Computer Organization and Architecture Tutorial Last Updated : 13 Aug, 2025 Comments Improve Suggest changes Like Article Like Report Computer architecture defines how a computer’s components communicate through electronic signals to perform input, processing, and output operations.It covers the design and organization of the CPU, memory, storage, and input/output devices.Describes how these components interact through buses, control signals, and data pathways.It directly influences the overall speed, functionality, and reliability of a computer system.Computer Organization Basic This section introduces the fundamentals of computer organization and architecture, covering key concepts, system components, data representation, and error-handling basics.Computer Architecture vs Computer OrganizationComponents of a ComputerVon Neumann & Harvard architecturesFlynn's taxonomyNumber SystemsFixed Point RepresentationFloating Point RepresentationCharacter representationError detection and correction codesDigital Logic & MicrooperationsIn digital logic and microoperations section, we have covered logic gates, Boolean algebra, circuit types, RTL, microoperations, and control timing essentials.Logic GatesBoolean AlgebraCombinational Circuits and Sequential CircuitsRegister Transfer Language MicrooperationsControl Signals and TimingCPU Organization & Instruction SetsHere in this section of CPU organization and instruction sets, you will get to know instruction formats, addressing modes, control design, program control types, and advanced execution models like superscalar and multithreading.Instruction Set ArchitectureRepresenting Instructions in ComputersCPU OrganizationsAddressing ModesInstruction FormatsRISC vs CISC ArchitecturesMachine Control Instructions Data Manipulation InstructionsEssential Registers for Instruction ExecutionInstruction CycleControl Unit DesignSubroutines & Stack MemoryTypes of Program Control InstructionsSuperscalar ArchitectureMultithreadingComputer ArithmeticExplore all the concepts of computer arithmetic, including ALU operations, number complements, division algorithms, Booth’s method, overflow handling, and negative number representation.ALU and Data PathComputer Arithmetic | Set 1Computer Arithmetic | Set 2Difference between 1’s complement and 2’s complementRestoring Division AlgorithmNon-Restoring Division Booth’s AlgorithmOverflow in Arithmetic AdditionNegative Number Representation in MemoryMemory OrganizationThis section explains memory organization, covering types of memory, storage hierarchy, addressing methods, virtual memory techniques, and key architectural differences.Memory & Memory UnitsMain Memory Secondary StorageCache MemoryPagingSegmentationVirtual MemoryPage Replacement AlgorithmsTranslation Lookaside BufferRAM vs ROMNUMA vs UMA ArchitecturesMemory InterleavingByte Addressable & Word Addressable MemorySimultaneous vs Hierarchical Access MemoryInput/Output OrganizationThis section covers input/output organization, including interfaces, interrupts, DMA, peripheral devices, synchronization methods, bus systems, and processor communication.Introduction to I/O InterfaceI/O Interface (Interrupt and DMA Mode)Memory mapped I/O and Isolated I/OInterruptsDMAModes of DMA TransferDMA controller 8257/8237Programmable peripheral interface 8255Asynchronous & Synchronous I/O SynchronizationInterface 8255 with 8085 microprocessor for 1’s and 2’s complement of a numberMicrocomputer systemWorking of 8085-based Single board microcomputerInterface 8254 PIT with 8085 microprocessorSynchronous Data TransferInput-Output ProcessorBus SystemsMPU CommunicationBUS ArbitrationPipelining & Parallel ProcessingThis section explains pipelining and parallel processing, covering ILP, execution stages, hazards, VLIW, branch prediction, and Amdahl’s law.Pipelining ConceptsInstruction Level ParallelismExecution, Stages and ThroughputVery Long Instruction Word (VLIW) ArchitectureTypes and StallingDependencies and Data HazardBranch Prediction in PentiumAmdahl's law and its ProofNumber System and IEEE Number Standards This section covers number systems and IEEE standards, including base conversions, fixed and floating-point formats, and IEEE 754 representation.Fixed Point RepresentationIntroduction to Floating Point RepresentationIEEE Standard 754 Floating Point NumbersNumber System and Base ConversionsImportant LinksGenerations of computerMicroprocessorFlynn’s taxonomyMemory BankingEvolution of MicroprocessorsIntroduction to Parallel Computing2D and 2.5D Memory organizationProgramsProgram for Binary To Decimal ConversionProgram for Decimal to Binary ConversionProgram for decimal to octal conversionProgram for octal to decimal conversionProgram for hexadecimal to decimalQuizzes and Problems Links‘Quizzes’ on Computer Organization and Architecture‘Practice Problems’ on Computer Organization and ArchitectureProblem Solving on Instruction FormatQuiz on Number Representation 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K kartik Follow Improve Article Tags : Computer Organization & Architecture Computer Organization and Architecture Similar Reads Computer Organization and Architecture Tutorial Computer architecture defines how a computer’s components communicate through electronic signals to perform input, processing, and output operations.It covers the design and organization of the CPU, memory, storage, and input/output devices.Describes how these components interact through buses, cont 4 min read Basic Computer InstructionsWhat is a Computer?A computer is an electronic device that processes data according to instructions provided by software programs. It takes input (data), processes it using a central processing unit (CPU), stores information, and produces output (results) to perform various tasks.Types of ComputersThere are various ty 8 min read Issues in Computer DesignComputer Design is the structure in which components relate to each other. The designer deals with a particular level of system at a time and there are different types of issues at different levels. At each level, the designer is concerned with the structure and function. The structure is the skelet 3 min read Difference between assembly language and high level languageProgramming Language is categorized into assembly language and high-level language. Assembly-level language is a low-level language that is understandable by machines whereas High-level language is human-understandable language. What is Assembly Language?It is a low-level language that allows users 2 min read Addressing ModesAddressing modes are the techniques used by the CPU to identify where the data needed for an operation is stored. They provide rules for interpreting or modifying the address field in an instruction before accessing the operand.Addressing modes for 8086 instructions are divided into two categories: 7 min read Difference between Memory based and Register based Addressing ModesPrerequisite - Addressing Modes Addressing modes are the operations field specifies the operations which need to be performed. The operation must be executed on some data which is already stored in computer registers or in the memory. The way of choosing operands during program execution is dependen 4 min read Computer Organization - Von Neumann architectureComputer Organization is like understanding the "blueprint" of how a computer works internally. One of the most important models in this field is the Von Neumann architecture, which is the foundation of most modern computers. Named after John von Neumann, this architecture introduced the concept of 6 min read Harvard ArchitectureIn a normal computer that follows von Neumann architecture, instructions, and data both are stored in the same memory. So same buses are used to fetch instructions and data. This means the CPU cannot do both things together (read the instruction and read/write data). So, to overcome this problem, Ha 5 min read Interaction of a Program with HardwareWhen a Programmer writes a program, it is fed into the computer and how does it actually work? So, this article is about the process of how the program code that is written on any text editor is fed to the computer and gets executed. As we all know computers work with only two numbers,i.e. 0s or 1s. 3 min read Simplified Instructional Computer (SIC)Simplified Instructional Computer (SIC) is a hypothetical computer that has hardware features that are often found in real machines. There are two versions of this machine: SIC standard ModelSIC/XE(extra equipment or expensive)Object programs for SIC can be properly executed on SIC/XE which is known 4 min read Instruction Set used in simplified instructional Computer (SIC)Prerequisite - Simplified Instructional Computer (SIC) These are the instructions used in programming the Simplified Instructional Computer(SIC). Here, A stands for Accumulator M stands for Memory CC stands for Condition Code PC stands for Program Counter RMB stands for Right Most Byte L stands for 1 min read Instruction Set used in SIC/XEPre-Requisite: SIC/XE Architecture SIC/XE (Simplified Instructional Computer Extra Equipment or Extra Expensive). SIC/XE is an advanced version of SIC. Both SIC and SIC/XE are closely related to each other that’s why they are Upward Compatible. Below mentioned are the instructions that are used in S 2 min read RISC and CISC in Computer OrganizationRISC is the way to make hardware simpler whereas CISC is the single instruction that handles multiple work. In this article, we are going to discuss RISC and CISC in detail as well as the Difference between RISC and CISC, Let's proceed with RISC first. Reduced Instruction Set Architecture (RISC) The 5 min read Vector processor classificationVector processors have rightfully come into prominence when it comes to designing computing architecture by virtue of how they handle large datasets efficiently. A large portion of this efficiency is due to the retrieval from architectural configurations used in the implementation. Vector processors 5 min read Essential Registers for Instruction ExecutionRegisters are small, fast storage locations directly inside the processor, used to hold data, addresses, and control information during instruction processing. They play an important role in instruction execution within a CPU. Following are various registers required for the execution of instruction 3 min read Introduction of Single Accumulator based CPU organizationThe computers, present in the early days of computer history, had accumulator-based CPUs. In this type of CPU organization, the accumulator register is used implicitly for processing all instructions of a program and storing the results into the accumulator. The instruction format that is used by th 2 min read Stack based CPU OrganizationBased on the number of address fields, CPU organization is of three types: Single Accumulator organization, register based organization and stack based CPU organization.Stack-Based CPU OrganizationThe computers which use Stack-based CPU Organization are based on a data structure called a stack. The 4 min read Machine Control Instructions in MicroprocessorMicroprocessors are electronic devices that process digital information using instructions stored in memory. Machine control instructions are a type of instruction that control machine functions such as Halt, Interrupt, or do nothing. These instructions alter the different type of operations execute 4 min read Very Long Instruction Word (VLIW) ArchitectureThe limitations of the Superscalar processor are prominent as the difficulty of scheduling instruction becomes complex. The intrinsic parallelism in the instruction stream, complexity, cost, and the branch instruction issue get resolved by a higher instruction set architecture called the Very Long I 4 min read Input and Output SystemsComputer Organization | Different Instruction CyclesIntroduction : Prerequisite - Execution, Stages and Throughput Registers Involved In Each Instruction Cycle: Memory address registers(MAR) : It is connected to the address lines of the system bus. It specifies the address in memory for a read or write operation.Memory Buffer Register(MBR) : It is co 11 min read Machine InstructionsMachine Instructions are commands or programs written in the machine code of a machine (computer) that it can recognize and execute. A machine instruction consists of several bytes in memory that tell the processor to perform one machine operation. The processor looks at machine instructions in main 5 min read Computer Organization | Instruction Formats (Zero, One, Two and Three Address Instruction)Instruction formats refer to the way instructions are encoded and represented in machine language. There are several types of instruction formats, including zero, one, two, and three-address instructions. Each type of instruction format has its own advantages and disadvantages in terms of code size, 11 min read Difference between 2-address instruction and 1-address instructionsWhen we convert a High-level language into a low-level language so that a computer can understand the program we require a compiler. The compiler converts programming statements into binary instructions. Instructions are nothing but a group of bits that instruct the computer to perform some operatio 4 min read Difference between 3-address instruction and 0-address instructionAccording to how many addresses an instruction consumes for arguments, instructions can be grouped. Two numerous kinds of instructions are 3 address and 0 address instructions. It is crucial to comprehend the distinction between these two, in order to know how different processors function in relati 4 min read Register content and Flag status after InstructionsBasically, you are given a set of instructions and the initial content of the registers and flags of 8085 microprocessor. You have to find the content of the registers and flag status after each instruction. Initially, Below is the set of the instructions: SUB A MOV B, A DCR B INR B SUI 01H HLT Assu 3 min read Debugging a machine level programDebugging is the process of identifying and removing bug from software or program. It refers to identification of errors in the program logic, machine codes, and execution. It gives step by step information about the execution of code to identify the fault in the program. Debugging of machine code: 3 min read Vector Instruction Format in Vector ProcessorsINTRODUCTION: Vector instruction format is a type of instruction format used in vector processors, which are specialized types of microprocessors that are designed to perform vector operations efficiently. In a vector processor, a single instruction can operate on multiple data elements in parallel, 7 min read Vector Instruction TypesAn ordered collection of elements — the length of which is determined by the number of elements—is referred to as a vector operand in computer architecture and programming. A vector contains just one kind of element per element, whether it is an integer, logical value, floating-point number, or char 4 min read Instruction Design and FormatIntroduction of ALU and Data PathRepresenting and storing numbers were the basic operations of the computers of earlier times. The real go came when computation, manipulating numbers like adding and multiplying came into the picture. These operations are handled by the computer's arithmetic logic unit (ALU). The ALU is the mathemat 8 min read Computer Arithmetic | Set - 1Negative Number Representation Sign Magnitude Sign magnitude is a very simple representation of negative numbers. In sign magnitude the first bit is dedicated to represent the sign and hence it is called sign bit. Sign bit ‘1’ represents negative sign. Sign bit ‘0’ represents positive sign. In sign 5 min read Computer Arithmetic | Set - 2FLOATING POINT ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION FLOATING POINT ADDITION To understand floating point addition, first we see addition of real numbers in decimal as same logic is applied in both cases. For example, we have to add 1.1 * 103 and 50. We cannot add these numbers directly. First, we need to align 4 min read Difference Between 1's Complement Representation and 2's Complement Representation TechniqueIn computer science, binary number representations like 1's complement and 2's complement are essential for performing arithmetic operations and encoding negative numbers in digital systems. Understanding the differences between these two techniques is crucial for knowing how computers handle signed 5 min read Restoring Division Algorithm For Unsigned IntegerThe Restoring Division Algorithm is an integral procedure employed when calculating division on unsigned numbers. It is particularly beneficial in the digital computing application whereby base-two arithmetic is discrete. As a distinct from other algorithms, the Restoring Division Algorithm divides 5 min read Non-Restoring Division For Unsigned IntegerThe non-restoring division is a division technique for unsigned binary values that simplifies the procedure by eliminating the restoring phase. The non-restoring division is simpler and more effective than restoring division since it just employs addition and subtraction operations instead of restor 4 min read Computer Organization | Booth's AlgorithmBooth algorithm gives a procedure for multiplying binary integers in signed 2’s complement representation in efficient way, i.e., less number of additions/subtractions required. It operates on the fact that strings of 0’s in the multiplier require no addition but just shifting and a string of 1’s in 7 min read How the negative numbers are stored in memory?Prerequisite - Base conversions, 1’s and 2’s complement of a binary number, 2’s complement of a binary string Suppose the following fragment of code, int a = -34; Now how will this be stored in memory. So here is the complete theory. Whenever a number with minus sign is encountered, the number (igno 2 min read Microprogrammed ControlComputer Organization | Micro-OperationIn computer organization, a micro-operation refers to the smallest tasks performed by the CPU's control unit. These micro-operations helps to execute complex instructions. They involve simple tasks like moving data between registers, performing arithmetic calculations, or executing logic operations. 3 min read Microarchitecture and Instruction Set ArchitectureIn this article, we look at what an Instruction Set Architecture (ISA) is and what is the difference between an 'ISA' and Microarchitecture. An ISA is defined as the design of a computer from the Programmer's Perspective. This basically means that an ISA describes the design of a Computer in terms o 5 min read Types of Program Control InstructionsIn microprocessor and Microcontroller ,program control instructions guide how a computer executes a program by allowing changes in the normal flow of operations. These instructions help in making decisions, repeating tasks, or stopping the program.What is Program Control Instructions ?Program Contro 6 min read Difference between CALL and JUMP instructionsIn assembly language as well as in low level programming CALL and JUMP are the two major control transfer instructions. Both instructions enable a program to go to different other parts of the code but both are different. CALL is mostly used to direct calls to subroutine or a function and regresses 5 min read Computer Organization | Hardwired v/s Micro-programmed Control UnitIntroduction :In computer architecture, the control unit is responsible for directing the flow of data and instructions within the CPU. There are two main approaches to implementing a control unit: hardwired and micro-programmed.A hardwired control unit is a control unit that uses a fixed set of log 5 min read Implementation of Micro Instructions SequencerThe address is used by a microprogram sequencer to decide which microinstruction has to be performed next. Microprogram sequencing is the name of the total procedure. The addresses needed to step through a control store's microprogram are created by a sequencer, also known as a microsequencer. The c 4 min read Performance of Computer in Computer OrganizationIn computer organization, performance refers to the speed and efficiency at which a computer system can execute tasks and process data. A high-performing computer system is one that can perform tasks quickly and efficiently while minimizing the amount of time and resources required to complete these 5 min read Introduction of Control Unit and its DesignA Central Processing Unit is the most important component of a computer system. A control unit is a part of the CPU. A control unit controls the operations of all parts of the computer but it does not carry out any data processing operations. What is a Control Unit?The Control Unit is the part of th 10 min read Computer Organization | Amdahl's law and its proofIt is named after computer scientist Gene Amdahl( a computer architect from IBM and Amdahl corporation) and was presented at the AFIPS Spring Joint Computer Conference in 1967. It is also known as Amdahl's argument. It is a formula that gives the theoretical speedup in latency of the execution of a 6 min read Subroutine, Subroutine nesting and Stack memoryIn computer programming, Instructions that are frequently used in the program are termed Subroutines. This article will provide a detailed discussion on Subroutines, Subroutine Nesting, and Stack Memory. Additionally, we will explore the advantages and disadvantages of these topics. Let's begin with 5 min read Different Types of RAM (Random Access Memory )In the computer world, memory plays an important component in determining the performance and efficiency of a system. In between various types of memory, Random Access Memory (RAM) stands out as a necessary component that enables computers to process and store data temporarily. In this article, we w 8 min read Random Access Memory (RAM) and Read Only Memory (ROM)Memory is a fundamental component of computing systems, essential for performing various tasks efficiently. It plays a crucial role in how computers operate, influencing speed, performance, and data management. In the realm of computer memory, two primary types stand out: Random Access Memory (RAM) 8 min read 2D and 2.5D Memory organizationThe internal structure of Memory either RAM or ROM is made up of memory cells that contain a memory bit. A group of 8 bits makes a byte. The memory is in the form of a multidimensional array of rows and columns. In which, each cell stores a bit and a complete row contains a word. A memory simply can 4 min read Input and Output OrganizationPriority Interrupts | (S/W Polling and Daisy Chaining)In I/O Interface (Interrupt and DMA Mode), we have discussed the concept behind the Interrupt-initiated I/O. To summarize, when I/O devices are ready for I/O transfer, they generate an interrupt request signal to the computer. The CPU receives this signal, suspends the current instructions it is exe 5 min read I/O Interface (Interrupt and DMA Mode)The method that is used to transfer information between internal storage and external I/O devices is known as I/O interface. The CPU is interfaced using special communication links by the peripherals connected to any computer system. These communication links are used to resolve the differences betw 6 min read Direct memory access with DMA controller 8257/8237Suppose any device which is connected to input-output port wants to transfer data to memory, first of all it will send input-output port address and control signal, input-output read to input-output port, then it will send memory address and memory write signal to memory where data has to be transfe 3 min read Computer Organization | Asynchronous input output synchronizationIntroduction : Asynchronous input/output (I/O) synchronization is a technique used in computer organization to manage the transfer of data between the central processing unit (CPU) and external devices. In asynchronous I/O synchronization, data transfer occurs at an unpredictable rate, with no fixed 7 min read Programmable peripheral interface 8255PPI 8255 is a general purpose programmable I/O device designed to interface the CPU with its outside world such as ADC, DAC, keyboard etc. We can program it according to the given condition. It can be used with almost any microprocessor. It consists of three 8-bit bidirectional I/O ports i.e. PORT A 4 min read Synchronous Data Transfer in Computer OrganizationIn Synchronous Data Transfer, the sending and receiving units are enabled with the same clock signal. It is possible between two units when each of them knows the behaviour of the other. The master performs a sequence of instructions for data transfer in a predefined order. All these actions are syn 4 min read Introduction of Input-Output ProcessorThe DMA mode of data transfer reduces the CPU's overhead when handling I/O operations. It also allows parallel processing between CPU and I/O operations. This parallelism is necessary to avoid the wastage of valuable CPU time when handling I/O devices whose speeds are much slower as compared to CPU. 5 min read MPU Communication in Computer OrganizationMPU communicates with the outside world with the help of some external devices which are known as Input/Output devices. The MPU accepts the binary data from input devices such as keyboard and analog/digital converters and sends data to output devices such as printers and LEDs. For performing this ta 4 min read Memory Mapped I/O and Isolated I/OCPU needs to communicate with the various memory and input-output devices (I/O). Data between the processor and these devices flow with the help of the system bus. There are three ways in which system bus can be allotted to them:Separate set of address, control and data bus to I/O and memory.Have co 5 min read Memory OrganizationIntroduction to memory and memory unitsMemory is required to save data and instructions. Memory is divided into cells, and they are stored in the storage space present in the computer. Every cell has its unique location/address. Memory is very essential for a computer as this is the way it becomes somewhat more similar to a human brain. 11 min read Memory Hierarchy Design and its CharacteristicsIn the Computer System Design, Memory Hierarchy is an enhancement to organize the memory such that it can minimize the access time. The Memory Hierarchy was developed based on a program behavior known as locality of references (same data or nearby data is likely to be accessed again and again). The 6 min read Register Allocations in Code GenerationRegisters are the fastest locations in the memory hierarchy. But unfortunately, this resource is limited. It comes under the most constrained resources of the target processor. Register allocation is an NP-complete problem. However, this problem can be reduced to graph coloring to achieve allocation 6 min read Cache MemoryCache memory is a small, fast storage space within a computer. It holds duplicates of data from commonly accessed locations in the main memory. The CPU contains several separate caches that store both instructions and data.Cache Memory The key function of cache memory is to reduce the average time n 5 min read Cache Organization | Set 1 (Introduction)Cache is close to CPU and faster than main memory. But at the same time is smaller than main memory. The cache organization is about mapping data in memory to a location in cache. A Simple Solution: One way to go about this mapping is to consider last few bits of long memory address to find small ca 3 min read Multilevel Cache OrganisationCache is a type of random access memory (RAM) used by the CPU to reduce the average time required to access data from memory. Multilevel caches are one of the techniques used to improve cache performance by reducing the miss penalty. The miss penalty refers to the additional time needed to retrieve 6 min read Difference between RAM and ROMMemory is an important part of the Computer which is responsible for storing data and information on a temporary or permanent basis. Memory can be classified into two broad categories: Primary Memory Secondary Memory What is Primary Memory? Primary Memory is a type of Computer Memory that the Prepro 7 min read Difference Between CPU Cache and TLBThe CPU Cache and Translation Lookaside Buffer (TLB) are two important microprocessor hardware components that improve system performance, although they have distinct functions. Even though some people may refer to TLB as a kind of cache, it's important to recognize the different functions they serv 4 min read Introduction to Solid-State Drive (SSD)A Solid-State Drive (SSD) is a non-volatile storage device that stores data without using any moving parts, unlike traditional Hard Disk Drives (HDDs), which have spinning disks and mechanical read/write heads. Because of this, SSDs are much faster, more durable, and quieter than HDDs. They load fil 7 min read Read and Write operations in MemoryA memory unit stores binary information in groups of bits called words. Data input lines provide the information to be stored into the memory, Data output lines carry the information out from the memory. The control lines Read and write specifies the direction of transfer of data. Basically, in the 3 min read PipeliningInstruction Level ParallelismInstruction Level Parallelism (ILP) is used to refer to the architecture in which multiple operations can be performed parallelly in a particular process, with its own set of resources - address space, registers, identifiers, state, and program counters. It refers to the compiler design techniques a 5 min read Computer Organization and Architecture | Pipelining | Set 1 (Execution, Stages and Throughput)Pipelining is a technique used in modern processors to improve performance by executing multiple instructions simultaneously. It breaks down the execution of instructions into several stages, where each stage completes a part of the instruction. These stages can overlap, allowing the processor to wo 9 min read Computer Organization and Architecture | Pipelining | Set 3 (Types and Stalling)Please see Set 1 for Execution, Stages and Performance (Throughput) and Set 2 for Dependencies and Data Hazard. Types of pipeline Uniform delay pipeline In this type of pipeline, all the stages will take same time to complete an operation. In uniform delay pipeline, Cycle Time (Tp) = Stage Delay If 3 min read Computer Organization and Architecture | Pipelining | Set 2 (Dependencies and Data Hazard)Please see Set 1 for Execution, Stages and Performance (Throughput) and Set 3 for Types of Pipeline and Stalling. Dependencies in a pipelined processor There are mainly three types of dependencies possible in a pipelined processor. These are : 1) Structural Dependency 2) Control Dependency 3) Data D 6 min read Last Minute Notes Computer Organization Table of ContentBasic TerminologyInstruction Set and Addressing ModesInstruction Design and FormatControl UnitMemory Organization I/O InterfacePipeliningIEEE Standard 754 Floating Point NumbersBasic TerminologyControl Unit - A control unit (CU) handles all processor control signals. It directs all i 15+ min read COA GATE PYQ's AND COA QuizGATE CS PreparationPreparing for the GATE exam can be straightforward if you know the right steps to take. This brief GATE CSE Preparation Guide will help you get started and stay on track as you prepare for one of the most important exams for admissions into IITs, NITs and other government colleges.Let's get started: 3 min read Like