XOR of numbers that appeared even number of times in given Range

// CPP Program to Find the XOR-sum
// of elements that appeared even
// number of times within a range
#include <bits/stdc++.h>
using namespace std;

/* structure to store queries
   L --> Left Bound of Query
   R --> Right Bound of Query
   idx --> Query Number */
struct que {
    int L, R, idx;
};

// cmp function to sort queries 
// according to R
bool cmp(que a, que b)
{
    if (a.R != b.R)
        return a.R < b.R;
    else
        return a.L < b.L;
}

/*  N  --> Number of elements present in
    input array. BIT[0..N] --> Array that 
    represents Binary Indexed Tree*/

// Returns XOR-sum of arr[0..index]. This
// function assumes that the array is
// preprocessed and partial sums of array 
// elements are stored in BIT[].
int getSum(int BIT[], int index)
{
    // Initialize result
    int xorSum = 0;

    // index in BITree[] is 1 more than
    // the index in arr[]
    index = index + 1;

    // Traverse ancestors of BIT[index]
    while (index > 0) 
    {
        // Take XOR of current element 
        // of BIT to xorSum
        xorSum ^= BIT[index];

        // Move index to parent node
        // in getSum View
        index -= index & (-index);
    }
    return xorSum;
}

// Updates a node in Binary Index Tree
// (BIT) at given index in BIT.  The
// given value 'val' is xored to BIT[i] 
// and all of its ancestors in tree.
void updateBIT(int BIT[], int N, 
               int index, int val)
{
    // index in BITree[] is 1 more than 
    // the index in arr[]
    index = index + 1;

    // Traverse all ancestors and 
    // take xor with 'val'
    while (index <= N) 
    {
        // Take xor with 'val' to 
        // current node of BIT
        BIT[index] ^= val;

        // Update index to that of 
        // parent in update View
        index += index & (-index);
    }
}

// Constructs and returns a Binary Indexed
// Tree for given array of size N.
int* constructBITree(int arr[], int N)
{
    // Create and initialize BITree[] as 0
    int* BIT = new int[N + 1];
    
    for (int i = 1; i <= N; i++)
        BIT[i] = 0;

    return BIT;
}

// Function to answer the Queries
void answeringQueries(int arr[], int N,
        que queries[], int Q, int BIT[])
{
    // Creating an array to calculate
    // prefix XOR sums
    int* prefixXOR = new int[N + 1];

    // map for coordinate compression
    // as numbers can be very large but we
    // have limited space
    map<int, int> mp;

    for (int i = 0; i < N; i++) {
        
        // If A[i] has not appeared yet
        if (!mp[arr[i]])
            mp[arr[i]] = i;

        // calculate prefixXOR sums
        if (i == 0)
            prefixXOR[i] = arr[i];
        else
            prefixXOR[i] = 
                prefixXOR[i - 1] ^ arr[i];
    }

    // Creating an array to store the
    // last occurrence of arr[i]
    int lastOcc[1000001];
    memset(lastOcc, -1, sizeof(lastOcc));

    // sort the queries according to comparator
    sort(queries, queries + Q, cmp);

    // answer for each query
    int res[Q];

    // Query Counter
    int j = 0;
    
    for (int i = 0; i < Q; i++) 
    {
        while (j <= queries[i].R) 
        {
            // If last visit is not -1 update
            // arr[j] to set null by taking
            // xor with itself at the idx 
            // equal lastOcc[mp[arr[j]]]
            if (lastOcc[mp[arr[j]]] != -1)
                updateBIT(BIT, N, 
                      lastOcc[mp[arr[j]]], arr[j]);

            // Setting lastOcc[mp[arr[j]]] as j and
            // updating the BIT array accordingly
            updateBIT(BIT, N, j, arr[j]);
            lastOcc[mp[arr[j]]] = j;
            j++;
        }

        // get the XOR-sum of all elements within
        // range using precomputed prefix XORsums
        int allXOR = prefixXOR[queries[i].R] ^ 
                     prefixXOR[queries[i].L - 1];

        // get the XOR-sum of distinct elements
        // within range using BIT query function
        int distinctXOR = getSum(BIT, queries[i].R) ^ 
                          getSum(BIT, queries[i].L - 1);

        // store the final answer at the numbered query
        res[queries[i].idx] = allXOR ^ distinctXOR;
    }

    // Output the result
    for (int i = 0; i < Q; i++)
        cout << res[i] << endl;
}

// Driver program to test above functions
int main()
{
    int arr[] = { 1, 2, 1, 3, 3, 2, 3 };
    int N = sizeof(arr) / sizeof(arr[0]);

    int* BIT = constructBITree(arr, N);

    // structure of array for queries
    que queries[5];

    // Initializing values (L, R, idx) to queries
    queries[0].L = 3; 
    queries[0].R = 6, queries[0].idx = 0;
    queries[1].L = 3; 
    queries[1].R = 4, queries[1].idx = 1;
    queries[2].L = 0; 
    queries[2].R = 2, queries[2].idx = 2;
    queries[3].L = 0; 
    queries[3].R = 6, queries[3].idx = 3;
    queries[4].L = 0; 
    queries[4].R = 4, queries[4].idx = 4;

    int Q = sizeof(queries) / sizeof(queries[0]);

    // answer Queries
    answeringQueries(arr, N, queries, Q, BIT);

    return 0;
}

#include <algorithm>
#include <iostream>
#include <unordered_map>
#include <vector>

using namespace std;

// Function to count the occurrences of numbers in the array
int countOccurrences(vector<int>& arr, int left, int right)
{
    unordered_map<int, int> count;
    int xorSum = 0;
    for (int i = left; i <= right; i++) {
        count[arr[i]]++;
    }
    for (auto& entry : count) {
        if (entry.second % 2 == 0) {
            xorSum ^= entry.first;
        }
    }
    return xorSum;
}

// Function to implement Mo's Algorithm
vector<int> moAlgorithm(vector<int>& arr,
                        vector<vector<int> >& queries)
{
    int n = arr.size();
    int m = queries.size();

    // Sort the queries based on their left endpoints
    sort(queries.begin(), queries.end(),
         [](const vector<int>& a, const vector<int>& b) {
             return a[0] < b[0];
         });

    int left = 0, right = -1;
    vector<int> xorSums(m);
    unordered_map<int, int> count;

    // Process the queries one by one
    for (int i = 0; i < m; i++) {
        int queryIndex = queries[i][2];
        int queryLeft = queries[i][0];
        int queryRight = queries[i][1];

        // Extend the window to the right
        while (right < queryRight) {
            right++;
            count[arr[right]]++;
        }

        // Shrink the window from the left
        while (left > queryLeft) {
            left--;
            count[arr[left]]++;
        }

        // Shrink the window from the right
        while (right > queryRight) {
            count[arr[right]]--;
            right--;
            if (count[arr[right]] % 2 == 1) {
                xorSums[queryIndex] ^= arr[right];
            }
        }

        // Calculate the XOR sum for the current query range
        xorSums[queryIndex]
            ^= countOccurrences(arr, queryLeft, queryRight);
    }

    return xorSums;
}

// Main method for testing
int main()
{
    vector<int> arr = { 1, 2, 1, 3, 3, 2, 3 };
    vector<vector<int> > queries = { { 3, 6, 0 },
                                     { 3, 4, 1 },
                                     { 0, 2, 2 },
                                     { 0, 6, 3 },
                                     { 0, 4, 4 } };
    vector<int> result = moAlgorithm(arr, queries);
    for (int res : result) {
        cout << res << endl;
    }
    return 0;
}