GERS

Prestacin de los servicios de Diseo y estudios asociados a sistemas elctricos Certificado No. 637-1

Generator Protection Setting Criteria

Juan M. Gers

Content

Concepts and protective relaying evolution Functions required in the protection of generators Types of Generator Grounding Schemes for generator protection Setting criteria of generator protection Examples Handling of alarms and oscillographs

Preliminary
Faults in power systems occur due to a high number of reasons such us: Lightning Aging of insulation Equipment failure Animal presence Rough environmental conditions Branch fall Improper design, maintenance or operation

The occurrence of faults is not the responsibility of poor protection systems. Protective devices are essential in Power Systems to detect fault conditions, clear them and restore the healthy portion of the systems.

Preliminary
Protection relays sense any change in the signal which they are receiving, which could be of electrical or mechanical nature. Typical electrical protection relays include those that monitor parameters such as voltage, current, impedance, frequency, power, power direction or a ratio of any of the above. Typical mechanical protection relays include those that monitor parameters such as speed, temperature, pressure and flow among others.

Teaching Protection Courses

Teaching Protection Courses

Protection requirements
Reliability: ability to operate correctly. It has two components: Dependability Security Speed: Minimum operating time clear a fault Selectivity: maintaining continuity of supply Cost: maximum protection at the lowest cost possible

Classification of relays by construction type

Electromagnetic Solid state Microprocessor Numerical Non-electric (thermal, pressure, etc.,)

Electromagnetic

Torque

Solid State

Averaged Ref

Hysteresis
Ref Hysteresis

Microprocessor

Averaged
A/D

Numeric

Direct Samples
A/D

Advantages of numerical relays

Reliability Multifunctionality Self-diagnosis Event and disturbance records Communication capabilities Adaptive protection

Architecture of numerical relays

Microprocessor Memory module Input module Output module Communication module

Numerical relays

Sampled Waveform
8 6 4 1

Current

-2 -4 -6 -8

6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22

Sine Wave 4 samples/cycle

Sample

DFT

I(n) = 2 DFT N
N= n= k=

[ (cos(nk 2 ))I N k=0 k

N-1

2 jI k (sin( nk ))] N

# samples/cycle fundamental desired harmonic sample index

DFT
2 2 )=1 and sin (Nk ) = 0 N N 2 2 nk ) =0 and sin ( nk ) = 1 For k = 1 , n=1 cos( N N 2 2 For k = 2 , n=1 cos( nk ) = -1 and sin ( nk )= 0 N N 2 2 nk ) =0 and sin (nk ) = -1 For k = 3 , n=1 cos( N N For k = 0 , n=1 cos( nk

IDFT =

2 (I -jI -I +jI ) N 0 1 2 3

ANSI/IEEE device identification

No. 2 21 24 25 27 27TN 30 32 37 40 46 47 49 50 50DT 50/27 50BF 51 52 59 59D DESCRIPTION Time-delay relay Distance relay Overexcitation / Volts per Hertz Synchronism-check relay Undervoltage relay Third-Harmonic Undervoltage relay Annunciator device Reverse power relay Undercurrent or underpower relay Field excitation relay Negative sequence overcurrent relay Negative sequence overvoltage relay Thermal relay Instantaneous AC overcurrent relay Split Phase Differential Inadvertent Energizing Breaker Failure AC Inverse Time Overcurrent relay Circuit breaker Overvoltage relay Third-Harmonic Voltage Differential Ratio
No. 60 63 64F 64B 64S 67 68 69 74 76 78 79 81 81R 83 85 86 87 94 DESCRIPTION Voltage balance or loss of potential relay Pressure device Field Ground relay Brush Lift-Off Detection 100% Stator Ground Protection by Low Frequency Injection AC directional overcurrent relay Power Swing Blocking Permissive relay Alarm relay DC overcurrent relay Out-of-step relay AC reclosing relay Frequency relay Rate of Change Frequency relay Transfer device Carrier or pilot-wire relay Lock out relay Differential relay Auxiliary tripping relay

Review of Grounding Techniques

Why Ground?

Safety Ability to detect less harmful (hopefully) phase-to-ground fault before phase-to-phase fault occurs Limit damage from ground faults Stop transient overvoltages Provide ground source for other system protection (other zones)

Types of Generator Grounds

No Impedance
Cheap Usually done only on small generators Definitely a good ground source Generator likely to get damaged on internal ground fault

System

Types of Generator Grounds

Low Impedance
Can get expensive as resistor size increases Usually a good ground source Generator still likely to be damaged on internal ground fault Ground fault current typically 200-400 A

System

Types of Generator Grounds

High Impedance
Moderately expensive Used when generators are unit connected System ground source obtained from unit xfmr Generator damage minimized or mitigated from ground fault Ground fault current typically <=10A

Types of Generator Grounds

Hybrid Impedance
Combines advantages of Low Z and High Z ground Low Z ground provides ground source for normal conditions If an internal ground fault (in the generator) is detected by the 87GD element, the Low Z ground path is opened, leaving only the High Z ground path The High Z ground path limits fault current to approximately 10A (saves generator!)

Hybrid Impedance Ground

51 52 F3 51 N

51 52 F2

51 N

52 B

51 52 F1

51 N

52 G

87 GD

G
51 G

Trip Excitation, Prime Mover

VS

59 N

Generator Protection: Faults

Generator Protection: Abnormal Conditions

New Std C37.102-2005

New Std C37.102-2005

Whats new in Std C37.102-2005

Section 6 Multifunction Generator Protection Systems Digital technology offers several additional features which could not be obtained in one package with earlier technology These features include:
Metering of voltages, currents, power and other measurements Oscillography Sequence of events capture with time tagging Remote setting and monitoring through communications User configurability of tripping schemes and other control logic Low burden on the PTs and CTs Continuous self-checking and ease of calibration

Whats new in Std C37.102-2005

6.2.1 Protective Functions 87G Generator Phase Differential 87GN Generator Ground Differential 59G Stator Ground 100% Stator Ground 27TH - Third Harmonic Neutral Undervoltage 59TH Third Harmonic Voltage Ratio or Differential 64S Sub-harmonic Voltage Injection 46 Current Unbalance/Negative Sequence

Whats new in Std C37.102-2005

24 Overexcitation 27 Undervoltage 59 Overvoltage 81U Underfrequency 81O Overfrequency 32 Reverse Power or Directional Power 49 Thermal Protection 51 Overcurrent 51VC/51VR or 21 System Backup

Whats new in Std C37.102-2005

60 Loss of Voltage 78 Out-of-Step 64F Field Ground Additional functions that may be provided include: Sequential Trip Logic Accidental Energization Open Breaker Detection

Whats new in Std C37.102-2005

60 Loss of Voltage 78 Out-of-Step 64F Field Ground Additional functions that may be provided include: Sequential Trip Logic Accidental Energization Open Breaker Detection

Small Machine Protection IEEE Buff Book

Small up to 1 MW to 600V, 500 kVA if >600V

Medium Machine Protection IEEE Buff Book

Medium up to 12.5 MW

Large Machine Protection IEEE Buff Book

Large up to 50 MW

Large Machine Protection IEEE C37.102-1995

Larger than 50 MW

Large Machine Protection IEEE C37.102-2006

Relay Beckwith M-3425A

BFPh

50

50 DT
VT

CT

Programmable I/O

Metering 87 Sequence of Events Logging Waveform Capture User Interface with PC Communications
(MODBUS, Ethernet)

25
VT

52 Gen

81R

81

27

59

24

3Vo

VT

M-3921 On Board HMI 67N

+

LED Targets

64F

64B

This function is available as a standard protective function. This function is available as a optional protective function. This function provides control for the function to which it points. NOTE: Some functions are mutually exclusive; see Instruction Book for details.
59D
27 32

27

60FL

21

78

32

51V

40

50/27

51T

46

50

CT

VT

27 TN

59N

87 GD

50 BFN

50N

51N

CT

High-impedance Grounding with Third Harmonic 100% Ground Fault Protection

Low-impedance Grounding with Overcurrent Stator Ground Fault Protection

IEEE Devices used in Generator Protection

No. 21 24 25 27 27TN 32R 32F, 32LF 40 46 DESCRIPTION Phase Distance protection Overexcitation / Volts per Hertz protection Sync-check Phase Undervoltage protection 100% Stator Ground Fault protection using 3rd Harmonic Undervoltage Differential Reverse Power protection Overpower, Low Forward protection Loss of Field protection Negative sequence overcurrent protection

IEEE Devices used in Generator Protection

No. 50 50DT 50/27 50BF 51 51V 59 59D 60FL DESCRIPTION Instantaneous AC Overcurrent protection Split Phase Differential protection Inadvertent Generator Energizing protection Breaker Failure AC Inverse Time Overcurrent protection Inverse Time Overcurrent protection with Voltage Control/Restraint Overvoltage protection 100% Stator Ground Fault protection using 3rd Harmonic Voltage Comparison VT Fuse-loss detection and blocking

IEEE Devices used in Generator Protection

No.
64F 64B 64S 67N 78 81 81R 87 87GD

DESCRIPTION
Field Ground protection Brush Lift-Off Detection 100% Stator Ground Protection by Low Frequency Injection AC Directional Neutral Overcurrent protection Out-of-step protection Over/Under Frequency protection Rate of Change Frequency protection Generator Phase Differential protection Ground Differential protection

Distance Protection (21)

Distance Protection
Distance relaying with mho characteristics is commonly used for system phase-fault backup. These relays are usually connected to receive currents from current transformers in the neutral ends of the generator phase windings and potential from the terminals of the generator. If there is a delta grounded-wye step-up transformer between the generator and the system, special care must be taken in selecting the distance relay and in applying the proper currents and potentials so that these relays see correct impedances for system faults.

Phase Distance (21)

Phase distance backup protection may be prone to tripping on stable swings and load encroachment - Employ three zones Z1 can be set to reach 80% of impedance of GSU for 87G back-up. Z2 can be set to reach 120% of GSU for station bus backup, or to overreach remote bus for system fault back up protection. Load encroachment blinder provides security against high loads with long reach settings. Z3 may be used in conjunction with Z2 to form out-of-step blocking logic for security on power swings or to overreach remote bus for system fault back up protection. Load encroachment blinder provides security against high loads with long reach settings. - Current threshold provides security against loss of potential (machine off line)

3-Zone 21 Function with OSB/Load Encroachment

21 Distance element
Fault Impendance +X XL XT Z3 Z2 Z1 -R -X +R
Power Swing oror Power Swing Load Encroachment Load Encraochment

Load (for Z1, Z2, Z3) Blinder

Z1, Z2 and Z3 used to trip Z1 set to 80% of GSU, Z2 set to 120% of GSU Z3 set to overreach remote bus

21 Distance Element
Fault Impendance +X XL XT Z3 Z2 Z1 -R -X +R Pow er Sw ing or Load Encraochment Load (for Z1 & Z2) Blinder

Z1 and Z2 used to trip Z1 set to 80% of GSU, Z2 set to overreach remote bus Z3 used for power swing blocking; Z3 blocks Z2

Distance Protection
Settings summary per IEEE C37.102-2005 Zone-1 = the smaller of the two following criteria:
1. 120% of unit transformer 2. 80% of Zone 1 reach setting of the line relay on the shortest line (neglecting in-feed); Time = 0.5 s

Zone-2 = the smaller of the three following criteria:

A. 120% of longest line (with in-feed). B. 50% to 66.7% of load impedance (200% to 150% of the generator capability curve) at the RPF C. 80% to 90% of load impedance (125% to 111% of the generator capability curve) at the maximum torque angle; Zone-2 < 2Z maxload @ RPF Time > 60 cycles

Distance Protection

Overexcitation/ Volts per Hertz (24)

Overexcitation/Volts per Hertz

PHYSICAL INSIGHTS As voltage rises above rating leakage flux increases Leakage flux induces current in transformer support structure causing rapid localized heating.

Overexcitation/ Volts per Hertz

GENERATOR TRANSFORMER EXCITATION

Voltage Freq.

V Hz

GENERATOR LIMITS (ANSI C 50.13) Full Load V/Hz = 1.05 pu No Load V/Hz = 1.05 pu TRANSFORMER LIMITS Full Load V/Hz = 1.05 pu (HVTerminals) No Load V/Hz = 1.10 pu (HV Terminals)

Overexcitation/Volts per Hertz

Typical Curves

Overexcitation/Volts per Hertz

Example of inverse volts/hertz setting

Overexcitation/ Volts per Hertz

Settings summary per IEEE C37.102 Single relay: PU = 110% p.u. time = 6 s Two stages relay: alarm pu = 110%; 45< t < 60 s trip pu = 118% - 120%, 2< t < 6s

Overexcitation/Volts per Hertz

Overfluxing Capability, Diagram 3 Siemens V84.3 165 MW Generator 12/1/94 MET-ED, FPC

Synchronizing (25)

Synchronizing
Improper synchronizing of a generator to a system may result in damage to the generator step-up transformer and any type of generating unit. The damage incurred may be slipped couplings, increased shaft vibration, a change in bearing alignment, loosened stator windings, loosened stator laminations and fatigue damage to shafts and other mechanical parts. In order to avoid damaging a generator during synchronizing, the generator manufacturer will generally provide synchronizing limits in terms of breaker closing angle and voltage matching.

Synchronizing

Settings summary per IEEE C37.102 Breaker closing angle: within 10 elect. degrees Voltage matching: 0 to +5% Frequency difference < 0.067 Hz

Undervoltage (27)

Undervoltage
Generators are usually designed to operate continuously at a minimum voltage of 95% of its rated voltage, while delivering rated power at rated frequency. Operating generator with terminal voltage lower than 95% of its rated voltage may result in undesirable effects such as reduction in stability limit, import of excessive reactive power from the grid to which it is connected, and malfunctioning of voltage sensitive devices and equipment.

Undervoltage
Settings summary per IEEE C37.102 Relays with inverse time characteristic and instantaneous PU : 90%Vn; t= 9.0 s at 90% of PU setting Inst : 80% Vn Relays with definite time characteristic and two stages Alarm PU : 90%Vn; 10< t < 15 s Trip PU : 80% Vn; time: 2s

Reverse Power (32)

Reverse Power
Prevents generator from motoring on loss of prime mover From a system standpoint, motoring is defined as the flow of real power into the generator acting as a motor. With current in the field winding, the generator will remain in synchronism with the system and act as a synchronous motor. If the field breaker is opened, the generator will act as an induction motor. A power relay set to look into the machine is therefore used on most units. The sensitivity and setting of the relay is dependent upon the type of prime mover involved.

Reverse Power

Settings summary per IEEE C37.102 Pickup setting should be below the following motoring limits: Gas : 50% rated power; time < 60 s Diesel : 25% rated power; time < 60 s Hydro turbines : 0.2% - 2% rated power; time < 60 s Steam turbines : 0.5% - 3% rated power; time < 30 s

Sequential Tripping
Used on steam turbine generators to prevent overspeed Recommended by manufacturers of steam turbine generators as a result of field experience This trip mode used only for boiler/reactor or turbine mechanical problems Electrical protection should not trip through this mode

Sequential Tripping
STEP 1 Abnormal detected STEP 2 Turbine valves are closed; generator allowed to briefly motor (I.e., take in power) STEP 3 A reverse power (32) relay in series with turbine valves position switches confirms all valves have closed STEP 4 Generator is separated from power system turbine/boiler/reactor condition is

Sequential Tripping Logic

Sequential Tripping Problem

CONSIDER High MVArs (out) Low MW (in) E-M relay can be fooled

Loss-of-Field (40)

Loss of Field
CAUSES Field open circuit Field short circuit Accidental tripping of field breaker Regulator control failure Loss of main exciter

Loss of Field

Transformation from KW-KVAR plot to R-X Plot

Machine Capability Curve

R-X Plot

Loss of Field

Loss of Field Impedance Characteristics

Loss of Field

Settings summary per IEEE C37.102 UNIT 1 Offset: X'd/2; Diameter: 1.0 pu; time: 0.1 s UNIT 2 Offset: X'd/2; Diameter: Xd; time: 0.5 to 0.6 s

Loss of Field

Protective Approach # 1

Loss of Field

Protective Approach # 2

Graphical Method For Steady-state Stability

The Steady-State Stability limit can be a significant limit that should be related to both the machine capability curve (MW-MVAR Plot) and the loss-of-field (40) relay operating characteristics (R-X Diagram Plot). In the figures below, V is the per-unit terminal generator voltage, XT and Xs the per-unit Generator Step Up (GSU) transformer and system impedances respectively as viewed from the generator terminals. Xd is the per-unit unsaturated synchronous reactance of the generator. All reactances should be placed on the generator MVA base.

Negative Sequence (46)

Negative Sequence
Unbalanced phase currents create negative sequence current in

generator stator

Negative sequence current interacts with normal positive sequence current to induce a double frequency current (120 Hz) Current (120 Hz) is induced into rotor causing surface heating Generator has established short-time rating, l22t=K where K=Manufacturer Factor (the larger the generator the smaller the K value)

Negative Sequence
Settings summary per IEEE C37.102
TYPE OF GENERATOR Salient Pole With connected amortisseur windings With non-connected amortisseur windings Cylindrical Rotor Indirectly cooled Directly cooled to 960 MVA 961 to 1200 MVA 1200 to 1500 MVA 10 8 6 5 10 5 PERMISSIBLE l2 PERCENT OF STATOR RATING

These values also express the negative-phase sequence current capability at reduced generator KVA capabilities. The short time (unbalanced fault) negative sequence capability of a generator is also defined in ANSI C50.13.

Negative Sequence
Type of Generator Salient pole generator Synchronous condenser Cylindrical rotor generators Indirectly cooled Directly cooled (0-800 MVA) Directly cooled (801-1600 MVA) 30 10 see curve below Permissible l22t 40 30

(VALUES TAKEN FROM ANSI C50.13-1989)

Split Phase Differential (50DT)

Split-Phase Differential
Most turbine generators have single turn stator windings. If a generator has stator windings with multiturn coils and with two or more circuits per phase, the split-phase relaying scheme may be used to provide turn fault protection. In this scheme, the circuits in each phase of the stator winding are split into two equal groups and the currents of each group are compared. A difference in these currents indicates an unbalance caused by a single turn fault.

Split-Phase Differential
Scheme detects turn to turn fault not involving ground. Generator must have two or more windings per phase to apply scheme. Used widely on salient-pole hydro generators. Used on some steam generators. Difference between current on each phase indicates a turn to turn fault. Need to have separate pick-up levels on each phase to accommodate practice of removal of shorted terms.

Typical Split-Phase Differential Using Window CTs

Split-phase protection using a single window current transformer

Settings summary per IEEE C37.102 The pickup of the instantaneous unit must be set above CT error currents that may occur during external faults.

Inadvertent Off-Line Generator Protection (50/27)

Why Inadvertent Energizing Occurs

Operating errors Breaker head flashover Control circuit malfunctions Combination of above

Inadvertent Energizing Protection

Inadvertent energizing is a serious industry problem Damage occurs within seconds Conventional generator provide protection disabled when energized protection will not

marginal in detecting the event machine is inadvertently

operates too slowly to prevent damage

Need to install dedicated protection scheme

Generator Response and Damage to Three-Phase Energizing

Generator behaves as an induction motor Rotating flux induced into the generator rotor Resulting rotor current is forced into negative sequence path in rotor body Machine impedance during initial energizing is equivalent to its negative sequence impedance Rapid rotor heating occurs l2t = K

Inadvertent Energizing Equivalent Circuit

Response of Conventional Generator Protection to Inadvertent Energizing

Some relays may detect inadvertent generator energizing but can:
Be marginal in their ability to detect the condition Operate too slowly to prevent damage

Many times conventional protection is disabled when the unit is off-line

Removal of AC potential transformer fuses or links Removal of D.C. control power Auxiliary contact (52a) of breaker of switches can disable tripping

Dedicated Protection Schemes to Detect Inadvertent Energizing

Frequency supervised overcurrent scheme Voltage supervised overcurrent scheme Directional overcurrent scheme Impedance relays scheme Auxiliary contact enabled overcurrent scheme

Inadvertent Energizing Protection

*Positive Sequence Voltage

Inadvertent Energizing Protection

Settings summary per IEEE C37.102 50: P.U 50% of the worst-case current value and should be < 125% generator rated current. 27: 70% Vn, time: 1.5 s

Generator Circuit Breaker Failure (50BF)

Generator Circuit Breaker Failure

If a breaker does not clear the fault or abnormal condition in a specified time, the timer will trip the necessary breakers to remove the generator from the system. To initiate the breaker-failure timer, a protective relay must operate and a current detector or a breaker "a" switch must indicate that the breaker has failed to open, as shown in the Figure.

Generator Circuit Breaker Failure

Functional diagram of alternate generator breaker failure scheme

Generator Circuit Breaker Failure

Settings summary per IEEE C37.102 Current detector PU: should be more sensitive than the lowest current present during fault involving currents. Timer: > Gen breaker interrupting time + Current detector dropout time + safety margin

Overcurrent Protection (50/51)

Overcurrent Protection
In some instances, generator overload protection may be provided through the use of a torque controlled overcurrent relay that is coordinated with the ANSI C50.13-2004 shorttime capability curve This relay consists of an instantaneous overcurrent unit and a time overcurrent unit having an extremely inverse characteristic. An overload alarm may be desirable to give the operator an opportunity to reduce load in an orderly manner. This alarm should not give nuisance alarms for external faults and should coordinate with the generator overload protection if this protection is provided.

Overcurrent Protection

Turbine-generator short-time thermal capability for balanced 3-phase loading (From ANSI C50.13-2004)

Overcurrent Protection

Settings summary per IEEE C37.102 51PU: 75-100% FLC, time: 7 s at 226% FLC. Where FLC: full load current. 50PU: 115% FLC, time: instantaneous Dropout: 95% of 50PU or higher

Voltage Controlled or Voltage Restrained Time Overcurrent (51 V)

Voltage Controlled or Voltage Restrained Time Overcurrent

Faults close to generator terminals may result in voltage drop and fault current reduction, especially if the generators are isolated and the faults are severe. Therefore, in generation protection it is important to have voltage control on the overcurrent time-delay units to ensure proper operation and co-ordination. These devices are used to improve the reliability of the relay by ensuring that it operates before the generator current becomes too low. There are two types of overcurrent relays with this feature voltage-controlled and voltage-restrained, which are generally referred to as type 51V relays.

Voltage Controlled or Voltage Restrained Time Overcurrent

The voltage-controlled (51/27C) feature allows the relays to be set below rated current, and operation is blocked until the voltage falls well below normal voltage. The voltage-controlled approach typically inhibits operation until the voltage drops below a pre-set value. It should be set to function below about 80% of rated voltage with a current pick-up of about 50% of generator rated current.

Voltage Controlled or Voltage Restrained Time Overcurrent

The voltage-restrained (51/27R) feature causes the pick-up to decrease with reducing voltage, as shown in Figure. For example, the relay can be set for 175% of generator rated current with rated voltage applied. At 25% voltage the relay picks up at 25% of the relay setting (1.75 0.25 = 0.44 times rated). The varying pick-up level makes it more difficult to co-ordinate the relay with other fixed pick-up overcurrent relays.

Voltage Controlled or Voltage Restrained Time Overcurrent

Settings summary per IEEE C37.102 Voltage Controlled: Overcurrent PU: 50% FLC Control voltage: 75%VNOM. Inverse time curve and dial settings should be set to coordinate with system line relays for close-in faults on the transmission lines at the plant. Voltage Restrained: Overcurrent PU: 150% FLC at rated voltage Inverse time curve and dial settings should be set to coordinate with system line relays for close-in faults on the transmission lines at the plant.

Overvoltage (59)

Overvoltage
Generator overvoltage may occur without necessarily exceeding the V/Hz limits of the machine. Protection for generator overvoltage is provided with a frequency-compensated (or frequency insensitive) overvoltage relay. The relay should have both an instantaneous unit and a time delay unit with an inverse time characteristic. Two definite time delay relays can also be applied.

Overvoltage
Settings summary per IEEE C37.102
Relays with inverse time characteristic and instantaneous PU : 110%Vn; t= 2.5 s at 140% of PU setting Inst : 130 - 150% Vn Relays with definite time characteristic and two stages Alarm PU : 110%Vn; 10< t < 15 s Trip PU : 150% Vn; time: 2s

100% Stator Ground (59N/27TH)

Stator Ground Protection

Provides protection for stator ground fault on generators which are high impedance grounded Used on unit connected generators Ground current limited to about 10A primary Provides 100% stator ground protection (entire winding)

High Impedance Grounding

3rd Harmonic Comparator for 100% Stator Ground Fault Protection

3rd harmonic levels change with position of ground fault and loading Using a comparator technique of 3rd harmonic voltages at line and neutral ends allows an overvoltage element to be applied

100% Stator Ground Fault (59N/27TN)

Third-Harmonic Undervoltage Ground-Fault Protection Scheme

Stator Ground

Settings summary per IEEE C37.102 59G element: Pickup = 5 V; t = 5 s Note: Time setting must be selected to provide coordination with other system protective devices. 27TH element: Pickup = 50% of minimum normal generator 3rd harmonic. t = 5 s

Field Ground (64F)

Field (Rotor) Ground Fault Protection

The field circuit of a generator is an ungrounded system. As such, a single ground fault will not generally affect the operation of a generator. However, if a second ground fault occurs, a portion of the field winding will be short circuited, thereby producing unbalanced air gap fluxes in the machine. These unbalanced fluxes may cause rotor vibration that may quickly damage the machine; also, unbalanced rotor winding and rotor body temperatures caused by uneven rotor winding currents may cause similar damaging vibrations.

Field (Rotor) Ground Fault Protection

The probability of the second ground occurring is greater than the first, since the first ground establishes a ground reference for voltages induced in the field by stator transients, thereby increasing the stress to ground at other points on the field winding. On a brushless excitation system continuous monitoring for field ground is not possible with conventional field ground relays since the generator field connections are contained in the rotating element. Insurance companies consider this is the most frequent internal generator fault Review existing 64F voltage protection methods

Typical Generator Field Circuit

A single field ground fault will not: affect the operation of a generator produce any immediate damaging effects

Typical Generator Field Circuit

Ground #1

The first ground fault will: establish a ground reference making a second ground fault more likely increase stress to ground at other points in field winding

Typical Generator Field Circuit

Ground #1

Ground #2

The second ground fault will: short out part of field winding causing unit vibrations cause rotor heating from unbalanced currents cause arc damage at the points of fault

Detection Using a DC Source

A dc voltage source in series with an overvoltage relay coil is connected between the negative side of the generator field winding and ground. A ground anywhere in the field will cause the relay to operate.

Detection Using a Voltage Divider

This method uses a voltage divider and a sensitive overvoltage relay between the divider midpoint and ground. A maximum voltage is impressed on the relay by a ground on either the positive or negative side of the field circuit. This generator field ground relay is designed to overcome the null problem by using a nonlinear resistor (varistor) in series with one of the two linear resistors in the voltage divider.

Detection Using Pilot Brushes

The addition of a pilot brush or brushes is to gain access to the rotating field parts. Normally this is not done since eliminating the brushes is one of the advantages of a brushless system. A ground fault shorts out the field winding to rotor capacitance, CR, which unbalances the bridge circuit. If a voltage is read across the 64F relay, then a ground exists Detection systems may be used to detect field grounds if a collector ring is provided on the rotating shaft along with a pilot brush that may be periodically dropped to monitor the system.

Detection Using Pilot Brushes

The brushes used in this scheme are not suitable for continuous contact with the collector rings.

Field Ground Detection for Brushless Machines LED Communications

Field Ground Detection for Brushless Machines with Infrared LED Communications
The relay's transmitter is mounted on the generator field diode wheel. Its source of power is the ac brushless exciter system. Two leads are connected to the diode bridge circuit of the rotating rectifier to provide this power. Ground detection is obtained by connecting one lead of the transmitter to thenegative bus of the field rectifier and the ground lead to the rotor shaft. Sensing current is determined by the field ground resistance and the location of a fault with respect to the positive and negative bus.

Field Ground Detection for Brushless Machines with Infrared LED Communications
The transmitter Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) emit light for normal conditions. The receiver's infrared detectors sense the light signal from the LED across the air gap. Upon detection of a fault, the LED's are turned off. Loss of LED light to the receiver will actuate the ground relay and initiate a trip or alarm

Using Injection Voltage Signal

Using Injection Voltage Signal

In addition, digital relays may provide real-time monitoring of actual insulation resistance so deterioration with time may be monitored. The passive coupling network is used to isolate high dc field voltages from the relay. Backup protection for the above described schemes usually consists of vibration detecting equipment. Contacts are provided to trip the main and field breakers if vibration is above that associated with normal short circuit transients for faults external to the unit.

Field (Rotor) Ground Fault Protection

Settings summary per IEEE C37.102 Field ground detection using DC a source: 1< t <3 s Field ground detection for Brushless Machines with infrared LED communications: time up to 10 s Field ground detection using low frequency square wave voltage injection: ALARM = 20 k TRIP = 5 k

Generator Out-Of-Step Protection (OSP) (78)

When is OSP needed?

1. When critical switching times are short enough to warrant concern that backup clearing of a system fault could exceed critical switching time. 2. This swing locus passes through the generator or GSU 3. Credible loss of transmission lines could result in high transfer reactance between the generator and the power system

Background
Power system stability enables the synchronous machines of a system to respond to a disturbance such as transmission system faults, sudden load changes, loss of generating units or line switching. Loss of synchronism is produced when the angle of the EMF of a machine increases to a level that does not allow any recovery of the plant when the machine is said to have reached a slip. Transient stability studies allow to determine if the system will remain in synchronism following major disturbance

OST & PSB Functions

During power system disturbances, the voltage and current which feed the relays vary with time and, as a result, the relays will also see an impedance that is varying with time. Certain power system disturbances may cause loss of synchronism between a generator and the rest of the utility system, or between neighboring utility interconnected power systems. If such a loss of synchronism occurs, it is imperative that the generator or system areas operating asynchronously are separated immediately through controlled islanding of the power system using out-of-step protection systems-OST. OST systems must be complemented with Power Swing Blocking (PSB) of distance relay elements prone to operate during unstable power swings. PSB prevents system separation from occurring at any locations other than the pre-selected ones.

Power Transfer Equation

P=

V S x VR X

Sin

Two-Machine System

90

VS & VR

Constant

V S x VR X

P=

Sin

Effect of Faults on Power Transfer

B e fo re F au lt F au lty L in e S w itc he d O u t L -G F a u lt

P e r U n it T o rqu e o r P ow e r

L -L F au lt

T0

L -L -G F au lt

3 F au l t

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

1 00 110 120 130 140 1 5 0 160 1 70 180

A ng u lar D isp lace m en t in D eg rees

Network with Three Phase Fault

S VS ' P S' A n 3 Fault B

R R' VR

Power Transfer Curve

U Before Fault K Final Operating Point Transmitted Power Initial Operating Point P D A Breaker Open B Breaker Closed During 3 Fault N H G F 45 A and B Breakers Closed 90 Angle m 135 180 L Line A-B Open

J II

Steady State Load Requirements and Mechanical Input To Generators

Power Transfer Curve

Ways the protection system can mitigate the affect of the fault on power swings. Fast clearing Pilot systems Breaker failure systems Single pole tripping High speed reclosing Load shedding

Impedances Seen by Relays

Impedances Seen by Relays

Impedances Seen by Relays

Basics of Power Swing Blocking

R

B
VR IS

Q
Increase in S
ZL VA / I S

when V S = VR
O

A
VS VS IS

Impedance seen by the relay

Basics of Power Swing Blocking

Power oscillation with Vs >V r Zone 3 Measuring unit

Zone 2

Blocking relay characteristic

Load characteristic

Basics of Out of Step Protection

The Out-of-Step function (78) is used to protect the generator from out-of-step or pole slip conditions. There are different ways to implement Out of Step Protection. One of the commonest types uses one set of blinders, along with a supervisory MHO element.

Basics of Out of Step Protection

The pickup area is restricted to the shaded area, defined by the inner region of the MHO circle, the region to the right of the blinder A and the region to the left of blinder B.

Basics of Out of Step Protection

For operation of the blinder scheme : The positive sequence impedance must originate outside either blinder A or B, It should swing through the pickup area and progress to the opposite blinder from where the swing had originated. The swing time should be greater than the time delay setting When this scenario happens, the tripping circuit is complete. The contact will remain closed for the amount of time set by the seal-in timer delay.

Generator Out-of-Step Protection (OSP)

Unstable Stable

X d

XT

XS

Setting of 78 Relays
X D A B

SYSTEM X maxSG1 O TRANS XTG O

1.5 X TG

R M Swing Locus

2Xd
A

GEN Xd

d
B ELEMENT PICK-UP C

MHO ELEMENT

ELEMENT PICK-UP

BLINDER ELEMENTS

Setting of 78 Relays
Settings summary per IEEE C37.102-2005
Mho Diameter : 2X'd + 1.5 XTG d = ((X'd + XTG + XmaxSG1)/2) x tan (90-(/2)) where d: Blinder distance : angular separation between generator and the system which the relay determines instability. If there is not stability study available = 120 t = as per transient stability study typically 40 < t < 100 ms

Frequency (81)

Frequency
The operation of generators at abnormal frequencies (either overfrequency or underfrequency) generally results from full or partial load rejection or from overloading of the generator. Load rejection will cause the generator to overspeed and operate at some frequency above normal Steam and gas turbines are more limited or restrictive to abnormal frequency than hydrogenerators. At some point abnormal frequency may impact turbine blades and result in damage to the bearings due to vibration.

Frequency
Settings summary per IEEE C37.102
It is important to consult turbine manufacturer and get turbine off frequency operating curves or limits Under frequency: 81U ALARM: 59.5 Hz time: 10 s 81U TRIP : The generator 81U relay should be set below the pick-up of under frequency load shedding relay set-point and above the off frequency operating limits of steam turbine. Over frequency: 81O ALARM Pick-up: 60.6 Hz, Time Delay 5 sec.

Phase Differential (87)

Phase Differential
Fast response time (under 1 cycle) Percentage differential with adjustable slope

Phase Differential
Settings summary per IEEE C37.102 PU : 0.3 A Slope1 : 10% time: Instantaneous

Typical Settings of Generator Relays

Table 1 - Recommended Settings
IEEE No.

FUNCTION

Per IEEE C37.102

SECTION DESCRIPTION Zone-1 = smaller of the two following criteria: 1. 120% of unit transformer 2. 80% of Zone 1 reach setting of the line relay on the shortest line (neglecting in-feed); time = 0.5 s Zone-2 = the smaller of the three following criteria: A. 120% of longest line (with in-feed). If the unit is connected to a breaker and a half bus, this would be the length of the adjacent line. B. 50% to 66.7% of load impedance (200% to 150% of the generator capability curve) at the RPFA C. 80% to 90% of load impedance (125% to 111% of the generator capability curve) at the maximum torque angle; time > 60 cycles Zone-2 < 2Z maxload @ RPF Single relay: PU = 110% p.u. time = 6 s Two stages relay: alarm pu = 110%; 45< t < 60 s trip pu = 118% - 120%, 2< t < 6s Breaker closing angle: within 10 elect. Degrees Voltage matching: 0 to +5% Frequency difference < 0.067 Hz Relays with inverse time charac and instantaneous PU : 90%Vn; t= 9.0 s at 90% of PU setting Inst : 80% Vn Relays with definite time charac and 2 stages Alarm PU : 90%Vn; 10< t < 15 s Trip PU : 80% Vn; time: 2s

21

Distance

A.2.3

24 25

Overexcitation Sync-check

4.5.4.2

5.7

27

Undervoltage

A.2.13

Typical Settings of Generator Relays

Table 1 - Recommended Settings
IEEE No.

FUNCTION

Per IEEE C37.102

SECTION DESCRIPTION Pickup setting should be below the following motoring limits: Gas : 50% rated power; time < 60 s Diesel : 25% rated power; time < 60 s Hydro turbines : 0.2% - 2% rated power; time < 60 s Steam turbines : 0.5% - 3% rated power; time < 30 s UNIT 1 Offset: X'd/2; Diameter: 1.0 pu; time: 0.1 s UNIT 2 Offset: X'd/2; Diameter: Xd; time: 0.5 to 0.6 s Pickup setting should be below the permissible I2 percent expressed in percent of rated current, which are indicated below: Salient pole w/connected amortisseur windings: 10% Salient pole non-connected amortisseur windings: 5% Cylindrical rotor indirectly cooled: 10% Directly cooled up to 960 MVA: 8% Directly cooled 961 to 1200 MVA: 6% Directly cooled 961 to 1200 MVA: 6% Directly cooled 1201 to 1500 MVA: 5% Permissible K (I22 x t) Salient pole generator: 40 Synchronous condenser: 30 Cylindrical rotor indirectly cooled: 30 Directly cooled: 10

32

Reverse Power

4.5.5.3 & A.2.9

40

Loss-of-field

4.5.1.3

46

Negative Sequence Overcurrent

4.5.2

Typical Settings of Generator Relays

Table 1 - Recommended Settings
IEEE No.

FUNCTION
SECTION

Per IEEE C37.102

DESCRIPTION The pickup of the instantaneous unit must be set above CT error currents that may occur during external faults.

50/87

Differential via flux summation CTs or split-phase protection Inadvertent Energization Overcurrent with 27, 81 Supervision

4.3.2.5.1

50/27

A.2.4

50: P.U 50% of the worst-case current value and should be < 125% generator rated current. 27: 70% Vn, time: 1.5 s Current detector PU: should be more sensitive than the lowest current present during fault involving currents. Timer > Gen breaker int time + Curr det. dropout time + safety margin

50 BF

Generator Breaker Failure Protection

A.2.11

51N

Stator Ground Over-current

(Low,Med Z Gnd,Phase CT Residual)

50/51N

Stator Ground Over-current

(Low, Med Z Gnd, Neutral CT or Flux Summation CT)

51GN, 51N

Stator Ground Over-current

(High Z Gnd)

Typical Settings of Generator Relays

Table 1 - Recommended Settings
IEEE No.

FUNCTION
SECTION

Per IEEE C37.102

DESCRIPTION 51PU: 75-100% FLC, time: 7 s at 226% FLC. FLC means full load current. 50PU: 115% FLC, time: instantaneous Overcurrent PU: 50% FLC Control voltage: 75%VNOM. Inverse time curve and dial settings should be set to coordinate with system line relays for close-in faults on the transmission lines at the plant. Overcurrent PU: 150% FLC at rated voltage Inverse time curve and dial settings should be set to coordinate with system line relays for close-in faults on the transmission lines at the plant. Relays with inverse time charac and instantaneous PU : 110%Vn; t= 2.5 s at 140% of PU setting Inst : 130 - 150% Vn Relays with definite time charac and 2 stages Alarm PU : 110%Vn; 10< t < 15 s Trip PU : 150% Vn; time: 2s 59G element: Pickup = 5 V; t = 5 s Time setting must be selected to provide coordination with other system protective devices. 27TH element: Pickup = 50% of minimum normal generator 3rd harmonic, time = 5 s

50/51

Time overcurrent protection

(against overloads)

4.1.1.2

51VC

Voltage Controlled Overcurrent

A.2.6

51VR

Voltage Restrained Overcurrent

A.2.6

59

Overvoltage

4.5.6. & A.2.12

59N, 27-TH, 59P

100% Stator Gound protection

(for high impedance grounding generators)

4.3.3.1.1 & A.2.7

Typical Settings of Generator Relays

Table 1 - Recommended Settings
IEEE No.

FUNCTION

Per IEEE C37.102

SECTION DESCRIPTION Field ground detection using DC a source: 1< t <3 s Field ground detection for Brushless Machines with infrared LED communications: time up to 10 s Field ground detection using low frequency suare wave voltage injection: ALARM = 20 kOhm TRIP = 5 kOhm

64F

Generator Rotor Field protection

(rotor ground faults)

4.4

67IE

Directional O/C for Inadvertent Energization

Mho Diameter : 2X'd + 1.5 XTG Blinder distance (d) = ((X'd + XTG + XmaxSG1)/2) x tan (90-(d/2)); d: angular separation between generator and the system which the relay determines instability. If there is not stability study available d = 120 t = as per transient stability study Typically 40 < t < 100 ms 81U ALARM: 59.5 Hz time: 10 s 81U TRIP: The generator 81U relay should be set below the pickup of underfrequency load shedding relay set-point and above the off frequency operating limits of steam turbine. 81O ALARM:Pick-up: 60.6 Hz, Time Delay 5 sec.

78

Out of Step

A.2.2

81

Over/under frequency
(60 Hz systems)

A.2.14

Typical Settings of Generator Relays

Table 1 - Recommended Settings
IEEE No.

FUNCTION
SECTION

Per IEEE C37.102

DESCRIPTION PU : 0.3 A Slope : 10% time: instantaneous

87G

Generator Phase Differential

A.2.5

87GN 87UD

Generator Ground Differential Unit Differential

Types Of Data

Metering Function Status Breaker Monitoring Fault Reporting Oscillography Testing

Metering

Function Status

Phase Distance Monitor

Breaker Monitoring

Fault Reporting

Fault Reporting

Fault Reporting

Oscillography

E A F

A. B. C. D. E. F. G. H. I. J. K. L. M. N.

All analog traces. This view shows peak values. RMS values may also be displayed. Controls for going to the beginning or end of a record, as well as nudging forward or backward in time in a record Zoom controls Display controls for analog traces, RMS traces, fundamental waveform display, frequency trace, power trace, power factor trace, phasor diagram, impedance diagram and power diagram Marker #1 Marker #2 Time at Marker #1 Time at Marker #2 Control status input and contact output traces (discrete I/O) Scaling for each analog trace. This can be set automatically or manually adjusted. Date and timestamp for record Time of trip command Time at Marker #1 Time at Marker #2

Oscillography

P R

Q S

O. P. Q. R. S.

Drop down window for view selection, diagram selection and zoom Delta value between Marker #1 and Marker #2 Value at Marker #1 Value at Marker #2 Scaling for each analog trace. This can be set automatically or manually adjusted.

Waveform Capture: PQ Plot

Communications

Test Report

GERS
CONSULTING ENGINEERS

BECHTEL LIMITED
TEST REPORT GENERATOR PROTECTION
LOCATION : SERIAL NUMBER : STG ELECT BUILDING 1815

PROJECT : Meter and relay test at Spalding Energy Project MANUFACTURER : BECKWITH PANEL TAG: TYPE: M-3425 GPR

DATE FEBRUARY 26 / 2004 TESTED BY: R. Bravo - C. Quintero APROVED BY: A.Tasama - G. Williams CIRCUIT : STG PROT. A SYSTEM: AC01

1. GENERAL SETTINGS Parameter Nominal Voltage [V] Nominal Current [A] Nominal Frequency [Hz] Phase Rotation C.T. Secundary Rating [A] Delta - Y Transformer 2. READINGS CHECK Description V RY [V] V YB [V] V BR [V] I R [A] I Y [A] I B [A] I r [A] I y [A] I b [A] Active Power [W/MW]

Value 120 3.98 50 ABC 5 Enable

Parameter V.T. Configuration Relay Seal-in Time [Cycles] V.T. Phase Ratio V.T. Neutral Ratio C.T. Phase Ratio C.T. Neutral Ratio

Value L-G to L-L 300 200 100 2600 25 % Error -0.17% -0.25% 0.08% 0.04% 0.16% 0.10% 0.14% 0.10% 0.00% -0.35% 1.85% -1.15% 0.00%

Injected Theoretical Value 120.0 24000 120.0 24000 120.0 24000 5.0 13000 5.0 13000 5.0 13000 5.0 13000 5.0 13000 5.0 13000 900.0 468.00 519.6 270.20 Reactive Power [VAr/MVAr] Power Factor 0.87 0.87 Frequency [Hz] 50.000 50.00 Note: IR, IY, IB = line side currents / Ir, Iy, Ib = generator side currents

Obtained Read 23960 23940 24020 13005 13021 13013 13018 13013 13000 466.36 275.21 0.86 50.00

Test Report
16. FUNCTION 87. PHASE DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION 16.1. Settings Parameter Minimum Operation current [A] Slope Time Delay [Cycles] 16.2 Function Test Parameter Minimum current for operation [A] Slope 1 Slope 2 Operation Time [ms] Differential Characteristic Test Line current [A] - Fixed IR Ir Theoretical Values Idiff = (IR-Ir) Idiff Ibias = (IR+Ir)/2 Ibias Obtained values Ir Idiff = (IR-Ir) Idiff Ibias = (IR+Ir)/2 Ibias
6.0 Differential Current [A]

Value 0.3 10% 1 Theoretical Value 0.30 10.00% 40.00% 20.00 0.29 0.00 0.29 0.15 0.00 0.29 0.15 3.00 2.70 0.30 2.85 2.70 0.30 2.85 5.00 4.52 0.48 4.76 4.50 0.50 4.75

Trip output Blocking input Result 0.29 0.29 0.29 10.53% 40.00% 19.00 10.50 7.00 3.50 8.75 7.00 3.50 8.75 13.00 8.67 4.33 10.83 8.60 4.40 10.80

1 % Error 3.33% 3.33% 3.33% 0.53% 0.00% -5.00% 15.00 10.00 5.00 12.50 10.00 5.00 12.50

IR IY IB

7.00 6.33 0.67 6.67 6.30 0.70 6.65

5.0

4.0

3.0

2.0

1.0

0.0

2
Obtained

4
Theoretical

10

12

Bias Current [A]

14

Test Report

3. FUNCTION 21. DISTANCE PROTECTION 3.1. Settings Parameter Diameter [Ohms] Offset [Ohms] Impedance Angle [Degrees] Time delay [cycles] 3.2 Function Test Parameter Voltage [V LN] Current [A] Impedance [Ohms] Operation time [s] Value 8.50 -5.2 85 50 Theoretical Value 20 6.06 3.30 1.00

Trip output Blocking input Result 5.99 3.34 1.01

1 1 & FL % Error 1.17% 1.18% 0.50%

Fixed Varied
Calculated

Questions? [email protected]