any i ae : ee fag) Cia Da “SBconomy ee iss ze are (x - ra 4 ce Se SILL re CalculusRs, 350,00 TEXTBOOK OF DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS, 2nd ed. Ahsan Akhlar and Sabiha Ahsan © 2009 by PHI Learning Private Limited, Naw Delhi. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means, without permission in writing from the publisher. ISBN-978-81-203-3853-1 The export rights of this book are vested solely with the publisher, Third Printing (Second Edition) we = August, 2009 Published by Asoke K. Ghosh, PHI Learning Private Limited, M-97, Connaught Circus, New Delhi-110001 and Printed by Mudrak, 30-A, Patparganj, Delhi-110091.Contents Preface vii dutraduction ix important Formulae xiit L1_Introduction _I 1.2 Differentiation from the First Principle i Exercises LJ 9 1.6 Implicit Functions 39 Exercises 1.5 43 1.7__ Parametric Equations 45 Exercises 16 47 1.8 Logarithmic Differentiation 48 Exercises 17 55 2.1 Introduction _ 58 2.3__ Rational Algebraic Functions 62 Exercises 2 75 24 _Leibnits's TI 7 Exercises 2.2___92 iiliv Contents 3._ Expansions 95-122 3.1_Introduction _95 3.2__Rolle’s Theorem _ 94 3.3 Lagrange’s Mean Value Theorem 97 3.4 Cauchy's Mean Value Theorem 99 3.5 Taylor's Theorem 100 3,6 Maclaurin’s (or Stirling's) Theorem 101 Exercises 3] 118 4. Indeterminate Forms 94.49.4442 147 4.1 Introduction _ 1.23 4.2 L'Hospital Rule 124 Exercises 4.1 __ 143 5.1__Introduction _J48 Exercises Sj _162. 5.2 Degree of Homogeneous Functions 165 $3 Total Differential Z 5.3.1 Total Differential Coeffici 172 5.3.2_Differentiation of an Implicit Function 173 5.4 Exact Differential _173 Exercises 5.2 _ 188 6. Tangents and Normals 193-247 6.1 Tangent 193 6.1.1 Equation of a Tangent in Cartesian Form 193 6.1.2 Geometrical Interpretation of dy/dx_ 194 6.1.3. Equation of Tangent in Symmetric Form 196 6.1.4 Equation of a Tangent in Parametric Form 197 6.1.5 Tangent at the Origin 198 6.2 Angle of Intersection of Two Curves 199 6.3 Normal at a Point of a Curve _200 6.4 Cartesian Subtangent, Subnormal_and Other Geometrical Resulis _ 202 6.5 Derivatives of Arc Length in Cartesian Form 205 Exercises 6] 225 6.6 Polar and Pedal Equations of Curves 230 6.7 Polar Subtangent and Polar Subnormal 235 Exercises 6.2 245 7_Curvature 248-292 Z1_Introduction _ 248 7.2__Average Curvature 249Contents v 7.3 Intrinsic Equation of a Curve 250 74 Geometrical Representation of Curvature 257 ZS Circle of Curvature 252 26 _Radius of Curvs 253 Exercises 7/ 271 7.7__Radius of Curvature at the Origin 274 7.8 Tangent at the Origin 277 29 Chord of Curvature _279 Z10 Centre of Curvature 288 Exercises 72290 8. Asymptotes 293-312 &1 Introduction __293 8.2 Parallel Asymptotes 299 8.3 Asymptotes by Inspection 300 Exercises 81 30 9. Maxima and Minima 313-372 9.1 Tntroduction 7/7 9.2 Extreme Values 376 03 Functi Two Varis 20 9.4 Problems Involving Geometry 330 Exercises 9 345 xima and Minima of Functi Tw. ¥: 9.6 Taylor's Theorem for Two Independent Variables 350 9.7__Lagrange’s Method of Undetermined Multipliers 353 Exercises 9.2 369 10. Envelopes 373-388 10.1 Introduction _ 373 10.2 Equation of an Envelope 373 Exercises JO] 385 Li. Curve Tracing 389-401 LL1 Introduction _389 11.2 Rules for Tracing Cartesian Curves 389 Exercises I 100 Multiple-choice Questions 403-417 Auswers \|\|\|\|\|]|j|]|.|.—XHXI rg ggg Tadex ASTPreface Differential calculus is a powerful mathematical tool that finds its applications in almost every branch of sciences and engineering. The subject also occupies a central position in mathematics from which different lines of development extend in many directions. The book, now in its second edition, is primarily intended for undergraduate students of mathematics and engineering who have already completed their first course of study in calculus at the senior secondary or intermediate classes. The text is divided into 11 chapters. Chapters 1 and 2 discuss differentiation and successive differentiation of functions such as trigonometric functions, logarithmic and exponential functions, implicit and explicit functions and their inverse. Leibnitz’s theorem, an important theorem on successive differentiation, has also been included in the chapter on successive differentiation. Taylor's and Maclaurin’s (or Stirling's) theorems on expansion of series have been discussed in Chapter 3. In Chapter 4, limit of functions of indeterminate forms is discussed with the help of L’Hospital rule. Chapter 5 deals with the partial differentiation of homogeneous functions. The concept of total differentiation is also discussed in this chapter. Chapters 6-11 deal with applications of differential calculus such as finding equations of tangents and normal, curvature, asymptoles to a curve, maxima and minima of functions, envelopes and curve tracing. Equations of a tangents, normals, subtangents, subnormals in Cartesian, polar and parametric forms are discussed in Chapter 6. Geometric representation of a curvature, different types of curvatures and radius of curvature at a point and at the origin are discussed in detail in Chapter 7. Chapter 8 presents different methods of finding asymptotes to Cartesian and polar curves. Maxima and minima of functions of two and more than two variables are explained in Chapter 9 with the help of simple geometrical examples. Chapter 10 discusses equation of envelopes. An asymptote to a curve is an important geometrical concept that helps trace a curve; a separate chapter (Chapter 11) is devoted to the concept and methods of tracing curves. Solved and exercise problems are part of almost every section. All the exercise problems are provided with their answers to build up the confidence of vilvii Preface students and encourage them to study the topic in depth. Solved problems and practice exercises have been taken from previous years’ examination papers of various universities and competitive examinations. Multiple-choice questions, given at the end of the book, will help students prepare for civil services and other competitive examinations. The present edition of the book is thoroughly revised as per the latest syllabus of Indian universities to fulfill the need of students. Rolle's theorem, the most important theorem in differential calculus, has also been introduced. We are very much indebted to our colleagues for their kind cooperation and suggestions while preparing the manuscript. We also sincerely thank PHI Learning especially its editorial and production team, for their painstaking efforts in producing second edition of this book. We would greatly appreciate receiving suggestions and constructive criticisms from teachers and academics on improving the contents and presentation of the book. Ahsan Akhtar Sabiha AhsanIntroduction By differential calculus we mean the rate of change in one quantity corresponding to the infinitesimal changes in the values of the other. They are so related that the values of one depend on the values of the other. The subject of differential calculus has its origin mainly in the geometrical problems of the determination of the gradient of a curve at a point along the tangent. This subject has a large number of physical concepts such as velocity at an instant, acceleration at an instant, curvature at a point, density at a point, and specific heat at any temperature. Each physical concept appears as a rate of change as against the average rate of change. The fundamental concepts underlies the introduction to the notion of derivatives, Differential calculus has its origin in the solution of two old problems: one of drawing a tangent line to a curve and the other of calculating the velocity of non-uniform velocity of a particle. These problems were solved in a certain sense by Sir Isaac Newton (English, 1642-1727) and G.W. Leibnitz (German, 1646-1716), and in the process, differential calculus was discovered. It is applied to geometry, mechanics and other branches of theoretical physics and also to social sciences, such as economics and psychology. The application of differential equation is essentially based on the notion of measurement. The real number is one of the main functions. In Mechanics, we concerned with the notion of time and, therefore, in the application of Calculus to Mechanics, the first step is to correlate the two notions of time and real numbers. Similar is the case with other notions such as amount of heat, intensity of light, force, etc, Thus it is clear that the knowledge of real numbers is important for the study of the subject. We arrive the set of real numbers from the set of rational numbers. The set of integers {..., -3,-2,-1, 0, 1, 2, 3, ...} is well known to us. It contains Q, natural numbers and their additive inverse. It is closed for addition, multiplication and subtraction. But the ratio of two integers is not an integer always.