen to decrease
5 20.00 0.0 20.0 and then later increase as the drive level increases. This is a
6 30.00 0.0 20.0 common characteristic of many suspensions.

The 30 Vrms curve shows some voice coil heating as indicated by

the impedance increase in the valley between 70-100 Hz.

100
Ohm Impedance vs Freq Deg
180

150

50
120

90

60
20

30

10 0

-30

5
-60

-90

-120
2
1: MM10 Zet 0.3V 4: MM10 Zet 10V
2: MM10 Zet 1V 5: MM10 Zet 20V -150
3: MM10 Zet 3V 6: MM10 Zet 30V
1 -180
10 Hz 20 50 100 200 500 1K 2K 5K 10K

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The measured parameters and selections for this subwoofer are:

• Model = LTD • Znom = 4 W

• Domain = FreeAir • Revc = 3.00 W
• Shape = Round • Sd = 0.0357 M²
• Profile = Cone • Pmax = 900 W
• Xgap = 9 mm • Xcoil = 28 mm
• Mmd = 70 g

The measurement panel is shown below with the entered data values. Note that the
Mmd field is enabled, and that all of the Md delta mass fields are zero.

Note: When the impedance data does not include temperature variations, make
sure the Ta values are all identical.

A 900 Watt Pmax value for this subwoofer was used to best fit the curve. Generally
the Pmax value will need to be larger than the published rating since there is a time
constant involved. However, this depends on how the data was taken.

The voice coil will typically not achieve its full temperature over the time of a short
duration measurement. Therefore, the heating will appear much less than what the
regular power rating would imply. For this reason higher Pmax values are often
needed to match the lower temperature rise experienced in the measurements.

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The Run button is clicked and the Model Optimizer dialog appears. The
processing will continue until the solution stabilizes and no further improve-
ment is detected. Unfortunately optimization is not a finite process, and no
prediction for the length of time required can easily be given.

When the optimizer dialog disappears the resulting parameters can be in-
spected in the Transducer Parameters tab as shown below. For the LTD model
nearly all of the parameters are active except for those on the right side which
are now shown disabled in dark gray. These parameters are no longer model
constants, but are now dependent on the operating conditions as specified by
Vs and Ta. As you change Vs, Ta the other parameters change accordingly.

The following two pages show the derived LTD model compared to each of the
six original impedance measurements. The excellent correlation between the
model and the data demonstrates the remarkable capabilities of the LTD model.
These six graphs represent power levels ranging from 22mW to 225W.

Even at the highest drive level of 30 Vrms the model displays an excellent
representation to the actual nonlinear behavior. At this power level the
temperature rise is not static but changing throughout the sweep. This is
impossible for the model to represent using a fixed temperature.

It should also be noted that the model reproduces the changes in resonance
frequency and losses throughout this large power range with high accuracy.

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The model acoustic SPL response is shown below for a drive level Vs of 2.0 Vrms.
Note that the midrange response has a downward trend. This is due to the rapidly
increasing large motor impedance. It is a common behavior seen with many
woofers and subwoofers where the motor contains a large amount of steel and
magnetic material. This results in higher impedance with increasing frequency.

We can now use the shaping parameters to adjust the high frequency response. For
this speaker the known response shows a slight peaking near 1kHz. By trial & error
suitable shaping parameters are found to be:

Fmd = 2.0 ka Qmd = 1.4 Flp = 2.0 ka Qlp = 2.0

The lower graph now shows the revised response with these new values.

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* Loudspeaker Enclosure Analysis Program Vrm= 48.3000E-3

* LEAP® EnclosureShop 5.0.0.282 Oct/28/2002 Trm= 0.0000 Delta/°C
* ©1993-2002 LinearX Systems Inc Kxm= 17.2449 H
* Date: Oct 28, 2002 Mon 7:10 am Fxm= 1.2330E3 Hz
* LTD File=D:\LTD_Model\Model_MA10\MA10_TMD.led Dxm= 725.1900E-3
* Electro Mechanical Parameters Exm= 560.9600E-3
Name= Subwoofer-10 Vxm= 68.8100E-3
Note= Example-4 Txm= 0.0000 Delta/°C
Model= LTD Krs= 213.1545 N·S/M
Domain= FreeAir Xrs= 31.3916E-3 M
Shape= Round Drs= 299.1700E-3
Profile= Cone Ers= 981.4300E-3
Fmd= 2.0000 KA Grs= 9.6500
Qmd= 1.4000 Trs= 0.0000 Delta/°C
Flp= 2.0000 KA Kcs= 284.5843E-6 M/N
Qlp= 2.0000 Xcs= 12.6334E-3 M
Znom= 4.0000 Ohm Dcs= 409.8600E-3
Revc= 3.0000 Ohm Ecs= -30.6100E-3
Sd= 35.7000E-3 M² Gcs= 1.0951
Mmd= 70.0000E-3 Kg Tcs= 0.0000 Delta/°C
Pmax= 900.0000 W Rms= 1.3760 N·S/M
Rtvc= 277.7780E-3 °C/W Mms= 73.8700E-3 Kg
Xgap= 9.0000E-3 M Cms= 357.5430E-6 M/N
Xcoil= 28.0000E-3 M Vas= 65.0860 Ltr
Xmax= 9.5000E-3 M Fo= 30.9820 Hz
Xfrg= 4.4410E-3 M Qms= 10.4460
Efrg= 12.2119 Qes= 0.4210
BLo= 10.1315 T·M Qts= 0.4040
Ta= 25.0000 °C BL= 10.1289 T·M
Vs= 2.0000 V Levc= 2.3720E-3 H
Krm= 25.4444 Ohm SPLo= 88.4570 dB
Frm= 4.4646E3 Hz No= 440.5000E-3 %
Drm= 832.9700E-3 * End
Erm= 585.4100E-3

A listing of the final LTD parameters is given above.

Another factor which should be considered is obtaining the voltage and current
data simultaneously. Since there may be voice coil heating and other changes
taking place during the measurement, ideally it is best to measure both voltage
and current at the same time. A dual-channel analyzer is therefore convenient
for this application. However adequate results have also been obtained using
single channel analyzers and multiple sweeps for the voltage and current.

Note: Additional information on transducer models is available in Chapter-4.

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Scale Menu 12

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12.1 Parameters

The Scale | Parameters menu item will open a dialog which controls all of the
horizontal and vertical scales used for the graphs in the program. This dialog allows
you to specify the range and resolution of each scale. The shortcut key F7 or tool
button as shown above on the Scale toolbar can also activate this item.

The Scale Parameters dialog consists of three principal groups of controls: Horizon-
tal Scales and Left Vertical and Right Vertical Scales. A different scale is defined
for each type of curve units. The horizontal group box provides control over the
frequency, time, or angle unit scales. The left vertical group box controls a wide
variety of different types of unit scales. The right vertical is defined for phase data.

Labeling of the scales is by default handled automatically. If you wish to perform

manual labeling, go to the File | Preferences dialog and disable Automatic Labels.

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Horizontal Freq Scale

This is one of the most commonly used scales in the program. You can choose
Linear or Log axis, rectangular or circular (polar) plots, the range, Units, and
the divisions. Nyquist type plots are produced by using the polar selection. For
Log scales, the Min Range value must not be zero.

Linear scales can use any value for the Lo/Hi frequency parameters. However
Log scales will have the Lo/Hi frequency values rounded towards their nearest
major division. This produces Log grids with much better readability. For
example, entering a value of 23k would be adjusted to 20k. You could choose
20k or 30k for the end frequency, but fractional values are not allowed. Using
the Prefix you can produce units of kHz, uHz, MHz etc.

When the scale is Linear the Major Div and Minor Div values will be enabled.
For Log grids only the minor division value is relevant.

A data grid is displayed with three buttons: Make, Clear, Sort. Once you have
selected the type of scale and the Lo/Hi end frequencies, clicking Make will
generate a suitable list of labels for the scale. The generated labels are then
listed in the data grid.

The auto generated labels are placed at major divisions for Linear scales, and
at 1-2-5 locations for Log scales. If you wish to delete the entire label list, click
the Clear button. Single labels can be deleted simply by erasing the text in the
desired entry.

Additional labels can be added using the empty locations further down the list.
Clicking the Sort button will sort the list based on the frequency represented in
the label text.

Note: The labeling controls will be disabled if the Automatic Labels option is
enabled in File | Preferences.

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Horizontal Time Scale

The time scale appears with the Transient tab data. The time scale is always Linear.
The Min and Max parameters define the ends of the scale. In most cases the Min
time is set to zero.

The Major Div and Minor Div values describe the design of the horizontal grid.
Using the Prefix you can produce units of mSec, uSec, nSec etc.

A data grid is displayed along with three buttons: Make, Clear, Sort. Once you have
defined the Min/Max time values, clicking Make will generate a suitable list of
labels for the scale. The generated labels are then listed in the data grid.

The generated labels are placed at the major divisions of the horizontal grid lines.
If you wish to delete the entire label list, click the Clear button. Single labels can
be deleted simply by erasing the text in the desired entry.

Additional labels can be added using the empty locations further down the list.
Clicking the Sort button will sort the list based on the time value represented in the
label text.

Note: The labeling controls will be disabled if the Automatic Labels option is
enabled in File | Preferences.

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Horizontal Angle Scale

The angle scale appears when displaying Polar tab data. The angle scale is
always Linear. The Min and Max parameters define the ends of the scale. These
are fixed at -180 deg and +180 deg.

The Major Div and Minor Div values control the design of the horizontal grid.

There are two different plotting choices: rectangular or circular. The circular
plot is most commonly used for polar plots, but rectangular plots are also used.

A data grid is displayed along with three buttons: Make, Clear, Sort. Once you
have defined the Min/Max time values, clicking Make will generate a suitable
list of labels for the scale. The generated labels are then listed in the data grid.

The generated labels are placed at the major divisions of the horizontal grid
lines. If you wish to delete the entire label list, click the Clear button. Single
labels can be deleted simply by erasing the text in the desired entry.

Additional labels can be added using the empty locations further down the list.
Clicking the Sort button will sort the list based on the time value represented
in the label text.

Note: The labeling controls will be disabled if the Automatic Labels option is
enabled in File | Preferences.

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Vertical Scales
There are seven different unit tabs which mainly follow the various left vertical
units and graph titles. A scale tab is defined for every possible type of vertical data
used within the program. The operation and use of the fields in these tabs are
essentially identical for all of them. For this reason, only the Voltage tab will be
described here as an example. All others are similar.

■ Axis
There are three choices for the type of axis: Linear, Log, and dB. If the Linear or
Log selections are used, the curves will be plotted in units of Volts. If the dB
selection is used, the curves are plotted in dBV or dBm, depending on the dB
Reference chosen.

■ Polarity
If you are using a Linear axis, then you have a choice of either: Bipolar, Positive,
or Negative scale range. A Bipolar scale means that zero is in the center of the scale,
and the range might be +1.0 to -1.0 volts. A Positive scale means that zero is at the
bottom and might contain a range such as +1.0 to 0.0 volts. A Negative scale means
that zero is at the top and might contain a range such as 0.0 to -1.0 volts.

■ Range
The Max and Min values here define the range of the scale. Depending on other
parameters in the tab, one of these parameters may be disabled. If you are using a
Log axis, the Min value cannot be zero or negative.

■ dB
When the dB axis is in use, two parameters here are enabled: dB per Division and
dB Reference. The number of dB per major division controls the resolution of the
scale. The dB reference defines the 0dB value. For volts it is either 1.000 (dBV)
or 0.775 (dBm). Different tab units have different dB reference choices.

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■ Divisions
When the axis is Linear or dB the Major Div and Minor Div values will be
enabled. For Log axis only the minor divisions are relevant.

■ Units
Using the Prefix you can produce units of mVolts, uVolts, nVolts etc. This is
only enabled when either Linear or Log axis is chosen. When a dB axis is in
use, this is disabled. The units field displays the total combined unit label for
the scale.

■ Labels
A data grid is displayed along with three buttons: Make, Clear, Sort. Once you
have defined the other parameter values, clicking Make will generate a suitable
list of labels for the scale. The generated labels are then listed in the data grid.

The generated labels are placed at the major divisions of the vertical grid lines.
If you wish to delete the entire label list, click the Clear button. Single labels
can be deleted simply by erasing the text in the desired entry.

Additional labels can be added using the empty locations further down the list.
Clicking the Sort button will sort the list based on the time value represented
in the label text.

Note: The labeling controls will be disabled if the Automatic Labels option is
enabled in File | Preferences.

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12.2 Auto

The Scale | Auto menu item provides automatic adjustment of the vertical scale in
the graph for the currently displayed units. The shortcut key F8 or the tool button
as shown above on the Scale toolbar can also be used to activate this item. This
feature is heavily utilized.

The Auto scale function analyzes the currently displayed library curves, and
determines the required Max/Min range parameters to display the highest levels of
any curve. This function is commonly used to quickly bring the curves into view.

The Left Vertical scale is always controlled by this function. However control of the
Right Vertical is optional depending on the setting of Auto/Up/Dn Right Vertical
Data in File | Preferences.

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12.3 Up

The Scale | Up menu item will increase the vertical scale range for the currently
displayed scale units. The tool button as shown above on the Scale toolbar can also
be used to activate this item. This feature is heavily utilized.

The Scale Up function instantly increases the display range. For dB scales, the Max
/Min ranges are increased by the value per division. For fixed scales, the range is
increased to the next appropriate increment.

Note: Increasing the scale moves curves down.

The Left Vertical scale is always controlled by this function. However control of the
Right Vertical is optional depending on the setting of Auto/Up/Dn Right Vertical
Data in File | Preferences.

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12.4 Down

The Scale | Down menu item will decrease the vertical scale range for the currently
displayed scale units. The tool button as shown above on the Scale toolbar can also
be used to activate this item. This feature is heavily utilized.

The Scale Down function instantly decreases the display range. For dB scales, the
Max /Min ranges are decreased by the value per division. For fixed scales, the range
is decreased to the next appropriate decrement.

Note: Decreasing the scale moves curves up.

The Left Vertical scale is always controlled by this function. However control of the
Right Vertical is optional depending on the setting of Auto/Up/Dn Right Vertical
Data in File | Preferences.

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View Menu 13

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13.1 Zoom In / Zoom Out

The View | Zoom In / Zoom Out menu items will change the display scale factor
on the currently active graph window. The tool buttons as shown above on the View
toolbar can also be used to activate these items, or the shortcut keys Shift+Add and
Shift+Sub. The shortcut keys Add/Sub are the +/- keys in the numeric keypad.

Each zoom operation increases or decreases the scale factor by 115%. The
maximum zoom level is 800%. The current zoom level is displayed in the Status
Bar, located at the bottom of the window. The center position of the graph will be
maintained during zoom changes.

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13.2 Zoom 1X / 2X / 4X / 8X

The View | Zoom 1X / 2X / 4X / 8X menu items will change the display scale factor
on the currently active graph window. The tool buttons as shown above on the View
toolbar can also be used to activate these items, or the shortcut keys Shift+F1,
Shift+F2, Shift+F4, and Shift+F8.

Each zoom operation forces the scale factor to a preset value of: 100%, 200%,
400%, or 800% respectively. The maximum zoom level is 800%. The current zoom
level is displayed in the Status Bar, located at the bottom of the window.

The center position of the graph will be maintained during zoom changes. However
when the 100% zoom level is selected, the graph alignment will be reset to the upper
left corner of the window.

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13.3 Redraw / Redraw All

The View | Redraw / Redraw All menu items will redraw the active graph window,
or all the graph windows respectively. The tool buttons as shown above on the View
toolbar can also be used to activate this item, or the shortcut key Ctrl+R or
Ctrl+Alt+R .

The Redraw functions are frequently called by other internal functions in the
program. Under normal conditions the graph window is redrawn as required
automatically. However this function can be used to redraw the window manually
if needed.

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Window Menu 14

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14.1 Tile Horizontal

The Window | Tile Horizontal menu item will arrange the

non-minimized graph windows into a horizontally tiled ar-
rangement. The tool button as shown above on the Window
toolbar can also be used to activate this item.

Tile horizontal uses most of the horizontal pixel width for

each graph. Depending on the number of non-minimized
windows, vertical and horizontal tiling may perform simi-
larly.

An example of horizontal tiling is shown on the following page.

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14.2 Tile Vertical

The Window | Tile Vertical menu item will arrange the non-
minimized graph windows into a vertically tiled arrange-
ment. The tool button as shown above on the Window toolbar
can also be used to activate this item.

Tile vertical uses most of the vertical pixel width for each
graph. Depending on the number of non-minimized win-
dows, vertical and horizontal tiling may perform similarly.

An example of vertical tiling is shown on the following page.

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14.3 Cascade All

The Window | Cascade All menu item will arrange the non-
minimized graph windows into an overlapping staircase
arrangement. The tool button as shown above on the Window
toolbar can also be used to activate this item.

Cascading the child windows allows for easy viewing of their

title bars. An example of cascading windows is shown on the
following page.

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14.4 Minimize All

The Window | Minimize All menu item will minimize all of

the graph windows into icons, and arrange them along the
bottom of the main window. The tool button as shown above
on the Window toolbar can also be used to activate this item.

Minimizing all of the child windows can be helpful if you

wish to remove most of the windows from display, and then
normalize only a couple windows.

An example of minimizing the windows is shown on the following page.

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14.5 Normal All

The Window | Normal All menu item will normalize (re-

store) all of the graph windows. The tool button as shown
above on the Window toolbar can also be used to activate this
item.

Normalizing all of the child windows can be helpful if you

wish to restore many previously minimized graph windows.

When the windows are restored, their position may not be

optimal. You will typically need to use one of the tiling or
cascade functions to organize the windows as you desire.

An example of normalizing the windows is shown on the following page.

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14.6 Arrange Icons

The Window | Arrange Icons menu item will neatly arrange

all of the minimized graph window icons along the bottom of
the main window. The tool button as shown above on the
Window toolbar can also be used to activate this item.

This function has no effect if none of the graph windows are

minimized. Several of the other window organization func-
tions perform this operation automatically as well.

An example of arranging the icons of the graph windows is

shown on the following page.

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14.7 Graph Window List

The Window menu contains a listing at the bottom of all the

graph windows. These are MDI (Multiple Document Inter-
face) child windows, and only a single child window can be
active (focused) at any given time.

The active graph window has a check mark placed near the
item. You can change the active window to any other by
selecting one of the other windows in the list.

If the selected window is minimized, it will be highlighted but

not restored to its normal state. This can be done by clicking
on the title bar of the minimized graph window, and selecting
Restore.

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Toolbars Menu 15

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15.1 Show All

The Toolbars | Show All menu item will display all of the toolbars,
and the Toolbox. Toolbars can appear in any of three locations: the
top control bar, the Toolbox, or as single floating windows.

The location of each toolbar will be checked. If the toolbar is outside

the main program window, it will be brought within the bounds of
the program window.

This function along with the Hide All can be used to locate toolbars
which are off the screen, and force them back into view.

An example with all of the toolbars visible is shown on the following page.

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15.2 Hide All

The Toolbars | Hide All menu item will remove all of the toolbars,
and the Toolbox. Toolbars can be removed from any of three
locations: the top control bar, the Toolbox, or as single floating
windows.

When a toolbar is added or removed, the control bar (or tray) will
resize. When all of the toolbars are removed, the control bars will
collapse down to minimal height.

This function along with the Show All can be used to locate toolbars
which are off the screen, and force them back into view.

An example with all of the toolbars removed is shown on the

following page.

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15.3 Menu Toolbars

There are 9 toolbar items listed which correspond to the functions

provided on other menu columns. Each of these items will enable/
disable an associated toolbar. The various toolbars are shown
below.

Toolbars can be positioned at any of three locations: the top control

bar, the Toolbox, or as single floating windows.

When a toolbar is added or removed, the control bar (or tray) will
resize. When all of the toolbars are removed, the control bars will
collapse down to minimal height.

The user may arrange the toolbars in whatever fashion is desired.

Generally only the most heavily used functions have toolbars
enabled for display. Displaying all of the toolbars on small screen
size (800x600) can use up valuable pixels. If you have a large
screen, then more toolbars can probably be displayed without
difficulty.

Toolbars can be arranged in single rows

or multiple rows.

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15.4 Status Bar

The status bar is shown along the bottom of the main window. The bar is sub divided
into a number of different smaller panels. These panels will now be described from
left to right.

Zoom
This panel shows the current zoom level of the main graph in percent.

Abs/Rel
These two buttons are used to switch the tracking cursor between absolute and
relative readout mode. When the cursor is in switched to relative mode, a marker
is dropped at the current position of the cursor. When the cursor is moved, the
readouts display the relative difference between the reference position and the new
position.

Library
The two buttons System and Guide can be used to select the library containing the
curve to be tracked by the cursor. The curve select spin buttons and edit field will
pertain to entries in this library.

Curve Select Spin Button

This panel contains a spin button for changing which library curve the cursor is
tracking. When stepped, it will skip any curve numbers which are not currently
being displayed. You can also change the curve by using the keyboard arrow keys
Up/Dn.

Curve Name
This panel displays the name of the curve that the cursor is tracking. If the cursor
is not on a curve, then N/A will appear.

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Curve Line Sample

This panel contains a sample of the curve line as it is drawn on the graph. This
is the library curve that the cursor is tracking. When curves are drawn in
different colors, it is easy to indentify which curve the cursor is currently
tracking by this sample line segment.

Horizontal Data
This panel displays current horizontal value of the cursor at the present
position. Usually this is frequency.

Vertical Data
This panel displays current vertical value of the cursor at the present position.
Usually could be voltage, dB, SPL, Impedance etc.

Left/Right Vertical Data

These two buttons control which portion of the library curve to track, either the
Left or Right vertical data. Left data is generally magnitude and Right data is
typically phase.

Progress Meter
The next panel contains a progress meter that will show a 0% to 100% display
when an operation is in progress.

System Message
The final large field will display system messages as needed during program
operation.

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15.5 ToolBox

The ToolBox is a floating window which contains a control bar

or tray. This enables multiple toolbars to be dropped into the
control bar and moved as a group.

If the ToolBox contains no toolbars, the size is reduced to a

minimum as shown below. As toolbars are dragged and
dropped onto its control bar, the size is automatically in-
creased.

Using the ToolBox provides a means of creating a floating

toolbar array, rather than the fixed locations provided at the top
and bottom of the screen. There are countless ways that the
toolbars can be arranged in the program.

When the ToolBox is hidden, any toolbars contained within it

remain checked on the menu and the ToolBox is unchecked. If
you cannot find a toolbar, remember to check the ToolBox to
see if it is contained there.

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Help Menu 16

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16.1 Contents

The Help | Contents menu item will open the help system and
display the contents panel. This item can also be activated by
using the F1 shortcut key.

The contents panel provides a table of contents for the help file.
This function is most commonly used when you wish to browse
the help file by different subjects.

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16.2 Index

The Help | Index menu item will open the help system and
display the Index panel.

The index panel provides a listing of the topics which have

been indexed in the help file. This function is most com-
monly used when you wish to search for key words. The
Find panel can also be used for this purpose.

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16.3 Glossary

The Help | Glossary menu item will open the help system
and display the glossary selection buttons. The glossary is
an alphabetical listing of definitions for many of the terms
used throughout the program.

Clicking on a letter button will open a popup window with

a list of words beginning with that letter. Select one of the
words and another popup window will be displayed with
the definition.

The Glossary can also be accessed by clicking the Glos-

sary button in the toolbar.

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16.4 About Modules

The Help | About Modules menu item will display a dialog

which lists the binary modules used in the program. These
include the main EXE and any other special DLLs called
by the program.

This listing allows you to examine the date codes and

version numbers of each module. This can be important for
future upgrades and diagnostic troubleshooting.

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16.5 About Program

The Help | About Program menu item will display a dialog

which gives a wide array of different information. This
includes the user name and serial number, hardware system,
operating system, and program version.

A URL is also provided which will launch your web browser

and take you to the manufacturer's web site.

An Email address is also provided which will launch your

Email application and begin a message to our technical
support department.

The last function generates a text file which contains all of

the information which might be involved with technical
support issues. The file SYSCONFIG.TXT is written to the
program directory. This file may be requested when provid-
ing assistance. It can be attached to an Email or faxed.

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Appendix

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Appendix A: SI Units

Floating point numbers can be entered in any of three forms: real number format,
scientific format, or engineering format. Examples of each are:

2400.75 (real)
2.40075E3 or 2.40075D3 (scientific)
2.40075K (engineering)

A floating point number must not contain spaces. Therefore do not place spaces
between suffixes and other digits. Note that the scientific format supports the use
of either the E or D character to separate the exponent. Lowercase is also supported.

The engineering format is used entirely throughout the program for numeric
display. These are single character multiplier suffixes which appear at the end of
a floating point value.

Note that in virtually all of the suffix chars the following convention is used: upper
case is used for multipliers greater than unity, and lower case is used for multipliers
smaller than unity. The only exception is the kilo suffix where both cases are
supported (K or k). The entire list of SI multipliers is shown below.

Use of the exa suffix E can lead to

SI Multipliers
confusion since the standard scien-
Name Value Suffix Name Value Suffix tific notation uses the letter E as
well, e.g. 1.234E+5. The program
kilo 10+3 K,k milli 10-3 m
assumes that if the E character is
mega 10 +6
M micro 10 -6
u the last character in the number, it
is treated as the exa multiplier 10+18.
giga 10+9 G nano 10-9 n
If additional numeric values fol-
tera 10 +12
T pico 10 -12
p low E then it is treated as scientific
format.
peta 10+15 P femto 10-15 f
+18 -18
exa 10 E atto 10 a

zeta 10+21 Z zepto 10-21 z

+24 -24
yotta 10 Y yocto 10 y

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Appendix B: Standard Speaker Dimensions

The following are typical piston areas in square meters and radiation mass (air load)
values in grams, for standard size speakers of nominal English diameters.

Nominal Size Sd Mmr (FreeAir) Mmr (InfBaf)

24 Inch (610 mm) 0.2200 M2 59.3 grams 118.6 grams

18 Inch (460 mm) 0.1300 M2 27.0 grams 54.0 grams
15 Inch (380 mm) 0.0890 M2 15.3 grams 30.6 grams
12 Inch (300 mm) 0.0530 M2 7.0 grams 14.0 grams
10 Inch (250 mm) 0.0330 M2 3.5 grams 7.0 grams
8 Inch (200 mm) 0.0220 M2 1.9 grams 3.8 grams
6½ Inch (170 mm) 0.0165 M2 1.2 grams 2.4 grams
6 Inch (150 mm) 0.0125 M2 0.8 grams 1.6 grams
5¼ Inch (140 mm) 0.0089 M2 0.5 grams 1.0 grams
4½ Inch (110 mm) 0.0055 M2 0.2 grams 0.5 grams
3 Inch (80 mm) 0.0038 M2 0.1 grams 0.2 grams

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Appendix C: References

The subject of acoustics is very diverse with many specializations. Hundreds of

books have been written on the subject. It is far beyond the scope of this program
to provide background information, applications, and theory on all of the different
areas covered in this software. If you wish additional theoretical or application
information regarding acoustics, electroacoustics, or loudspeakers, please consult
one or more of the excellent books available in this field.

The following pages contain a small sample of some of the books which may be
helpful. Since acoustics is a somewhat difficult technical subject, a diverse
sampling is provided with scope ranging from novice to advanced. It should be
noted that technical books do not remain in print forever. Many of the books listed
may indeed be out-of-print.

However, it is often the case that many of these books may still be found in various
technical bookstores around the world and in many university libraries. In other
cases, similar books may be currently offered which are in-print.

■ Technical Book Stores

If you live in a large city you may have a technical bookstore in your area. If not,
there are many sources now available on the Internet where these types of books can
easily be found. The following sources may be helpful:

Amazon.com
P.O. Box 80185
Seattle, WA 98108-0185 USA (also England, Germany, etc.)
Internet: www.amazon.com

Powell's Technical Bookstore

40 NW 10th Avenue
Portland, OR 97209 USA
Tel: 503-228-3906, Internet: www.powells.com

Brian’s Books
P.O. Box 10026, 120 Jersey Ave. Suite #301
New Brunswick, NJ 08906-0026 USA
Tel: 732-249-6492, Internet: www.briansbooks.com

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■ Applications

Martin Colloms, High Performance Loudspeakers

John Wiley & Sons., ISBN: 0-470-99363-4, 1982

K. Blair Benson, Audio Engineering Handbook

MIX Magazine Bookshelf, 6400 Hollis Street #12, Emerville, CA

Glen M. Ballou, Handbook for Sound Engineers

Butterworth-Heinemann; ISBN: 0240804546, 2001

Don Davis & Carolyn Davis, Sound System Engineering

Focal Press; ISBN: 0-24-080305-1, 1997

Alex Badmaieff/Don Davis, How to Build Speaker Enclosures

Old Colony Sound Lab, Post Office Box 243, Peterbough, NH 03458

V. Dickason, The Loudspeaker Design Cookbook

Old Colony Sound Lab, Post Office Box 243, Peterborough, NH 03458

John Borwick, Loudspeaker and Headphone Handbook

Old Colony Sound Lab, Post Office Box 243, Peterborough, NH 03458

Speaker Builder Magazine, Audio Amateur Loudspeaker Projects

Old Colony Sound Lab, Post Office Box 243, Peterborough, NH 03458

F. Alton Everest, Master Handbook of Acoustics

McGraw-Hill/TAB Electronics, ISBN: 0071360972, 2000

Joe D'Appolito, Testing Loudspeakers

Audio Amateur Pub, ISBN: 1882580176, 1998

Ray Alden, Advanced Speaker Designs for the Hobbyist & Technician
Delmar Learning, ISBN: 0790610701, 1996

Mark Rumreich, The Car Stereo Cookbook

McGraw-Hill/TAB, ISBN: 0070580839, 1998

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■ Theory

J.W.S. Rayleigh, The Theory of Sound, Vol-1 Vol-2

Dover Publications, NY, 1945

Harry F. Olson, Dynamical Analogies

D. Van Nostrand Company, Princeton, NJ 1943

Harry F. Olson, Elements of Acoustical Engineering

D. Van Nostrand Company, Princeton, NJ 1947

Harry F. Olsen, Acoustical Engineering

D. Van Nostrand Co., Princeton, NJ 1957

L. Beranek, Acoustics
McGraw-Hill, London, England, 1954

Josef Merhaut, Theory of Electroacoustics

McGraw-Hill, New York, NY, ISBN: 0-07-041478-5, 1981

L. Kinsler, Fundamentals of Acoustic

John Wiley & Sons., ISBN: 0-471-02933-5, 1982

Frederick V. Hunt, Electroacoustics

Acoustical Society of Amer. Publications, ISBN: 088318401X, 1982

Raymond E. Cooke, Loudspeakers Vol-1 & Vol-2 Anthology

Audio Engineering Society, New York, NY 1984

Philip M. Morse & K.U. Ingard, Theoretical Acoustics

Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ ISBN: 0-691-08425-4, 1986

Earl G. Williams, Fourier Acoustics

Academic Press, San Diego, CA ISBN: 0-12-753960-3, 1999

Mario Rossi & Patrick Rupert Windsor Roe, Acoustics and Electroacoustics
Artech House, ASIN: 0890062552, 1999

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Heinrich Kuttruff, Room Acoustics

E & F N Spon, ISBN: 0419245804, 2000

David T. Blackstock, Fundamentals of Physical Acoustics

Wiley-Interscience, ISBN: 0471319791, 2000

■ Reference

Frank Bowman, Introduction to Bessel Functions

Dover Publications, New York, NY, ISBN: 0-486-60462-4, 1958

Milton Abramowitz & Irene A. Stegun, Handbook of Mathematical Functions

Dover Publications, New York, NY, ISBN: 0-486-61272-4, 1965

Samuel M. Selby, CRC Standard Mathematical Tables

CRC Press, Cleveland, OH, ISBN: 0-87819-623-4, 1973

D. Fink & D. Christiansen, Electronic Engineers Handbook

McGraw-Hill, New York, NY ISBN: 0-07-020982-0, 1989

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 Appendix

Appendix D: Key Not Found - Troubleshooting

Multi-Mode-Key (MMK) Troubleshooting

If you have received this error message when attempting to
start the program, then the program was not able to access the
authorization key. Please make sure the key is attached to an
LPT port.

If the key is attached to an LPT port, then some other problem

is preventing the program from accessing the key.

Problem Identification
While the robust MMK design has provided exceedingly good compatibility proven
over many years of use, problems with key access on an LPT port can never be
completely eliminated. This can be caused by a wide range of circumstances be-
yond our control. However in almost all cases these issues can be resolved easily
once the cause of the problem is identified.

The modern personal computer environment is very diverse with unlimited op-
tions and configurations, dependent on the operating system, computer, drivers,
external devices, and the user's own configuration and setup. It is especially im-
portant to be aware of any devices or drivers which may also be attempting to and/
or do utilize the LPT port.

The most common problem associated with a hardware lock is the display of an
application message: Key Not Found. The obvious problem is of course that the
key is attached to the computer. The possible reasons behind the application's lack
of ability to reach and properly communicate with the key is the subject of the
following sections. Unfortunately, there is no single quick and easy answer that
will fit all situations. The different possibilities must be explored individually.

The following sections provide a catalog of causes which have occurred in the
past. Some of the items may not apply to your operating system, configuration, or
product. If specific notes are made regarding operating systems or products, then
that section only applies to the restrictions cited. If no restrictions are given, then
the section potentially applies in all circumstances. Please read or ignore the sec-
tions which do or do not apply to your individual situation.

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Printer Drivers and operating modes

Some printer drivers may support multiple modes of operation such as bidi-
rectional, IEEE-1284, Polling, etc. It is possible that certain modes may cause
a problem. You may wish to visit the Printers/Properties dialog in the Control
Panel and try changing the configuration. Another method is to temporarily
reassign the printer to the port FILE which will remove it's activity from the
LPT port.

Printer Ports not Numbered in Sequence

Make sure that the LPT ports are given symbolic names in sequence without
gaps. For example, if you have two LPT ports they should be LPT1 and LPT2.
Port names such as LPT1, LPT3 will cause problems. You can change the
names in some OS's in the Control Panel / Device Manager.

LPT port may not have sufficient TTL Pull-Up current

The MMK derives it's power from the parallel port lines when they transition
to +5V. However some computers, often laptops, they have greatly reduced
pull-up current and fail to provide enough voltage to operate the key reliably.
Power saving modes can also cause this behavior. In these cases it may be
necessary to connect a printer through the key to the LPT port. Printers or
other port devices provide additional pull-up current from their LPT inputs.

Another driver has taken over the port.

Not all LPT devices are designed to share the port as a bus, but rather treat it
as their own dedicated connection. Some scanner drivers have been known to
poll their device continuously once every second, even when not in active use.
This causes corrupted data traffic for key access. If you have such a device
operating on the LPT port, try a test and disable that driver. If the other driver
is demanding full time use of the port, then you may have no choice but to
add another port to your computer.

LPT port set for ECP mode in CMOS

The MMK will operate in any of the Standard, EPP, or ECP parallel port modes.
However many other drivers do not handle ECP mode correctly. This can
leave the port in a state unusable by the MMK. If you are using ECP mode,
you may wish to try setting the port to EPP or Standard. These modes are
typically changed in the CMOS configuration of the computer.

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Key Fails first try, then works on later trys

Typically there are two possible causes for this: (1) the MMK is not receiving enough
pull-up current on the LPT lines, (2) some other device is leaving junk data in the
LPT buffer. Try connecting a printer to the port. That will provide extra pull-up
current. Also, keep in mind that when you have failed port activity from some other
device, there is the potential for junk bytes to be left in the LPT buffer. That may
cause the next access to fail, but should be clear after that.

ERROR-6021..Key Found but has invalid PIN Check

If you receive this error every time you access the key, you should try the key on
another computer. If the same error is reported there, then the internal data of the
key has been corrupted. Contact the factory for repair procedures. This corruption
can sometimes be caused by launching the program while printing a document to
the LPT port. Launching the program opens the key, and then the simultaneous
printer traffic causes corruption. Under Win9X exclusive LPT access cannot be
secured, and thus this can be the result. Please avoid launching the program with
other LPT port traffic.

Verifying the 32-Bit NT Driver is loaded and running

To verify that the 32-bit kernel driver is loaded and running, go to the Start Menu,
select Run, and type in RegEdt32. Locate the following key:
HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\SYSTEM\CurrentControlSet\Services\MMK_NTD. If
you do not find the MMK_NTD registry key, then reinstall the software. The key
will have a PortCount value, and is the number of LPT ports found indicating the
driver is loaded and running. For each port there will be a pair of values such as
PortBase0/PortSpan0, PortBase1/PortSpan1, etc. depending on the number of ports.
If your entries are similar than the driver is operating normally.

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552 EnclosureShop
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 Index

Index
Symbols alignment families 419
Alignments 418
2D drawing 259 alignments 417
2D shell 284 Alignments for Low Qts 420
3D CAD 259 Analysis Parameters 267
3D editor 235 analysis time 163
3D enclosure 263 analytic data 321
3D entities 238 analyze the diffraction 271
3D Layout Editor 139 Anti Aliasing 252
3D manipulation 247 Application Manual 7
3D Studio 257 arbitrary data 325
3D video driver and hardware 251 Area Parameters 230
3D visualization 237 arithmetic operations 345
3DS 257 Arrange Icons 511
ASCII columns 381
A asymptotic slope 348
About Box 1iv, 5 asymptotic slopes 361
About Modules 535 Authorization Key 4, 5
About Program 537 Authorization Key Installation 5
Absolute 13 Auto Backup Design Files 193
Acceleration 136 Auto Check 216
Acceleration Response 35 Auto Color Set 324
Acoustic Current 53 AutoCAD 257
acoustic network 271 Automatic Labels 479
Acoustic Network Analysis 51 Automatic Tail Correction 348
acoustic parallel 135 Axial & Power Response 58
Acoustic Power & Efficiency 58 Axis 483
Acoustic Pressure & Directivity 55
B
Acoustic series 232
acoustical and electrical configuration 131 Background color 319
Adobe (ATM) 24 backgrounds 194
Adobe (ATM) fonts 24 BAK 193
Adobe Illustrator 387 Beam Width 39
AI 387 benchmark environment 275
air load 440 Bessel 420, 427
air vent 135 Binary Math Operations 345
algorithms 20 BL 95, 221

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BL product 45 compound 232, 243

blinking rate 192 Compression 386
BLo 99 Cone 77
Blocked Impedance 68 configuration data 185
blueprint 260 consecutive frequencies 415
BMP 386 constant current source CCS 447
Book Stores 545 constant voltage source CVS 447
books 545 control bar 519
border 319 Control Bar Texture 194
boundaries 245 Control Bars 11
boundary reflections 139 convergence 165
Butterworth 419, 420 conversion efficiency 221
Coord Snap 257
C Copy as Binary 211
CAD 257 Copy as Text 211
Calculate 271 corner of a room 240
camera position 237 crosshair 413
Capture Dialog 400 cubic 329, 377
Cascade All 505 cursor 13
CCS 447 Cursor Style 192
centroid 243 Curve Averaging 363
Chamber Leakage 270 Curve Capture 397
Chamber Section 227 Curve Editor 403
Chambers 124, 129 Curve Editor Screen 404
Chebyshev 419, 420 Curve Line Sample 524
Check Params 216 Curve Realign 329
child windows 505 Curve Select Spin Button 523
Clipboard 209, 391 Curved surfaces 260
Clipboard Viewer 392 Custom Colors 22
cluster 135 Custom Enclosure 312
cluster of ports 228 Custom Multipass Enclosure 125, 308
Cms 89, 220 custom structures 124
CMY 22 CVS 447
Color Format 386 Cyan-Magenta-Yellow 22
Color Match 400
Color Select Dialog 21
Color Space 23
company name and personal name 331

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D discontinuities 166
display scale factor 495
Data Realign 377 distill vector curve data 397
data realignment 378 division lines 319
Data Splice 375 DLLs 535
Data Transfer 373 docked 11
dB per Division 483 Documentation 18
dB Reference 483 Documenting 29
DC coil resistance 103 Domain Space 139
Dcs 219 Domain Volume 159
Default Enclosure Layout 249 Dome 77
Default Spkr/Port Layout 249 Double Bandpass Enclosure 304
Delay Offset 338 double clicks 15
Delay Phase Transform 353 DPI 387
delta impedance measurement 441 drag or pan 17
Dependent Parameters 220 Drag Scrolling 412
Design Documentation 18 Drm 218
Design File Data 193 drone 138
Design Parameters 29 drone passive radiator 135
Dfill 227 drone radiator 228
DGL 181, 184 Drs 219
Diaphragm Breakup 81 dual-channel analyzer 476
Diaphragm Mass Reduction 81 DXF 257
diaphragm shape 75 Dxm 218
Diaphragm Structure 75 Dynamic Analogies 45
Diaphragm Suspension 89
Diffraction 161 E
diffraction analysis 162
diffraction engine 123 EBS 421
diffraction methodology 162 EBS Alignment 421
Diffraction Order 270 ECL 181
diffraction order 164 ECP 550
diffraction permutations 162 Ecs 220
Diffraction Resolution 270 Editing Fields 212
diffraction wave 161 Editing Objects 247
directional characteristics 75 Editing the Structure 309
Directivity 49, 56 Editing Transducer Names 203
Directivity Index 39 Editor 190
Disadvantages of QB3 420 Editor Path 192

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Efficiency 60 Export Graphics to File 385

efficiency of coupling 49 Extended Bass Shelf 421
Efrg 99 Extended Bass Shelf Alignment 421
Eg 53 Extended Colors 22
Eighth Space 139, 154 extended pole 97
Electrical Impedance 54 external shape and dimensions 126
electrical system 45
electroacoustic system analysis 123 F
electrodynamic transducers 43 faces 242
electromechanical 437 faceted sides 260
Email 1iv, 537 Fast Fourier Transform 357
EMF 385 Fax 1iv
EncapPostScript 387 ferrofluid 105
enclosure design solutions. 417 FFT solutions 271
enclosure edges 163 FFT type analyzer 446
enclosure faces 163 fiberglass batting 227
enclosure modeling 123 fibrous material 227
Enclosure Parameters 223 File | Editor 190
enclosure shell 260 File | Exit 195
engine vise 449 File | Import Target Data 181, 184
engineering 541 File | New 175
engineering format 20 File | Open 176
engineering notation 19 File | Open Graph Setup 185
Enhanced Metafile 387 File | Preferences 192
Entering Numerical Values 20 File | Print 187
EPS 385 File | Reopen 177
Erm 65, 218 File | Revert 180
Ers 219 File | Save Graph Setup 186
excursion 91 File | SaveAs 178, 179
Excursion Response 33 Flat 77
EXE 535 Flat Baffle Enclosure 284
Exit 195 floating point 19
Exm 65, 218 floating window 11, 525
Expand Face 249 floating windows 519
Exponentiation 335, 339 floor 239
Export Curve Data File 383 Flp 85
Export Enclosure Object 263 flux 95
Export Graphics to Clip- flux leakage 96
board 391, 393, 395 Fmd 82

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Fo 220 Grid Parameters 319

font 25 Grid Table 322
Font Select Dialog 24 Ground Plane 144
format, engineering 541 Group Delay 30
format, scientific 541 group delay 347
Fp 135 Group Delay Transform 351
Frame Parameters 319 Grs 219
Free Air 282 Guide Curves 325
frequency axis 31 guidelines 403
frequency domain 359
frequency, magnitude, and phase 382 H
Frequency Section 268 Half Space 139, 144
Frequency Translation 335, 341 half space 56
Frm 218 halftones 188
FSG 186 Heating of the voice coil 463
Full Space 139, 141 Help 7
full space 56 Help | About Modules 535
Fxm 218 Help | About Program 537
G Help | Contents 529
Help | Glossary 533
gap 95 Help | Index 531
gated measurements 375 hexagon 75
Gcs 220 Highpass Filter Approximation 61
Generator 267 Highpass filter shape 55
geometry 49 Hlp 88
GIF 387 Hmd 82
global characteristics 192 Horizontal Angle Scale 482
GPIB 89 horizontal data points 329, 377
Graph | Guide Curves 325 Horizontal Frequency Scale 480
Graph | Notes & Comments 331 Horizontal, Left Vertical, and Right Vertical
Graph | Parameters 319 Data 382
Graph Control Bar 12 Horizontal Scales 479
Graph Select Toolbar 193 horizontal scrolling 17
Graph Window List 513 Horizontal Time Scale 481
graph windows 507 Horz Angle 269
graphical editing 403 Hot Spots 15
graphics applications 385 HSV 22
Graphics dimensions 319 Hue-Saturation-Value 22

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I L
icons 507 Labeling of the scales 479
idealistic approximations 417 Labels 484
identification information 331 landscape 187
IEC Baffle 278 Layout Editor 141
IEC baffle 449 Layout Parameters 235
IEEE-1284 550 LEAP Transducer Data 199
Imag (sin) 344 LEAP-4 183
Impedance Measurement Data 446 LEAP-4 TSL Model 70
Impedance Measurement Fixtures 449 LEAP-5 LTD Model 70
Impedance Measurement Methods 447 LEAP_ED.INI 195
Import Curve Data File 381 LEAP4 DGL 181, 184
Import Enclosure Object 257 LED 176
Import Target Data 181, 184 Left vertical 373
Impulse Response 37 Lem 65
Impulse response 358 length of wire 95
Infinite Baffle 139, 276 Les 68
Infinite Tube 280 Levc 64, 221
infinite wedge 162 library editing 199
internal structure 242 library files 199
Internet 1iv library folders 199
interpolation 329, 377 line attributes 322, 326
Inverse Fast Fourier Transform 359 linear 329, 377
inverted 339 linear frequency resolution 358
isobaric 232 Linear scales 480
Linear Velocity 136
J LL/UR reference coordinates 400
JPG 386 LMS 446
log 329, 377
K Log axis 480
Lowpass Filtering 81, 85
ka 46 LPT port 5
Kcs 219 LTD 43
Key Not Found 549 LTD File 202
Krm 65 LTD Model 215
Krs 219
Kxm 65, 218

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M modeling techniques 123

Models & Alignments 420
M-S-P column 203 Models & Structures 124
Mad 51 Motor Impedance 63
Magnetic Gap 95 Motor Impedance Parameters 218
magnetic gap 95 Move Source 251
magnification 189 Moving 247
magnitude 322 Moving & Rotating 247
Magnitude Offset 335, 336 Moving / Copying Transducer 203
Magnitude Response 29 Multi-Mode-Key 549
Major Div 319, 480 multi-port 229
Map region 40 multi-ports 125
Mar 51 multi-speakers 125
Mas 52 Multipass Enclosure 308
Math/Model 271 multipliers 19
mathematical operations 335 multipliers, SI 541
maximum displacement 95 multisided enclosure 260
Maya 257
MDI (Multiple Document Interface) 513 N
MDI application 12
measured parameters 471 near field 132
mechanical system 45 near field measurements 375
memory usage 163 Near Field Pressure 136
Menu Toolbars 521 net volume 225
mesh 258 new design 175
Minimize All 507 Node Editing 413
Minimum Phase Transform 347 nodes 403
Minimum System Requirements 3 nondirectional 49
Minor Div 319, 480 Normal All 509
Mirroring 348 note lines 331
MKS 44 Note region 40
Mmd 82 NOTEPAD.EXE 190, 192
Mmdo 82 Notes & Comments 331
MMK 549 number, real format 541
Mms 220 Numeric Entry & Formats 19
model impedance 443 numeric values 19
Model Optimizer 472 Numerical Precision 20
Model Performance & Comparison 105 Nvidia 252
Model, Shape, and Profile 203 Nyquist 480

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O Polar Convertor 367

polar curve points 269
OBJ 257 polar curves 39, 269
OBJ File Format 261 polar plots 482
off-axis radiation 161 polar points 163
omnidirectional 297 Polar Response 39
on-line help 1iv Polar response 278
open back style 284 Polar Section 269
Open Graph Setup 185 Polarity 483
OpenGL 3, 251 Polyester materials 227
Operating Condition Parameters 221 polygon representation 244
operating point 215 polygons 242
Optimum Qts 419 Popup Menus 15
Optional Section 270 Port Nonlinear 270
Port Parameters 229
P Port Resonance 270
Paf 56 Port Section 228
Pag 52 Portable Document Format 387
PaPwr 57 Ported Bandpass Enclosure 300
parallel printer port 5 Ported Highpass Enclosure 292
path delay 269 portrait 187
PCX 386 Ports 124
PDF 387 PostScript 385
perspective 237 Power Compression 103
phase 322 power density 44
Phase Distance 269 Power Response 56
Phase Offset 337, 338 Preferences 192
Phase Offset, 335 Prefix 484
Phase Transform 347 Primary Simulation Target 241
PIN Check 551 Primary Target Object 252
piston areas 543 Print 187
pixel ratio 398 Printer Configuration 188
plane 139 printer driver 189
plotter 24 printer/port selection 189
Pmax 217 printing control 187
PNG 386 profile of the diaphragm 75
point, Floating numbers 541 program window 517
Point Source 49
Polar Conversion 369

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 Index

Q reference pressure 44
References 543, 545, 549
QB3 420, 421 References & Standards 44
Qes 221 reflection 161
Qlp 85 reflections 155
Qmd 82 registration 4
Qms 221 registration number 5
Qts 221 Relative 13
quadratic 329, 377 Relative Cursor 193
Quarter Space 139, 151 Rem 65
Quasi-3rd Order Butterworth 420 ResDeg 244
Question 408 resolution frequency 164
Quick Design 417 resolution of a curve 329, 377
Quick View Scale from Data 193 resonance hump 54
Quick View Window 16 Revc 45, 62
QuickView graph 193 Reverse Speaker 427
Reverse Winding 257
R Reversing Transducers & Ports 311
radiation elements 53 Revert 180
Radiation Impedance 46 RGB 22
radiation patterns 156 Ribbon tweeters 75
radiation side 239 right mouse button 15
Range 483 Right vertical 373
Rar 51 rigid circular source 55
Raster 385 Rms 89, 220
raster formats 387 Rmvc 45
Raster Images 386 Rotating 247
Ratio Response 40 Rtvc 217
Ravc 45, 51 ruler 406
real 541
Real (cos) 344
real number 19
real number format 20
Recommended System Requirements 3
record keeping 331
rectangular or circular plots 480
Red-Green-Blue 22
Redraw 497
Reference Enclosure 275

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S Significance of Qts 419

Simple Model 70
Save Graph Setup 186 simulation point 241
Scalar AVE 364 Simulation Polar Paths 241
Scalar RMS 364 simulations 437
Scale | Auto 485 Skip First Column 382
Scale | Down 489 small source arrays 76
Scale | Parameters 479 Smooth Curve 335, 340
Scale | Up 487 snap 403
scale factor 187 Software Installation 4
Scaling 189 Sp 229
Scan Direction 399 spider 89
scanner 397 SPL Distance 269
Scene Objects 238 SPL-Z 373
scientific 541 Splash Screen 193
scientific format 20 SPLo 221
scrolled 17 square 75, 339
Scrolling & Panning 17 square root 339
Sd 217 Standard Colors 22
Sealed Bandpass Enclosure 296 standard models 124
Sealed Highpass Enclosure 288 Standard Speaker Dimensions 543
Sealed/Vented highpass enclosures 417 Standard STD Model 70
selected printer 188 standing waves 227
Selecting Objects 245 Start Menu 6
self resonance 450 Status Bar 523
sensitivity 221 STD 43
Serial Number 4 STD Model 213
serial number 5, 537 step function 165
series 131 Step Response 38
setup file 186 Step response 360
shadow region 164 structure 308
Shell 124, 126 Subscripts 45
Shell Section 224 Subwoofer 470
Show All 517 surround 89
Show Small Sources 252 Suspension Parameters 219
Show Source Axis 252 Swept sinewave 446
SI multipliers 19 symmetrical pole 98
SI suffixes 19 SYSCONFIG.TXT 1iv, 537
sides of the polygons 242 System Curve entries 322

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System Curves 321 transducer modeling 43

System Curves & Naming Conven- transducer models 437
tions 323 Transducer Parameters 199, 216
System Requirements 3 Transducer Section 232
Transducers 124, 131
T Transfer Function 268
Ta 221 Transient Response 38
Tail Correction 361 transparent 242
Target Align 14 tray 519, 525
Tcs 220 trays 11
Technical Book Stores 545 triangular 75
Technical Support 1iv Trm 218
Tel 1iv Troubleshooting 549
Temperature & Power Compression 103 Trs 219
temperature variations 471 TrueType 24, 389
terminate 195 TSL 43, 181
Tessellation 258 TSL Model 214
text file data 381 Txm 218
Text Parameters 320 TypeColor 25
theory 545 TypeFace 25
TIF 386 TypeSize 25
Tile Horizontal 501 TypeStyle 25
Tile Vertical 503 U
time domain 359
Title Block Data 331 Uas 52
Tool Bars 11 Unary Math Operations 335
Tool Buttons 11 under damped 419
Toolbars 517 underhung 439
ToolBox 11, 525 Underline 319
Toolbox 517, 519 Units 382
top plate 96 Units, SI 541
Tracking Cursor 13 Untitled 175
tracking cursor 192 URL 537
transducer editing 199 USB 5
Transducer Editing Mode 209
Transducer Graph Display 206
transducer library files 199
Transducer Measurements 438
Transducer Model Derivation 437

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Index

V W
Vab 441 wall thickness 225
Vas 220 walls 245
vector and raster image formats 385 Web 1iv
Vector AVE 364 wedge 161
vector fonts 24 Win95 4
Vector Images 387 Window List 513
Vector RMS 364 Windows colors 22
Velocity Response 34 Windows Metafile 387
Vert Angle 269 wireframe 242
Vertex coordinates 261 WMF 385
vertical data arrays 373
Vertical Scales 479, 483 X
vertical scrolling 17 Xcoil 99
Vfill 227 Xcs 219
VI-Box 448 Xfrg 99
video driver and hardware 251 Xgap 99
video resolution 3 Xmax 95, 217
voice coil resistance 65 Xrs 219
Voltage Curve 441
Volume Parameters 225 Z
Volume Response 36
Volume Velocity 136 Zas 52
volume velocity 134 Znom 217
Vrm 218 Zoom 1X / 2X / 4X / 8X 495
Vs 221 Zoom In / Zoom Out 493
Vxm 218 zoom level 493

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