The OSI model .

ISO is the organization; OSI is the model International Standards Organization (ISO 7 Transport 6 Application 5 Presentation 4 Session 3 Network 2 Data link Layer 1 Physical

Layered Architecture from device A to device B. As the message travels from A to B, it may pass through many intermediate nodes. These intermediate nodes usually involve only the first three layers of the OSI model
Each layer defines a family of functions distinct from those of the other layers. the designers created an architecture that is both comprehensive and flexible, Within a single machine, each layer calls upon the services of the layer just below it. Layer 3, for example, uses the services provided by layer 2 and provides services for layer 4. Between machines, layer x on one machine logically communicates with layer x on another machine. This communication is governed by an

agreed-upon series of rulesand conventions called protocols.

Layer-to-Layer Communication
In Figure 2.4, device A sends a message to device B (through intermediate nodes). At the sending site, the message is moved down from layer 7 to layer 1. At layer 1 the

entire package is converted to a form that can be transferred to the receiving site. At the
receiving site, the message is moved up from layer 1 to layer 7.

The passing of the data and network information down through the layers of the sending device and back up through the layers of the receiving device is made possible by an interface between each pair of adjacent layers. Each interface defines what information and services a layer must provide for the layer above it. Well-defined interfaces and layer functions provide modularity to a network. As long as a layer provides the expected services to the layer above it, the specific implementation of its functions can be modified or replaced without requiring changes to the surrounding layers.

The upper OSI layers are almost always implemented in software; lower layers
are acombination of hardware and software, except for the physical layer, which is mostly hardware.

Layers 1, 2, and 3-physical, data link, and networkare the network support layers; they deal with the physical aspects of moving data from one device to another (such as electrical
specifications, physical connections, physical addressing, and transport timing

Layers 5, 6, and 7session, presentation, and applicationcan be thought of as the user support layers; they allow interoperability among unrelated software systems.
Layer 4, the

transport layer, links the above two subgroups and ensures that what the lower layers have transmitted is in a form that the upper layers can use.
In Figure 2.5, which gives an overall view of the OSI layers, D7 data means the data unit at layer 7, D6 data means the data unit at layer 6, and so on. The process starts at layer 7 (the application layer), then moves from layer to layer in descending, sequential order. At each layer, a header can be added to the data unit. At layer 2, a trailer may also be added. When the formatted data unit passes through the physical

layer (layer 1), it is changed into an electromagnetic signal and transported along a physical link.
Presentation Layer The presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information exchanged between two systems. Specific responsibilities of the presentation layer include the following