Basic English Grammar For Dummies - US

Introduction

Someone important — a teacher or a boss — is judging your work and wants you to submit a self-evaluation. You begin to write:

I had given I gived I gave alot of a lot of much thought to all my work. I believe my performance is really real excellent. Everyone praised the most recent project the more recent the project about stocks and bonds.

What a headache! You know what you want to say. You're just not sure how to say it. Fortunately, help is on the way. In fact, it’s already here. Basic English Grammar For Dummies, 2nd edition, explains what you need to know about writing reports, texts, presentation slides, letters, and, well, anything. Instead of listing outdated rules, Basic English Grammar For Dummies, 2nd edition, focuses on current usage — what’s correct today.

Does that last bit surprise you? When you’re sitting in an English classroom, grammar rules seem set in stone. They’re not. Human beings create language. Because human beings change, language does too. Pronouns (words that stand in for names of people, places, and things) are a good example. Thou and thy have faded, and they has recaptured an old meaning, which I explain in the boxed text. Punctuation is also different. Old books contain more commas ( , ) and fewer exclamation points ( ! ) than today’s works.

A NOTE ABOUT PRONOUNS

A pronoun is a word that stands in for a noun or another pronoun. Because of pronouns, you can write George said that he forgot his phone instead of George said that George forgot George’s phone. The pronouns he and his make the sentence flow more smoothly.

A pronoun must match the word it refers to. A singular pronoun (referring to one) pairs with a singular noun or another singular pronoun. A plural pronoun (referring to more than one) pairs with a plural noun or another plural pronoun. Gender matters, too. Some pronouns are masculine (he, him, his), some are feminine (she, her, hers), and others are neuter (it and they when referring to objects, ideas, or places). The rules for these pronouns have stayed the same. So have the rules for pronouns referring to a group of people (they, them, their, theirs).

The rules have changed, though, when a pronoun refers to a person whose gender is unknown or not accurately described as male or female. For these situations, many grammarians (including me) select they, them, their, and theirs. Each of these pronouns may be either singular or plural, depending on the word it refers to. Take a look at some examples:

The children ate their lunches. (The plural pronoun their pairs with the plural noun children.)

If anyone forgot their lunch, the teacher will give them something to eat. (The singular pronouns their and them refer to the singular pronoun anyone.)

Alix arrived late because they were stuck in traffic. (The singular pronoun they pairs with the singular noun Alix, the pronoun Alix prefers.)

The first two examples may look familiar to you. From the 14th century onward, they, them, and their have been used to refer to one person or a group, just as the pronoun you does. In the 18th century, though, a few grammarians decided that the pronouns they, them, their, and theirs were correct only for references to a group. According to these grammarians, the forms he, him, and his and she, her, and hers were the only appropriate references to one person. If the gender was unknown, he, him, and his were said to be the proper choice. You can imagine how popular this decision was with supporters of women’s equality! In the late 20th century, many writers used pairs — he or she, him or her, and his or her — for singular references. That practice often resulted in awkward sentences like Everyone must bring his or her gym suit with him or her. Paired pronouns also ignore people whose identity isn’t described by a male or female label, the situation in the third example about Alix. The singular they/them/their/theirs solves these problems.

It may take a while to get used to they as a singular word. If you’re expecting one dinner guest and hear they're on the way, you may rush to cook more food before you remember that they is your guest's preferred pronoun. You may also find yourself writing for an authority figure who insists you use they, them, their, and theirs as plurals only. In that situation, you can reword the sentence to avoid pronouns. For more examples and information about pronouns, see Chapter 4.

About This Book

The goal of Basic English Grammar For Dummies, 2nd edition, is to help you improve your speaking and writing skills, not to add fancy grammar terms to your vocabulary. For this reason, I explain what you need to know in ordinary, nonteacher language. If I can’t avoid a technical term, I immediately define it and provide examples.

With every grammar rule, I give you a few practice questions. I also provide the answers, so you can check whether you’ve understood the concept. If I mention an idea but do not explain it immediately, I direct you to a chapter that contains more information.

How This Book Is Organized

When they hear the word grammar, many people imagine a teacher wagging a finger while saying, Don’t do this! or Always do that! In my mind, grammar is an umbrella covering all the things that factor into the way people speak and write, from the form of words to the nature of a complete sentence to punctuation and much, much more. Because grammar is a broad subject, in this book I break it into manageable chunks.

Part 1: Getting Started with Basic English Grammar

Part one takes you on a tour of the elements of English grammar and then explains how to adjust your level of formality to suit your purpose, situation, audience, and medium.

Part 2: Parts of Speech

Each chapter in this part explains how to identify and use these building blocks of language: nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections. (You’ll love the last one. It’s nearly impossible to make a mistake with an interjection.)

Part 3: Creating Correct Sentences

Sentences are like hangers in your closet. They organize ideas! This part surveys the elements of a sentence (verbs, subjects, complements) and explains how to write complete, grammatically correct sentences.

Part 4: Punctuation and Capitalization

If you’ve ever asked yourself whether you need a capital letter or if you’ve ever puzzled over quotation marks and commas, Part 4 is for you. I discuss each punctuation mark: its meaning, usage, and placement. I also explain the most common situations requiring capital letters.

Part 5: Grammar in Action

This part takes grammar into the real world: first to texts and messages and posts on the internet and then to the workplace and classroom. Along the way, you learn how to format presentation slides and bulleted lists, both essential to modern writing.

Part 6: Fine-Tuning Your Writing

Part 6 shows you how to avoid falling into tricky word traps and how to sidestep common grammar errors. This part also covers some advanced — okay, picky — points of the language, such as the mood and voice of verbs and the difference between who and whom.

Part 7: The Part of Tens

Spelling checkers are good, but learning basic spelling rules is better. This part also explains when and how to consult a dictionary and lists five always and five never rules of English.

Foolish Assumptions

I don’t know who you are, but I have already spent some time with you — the reader I imagine. When I write, I keep you, the reader, in my mind. This is how I see you:

You know the language, but you are open to learning more.

You want a firmer grasp of the rules of Standard English, the formal language of educated people.

You’re busy. You don’t want to waste time memorizing facts you will never need.

You enjoy a little humor.

Have I described you accurately? I hope so.

Conventions Used in This Book

To help you navigate through this book, I use the following conventions:

Italic is used to emphasize and highlight new words or defined terms.

Boldfaced text indicates keywords in bulleted lists or the action part of numbered steps.

Underlining calls your attention to a particular spot in a word or a sentence.

Monofont is used for web addresses.

Sidebars, which look like text enclosed in a shaded gray box, consist of information that’s interesting to know but not necessarily critical to your understanding of the chapter or section topic.

Icons Used in This Book

Flip through Basic English Grammar For Dummies, 2nd edition. Small drawings appear in the margin. Those pictures are called icons. Icons alert you in these ways:

Tip This icon signals a shortcut or an extra bit of information. A tip is a whisper in your ear, helping you master a grammar rule.

Warning This icon tells you where errors often pop up, so you can avoid mistakes.

Yourturn For every topic, you find a few questions labeled with this icon. Answer them to see whether you have mastered the material.

Remember Key ideas appear with this icon.

Beyond the Book

Like me, you probably spend a lot of time on the internet. I have placed extra material there, to add to what you find on the screen of your e-reader or between the paper covers of Basic English Grammar For Dummies, 2nd edition. Here’s what you get, all for free:

Cheat Sheet: The Cheat Sheet lists important facts from this book. Print it out and tape it to your desk or put it in your pocket. Glance at the Cheat Sheet at http://www.dummies.com/cheatsheet/basicenglishgrammar when you want to refresh your memory about key grammar rules.

An extra Part of Tens: The last two chapters in this book are lists. One explains five always and five never rules for proper English. The other reviews spelling rules. For a chapter listing ten easy ways to improve your writing skills, go to http://www.dummies.com/extras/basicenglishgrammar.

Articles: I love language, and I have more to say about every topic in this book. For articles that tell you a little bit more about parts of speech, parts of a sentence, and other aspects of grammar, go to www.dummies.com.

If you want to study advanced grammar topics, you’ll find them in another book I wrote, All-in-One English Grammar For Dummies. That book includes many quizzes and exercises on basic and advanced topics. You can practice until you’re perfect!

Where to Go From Here

You don’t have to read Basic English Grammar For Dummies in order. Nor do you have to read the entire book. You can, of course. If you do, you will be my favorite reader.

I realize, however, that you’re busy. You probably want to select just what you need. To get started, read the Table of Contents. Mark off topics that interest or puzzle you. You should also take a look at the table at the end of Chapter 2, which presents common grammar issues and tells you which chapters explain them. Read the chapters you’ve selected.

Another way to personalize your approach to grammar starts with the question sets in each chapter. Try some. If you get everything right, feel free to skip that section. (Also, take a moment to pat yourself on the back for a job well done.) If something stumps you, spend some time in that section of the book. Read the explanations, and glance at related material in other chapters.

If you’re facing a specific task — a school report or a work presentation, perhaps — turn to Part 5. There, you find information about common writing formats. Check out the online material, too.

No matter which path you choose to follow through Basic English Grammar For Dummies, 2nd edition, you will arrive at the same place. You will be a stronger, more confident writer and speaker.

Part 1

Getting Started with Basic English Grammar

IN THIS PART …

Surveying the elements of grammar

Adjusting levels of formality to suit your audience and purpose

Chapter 1

Getting a Grip on Grammar

IN THIS CHAPTER

Bullet Surveying the basic elements of grammar

Bullet Sorting out style

Bullet Coping with everyday writing tasks

Afriend recently told me that studying grammar was a waste of time. "Who cares whether somebody says had gone or went? he added. The world has more important problems!" My response was that grammar does matter. People may judge your intelligence and ability based on the way you speak and write. Standard English, the term given to language that follows commonly accepted rules, can lead to better jobs and higher grades. In this chapter, you survey key elements of Standard English.

Getting to Know the Ingredients of Standard English

When you bake a cake, you need all the right ingredients. If you forget one, the cake is tasteless. English has a number of ingredients, too. You can’t ignore any if you wish to express yourself properly in Standard English. Here are the ingredients:

Parts of speech: Words are like people. Both base a portion of their identity on the work they do. Words that name people or things, for example, are nouns. English teachers call the identity of a word the part of speech. Understanding how to select the appropriate part of speech is an important aspect of grammar.

Parts of a sentence: Words seldom like to be alone. (This is another quality that words and people have in common.) When words join together, they form sentences. Complete sentences are essential in formal writing.

Mechanics: Surprised? Usually, mechanics repair cars and other machines. In language, the term mechanics refers to the little things that help readers understand what you mean. Spelling and capitalization are included in mechanics, as well as punctuation, the placement of periods, commas, question marks, and other symbols. Without proper mechanics, your writing suffers.

Word order: In English, location partly determines meaning. The dog bit John is different from John bit the dog. In the first version, the dog is in trouble. In the second, John has a problem. You should know the rules that govern the placement of words.

Word choice: Some words sound alike (eye and I, for example). Others are nearly twins (for instance, affect and effect). Selecting the wrong word can wreck your writing.

Word forms: Today, I walk. Yesterday, I walked. The form of the word walk changes to reveal the time period of the action. Knowing the correct form is essential.

The rules for word forms and word order have changed only a few times in the last 500 years. Style — the preferred capitalization, punctuation, and word choice — shifts more frequently. That’s why a 19th-century book seems odd to modern readers. Style changes with geography, too. In a list of three or more items, American writers usually place a comma before the word and. British writers generally omit that comma. Style also depends on context. Science journals and literary magazines capitalize titles differently, for example.

Tip In Basic English Grammar For Dummies, 2nd edition, I explain current style points that most authorities agree on. For important projects, you can ask your teachers or supervisors to explain their preferred style. You can also consult a manual. Many schools and companies publish their own manuals of style, explaining every detail of what you must or must not write. A few popular manuals are available in bookstores and libraries. Select one that covers your field of interest. Some popular manuals are the Modern Language Association Handbook (literature, history, arts), The Chicago Manual of Style (general writing), the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (science), and the MIT Guide to Science and Engineering Communication (science, math, technology). If you’re keeping score at home, this book follows The Chicago Manual of Style.

Building Language, Block by Block: Parts of Speech

According to one survey, the English language includes more than one million words. All those words can be sorted into one of eight boxes: the parts of speech. Take a look at the Big Eight:

Nouns

Pronouns

Verbs

Adjectives

Adverbs

Prepositions

Conjunctions

Interjections

Not every box has the same number of words in it. The interjection container is light. The noun and verb containers are huge. The other boxes fall somewhere in between.

To give you an idea of how the parts of speech look within a sentence, here are some examples. The parts of speech are underlined and labeled:

Nora likes algebra. (Nora and algebra are nouns.)

I told you the story already. (I and you are pronouns.)

The baby shook the rattle. (Shook is a verb.)

Great speeches require intense practice. (Great and intense are adjectives.)

Glen wrote his name carefully and correctly. (Carefully and correctly are adverbs.)

A play by that author received great reviews from the critics. (By and from are prepositions.)

Nora and Faisal like opera, but Sal prefers jazz. (And and but are conjunctions.)

Wow, those tickets are expensive! (Wow is an interjection.)

Most of the time, you think only about the meaning of a word, not its part of speech. However, some important grammar rules depend upon knowing the difference between one part of speech and another. For example, an adjective is a word that describes people, places, or things. An adverb is also a description, but it can’t do an adjective’s job.

Take a look at these examples. Pay close attention to the underlined words:

WRONG: Today the weather is beautifully.

WHY IT’S WRONG: Beautifully is an adverb. You need an adjective here.

RIGHT: Today the weather is beautiful.

WHY IT’S RIGHT: The adjective beautiful works well here.

WRONG: Bill and Tina agenda the next meeting.

WHY IT’S WRONG: Agenda is a noun. You need an action word (a verb).

RIGHT: Bill and Tina wrote the agenda for the next meeting.

WHY IT’S RIGHT: The verb wrote provides the action. Agenda correctly appears as a noun.

WRONG: The puppy lifted it’s paw.

WHY IT’S WRONG: You need a pronoun in this spot. It’s means it is.

RIGHT: The puppy lifted its paw.

WHY IT’S RIGHT: Its is a pronoun.

In Part 2, you find in-depth information on every part of speech. Well, every part of speech except for interjections. An interjection is a word that briefly comments on the rest of the sentence. Ouch, wow, and oh are interjections. I don’t provide in-depth commentary on interjections. They have no depth! They simply add a little interest to your conversation.

Tip Every dictionary tells you the part of speech of the word, usually right in front of the definition. Some words may have several labels because they change their identity in different sentences. For more information on how to understand every part of a dictionary definition, see Chapter 24.

Making Sentences

A judge sentences criminals to prison. There, criminals must follow many rules. You may feel that English sentences are prisons, too. So many rules apply to them! However, English sentences are definitely not prisons. They are structures to hold your thoughts. They help your reader pick apart one idea from another. Take a peek at this paragraph:

going to the beach bad idea no pets allowed want take the dog he does not bite you know kind and friendly he is to the park instead

Oh, my! In that paragraph, all the ideas are jumbled together. Now take another look at the same paragraph, this time with proper sentences:

Going to the beach is a bad idea. No pets are allowed. I want to take the dog. He does not bite. You know how kind and friendly he is. We should go to the park instead.

This one is easier to understand, isn’t it? The extra words, capital letters, and punctuation organize your thoughts into complete sentences.

Tip Complete and proper sentences are not always necessary. When you speak with your friends, for instance, you may use half-sentences. Read this conversation. Imagine that Joe and Barbara are speaking to or texting each other:

Joe: Want to go to the beach?

Barbara: Not without my dog.

Joe: Okay, the park instead.

These comments work well because Joe and Barbara are not in a formal situation. To find out when formal English is necessary and when conversational English will do, turn to Chapter 2. For more about grammar and texting, see Chapter 18.

To create grammatically correct sentences, you must pay attention to several issues. The following sections briefly show you these issues.

Action or being words

Every sentence has at least one word that expresses action or being. That word is a verb. In these sentences, the verbs are underlined:

Candice loves her ring. (loves = action word)

Rex ate every dog biscuit in the box. (ate = action word)

Alonzo will be pleased with your work. (will be = being words)

Were the lights on? (Were = being word)

Selecting the right verb form is important. Glance at these examples. Notice the underlined verbs:

WRONG: You was wrong.

WHY IT’S WRONG: In Standard English, the verb form was doesn’t pair properly with you.

RIGHT: You were wrong.

WHY IT’S RIGHT: Were is the verb form that matches you. (To learn more about this topic, see Chapter 5.)

WRONG: The mayor speaked to voters yesterday.

WHY IT’S WRONG: Speaked is not correct in Standard English.

RIGHT: The mayor spoke to voters yesterday.

WHY IT’S RIGHT: Spoke is the irregular verb form you need in this sentence. (More information on irregular verb forms appears in Chapter 10.)

WRONG: John studying for his exam.

WHY IT’S WRONG: The verb form studying is not complete.

RIGHT: John is studying for his exam.

WHY IT’S RIGHT: Now the verb is complete. (See Chapter 9 for more about these verb forms.)

As you see, you can make many mistakes with verbs. The chapters I mention in the preceding examples will help you avoid errors.

Subjects

In a sentence, someone or something does the action or exists in the state of being. That word is the subject. Notice the underlined subjects in these sentences:

Cindy arrived at ten o’clock. (Cindy = subject)

We had sandwiches for lunch. (We = subject)

The sandwiches were delicious. (sandwiches = subject)

Do you like peanut butter? (you = subject)

It is smooth and sticky. (It = subject)

Jelly and jam go well with peanut butter. (Jelly and jam = subjects)

Most times, you know who or what you want to write about. The subject, in other words, is usually easy to select. When the subject is a pronoun, errors often occur. Examine these examples. The underlined words are important:

WRONG: Him and John failed the Latin test.

WHY IT’S WRONG: In Standard English, him can’t be a subject.

RIGHT: He and John failed the Latin test.

WHY IT’S RIGHT: He is a proper subject.

WRONG: Are youse ready?

WHY IT’S WRONG: Youse is not the plural of you in Standard English.

RIGHT: Are you ready?

WHY IT’S RIGHT: You is Standard English. You is both singular (one) and plural (more than one).

WRONG: Us friends should stick together.

WHY IT’S WRONG: Us is not a subject pronoun in Standard English.

RIGHT: We friends should stick together.

WHY IT’S RIGHT: We is a subject pronoun in Standard English.

Chapter 4 explains which pronouns work as subjects.

Pairing subjects with verbs can also cause trouble. Check these examples. Pay attention to the underlined words:

WRONG: Mr. Smith and Ms. Jones has been promoted.

WHY IT’S WRONG: Has been promoted pairs up with one person. In this sentence, you have two people, Mr. Smith and Ms. Jones.

RIGHT: Mr. Smith and Ms. Jones have been promoted.

WHY IT’S RIGHT: The verb have been promoted matches well with Mr. Smith and Ms. Jones. Both are plural (more than one).

WRONG: The list of grammar rules are too long.

WHY IT’S WRONG: The subject of the sentence is list, a singular word. It cannot pair with are, a plural verb form. Did you focus on rules? Rules is not the subject of this sentence. It’s part of a description, of grammar rules.

RIGHT: The list of grammar rules is too long.

WHY IT’S RIGHT: The singular verb form, is, pairs correctly with the singular subject, list.

To find out more about matching singular subjects to singular verb forms and plural subjects to plural verb forms, check out Chapter 11.

Complements and descriptions

Your thoughts are rich and varied. You want to say more than Mary is or I run. Some elements, called complements, complete ideas. In these sentences, the complements are underlined:

Mary is happy.

Deborah mailed the letter.

Meera and Drew are always nervous in the dentist’s office.

Give Jean her pizza.

Did you tell Bob the secret?

Usually, complements fall into place correctly. Pronouns can cause problems when they act as complements. (Have you noticed that pronouns are troublemakers?) For more information on complements, check out Chapter 12. To sort out pronouns, see Chapter 4.

Your writing would be very boring without descriptions. Notice the underlined descriptions in these examples:

Every morning, I run through the park.

Pink paint covered the bumpy wall.

Silk thread is more expensive than cotton thread.

Wind in that area blows the fallen leaves away.

The book of speeches helped me prepare for graduation.

Singing, the choir entered the church.

As you see, descriptions come in many shapes and sizes. Chapter 6 explains what type of description is best for every situation.

Small but Important: Punctuating, Capitalizing, and Spelling

Punctuation marks, capital letters, and spelling may seem unimportant. Don’t overlook these little things, though. They add more to your writing than you may expect. Take punctuation, for example. Some years ago, a dairy company had to pay $5 million to its drivers because of a missing comma in a state law! This section gives you an overview of punctuation, capitalization, and spelling.

Punctuation

You can’t read without punctuation, the little marks that show the reader where to pause, when someone is speaking, and so on. These are the basic punctuation marks that you should know:

Apostrophe: This is a little curved hook above the line. An apostrophe, along with the letter s, shows possession:

Ellen’s car (Ellen owns the car.)

the boys’ locker room (The locker room belongs to the boys.)

the Vice President’s staff (The staff belongs to the Vice President.)

states’ rights (The rights belong to the states.)

Apostrophes also shorten words:

Annie doesn’t ice skate. (Here, doesn’t is short for does not)

I’m excited that vacation is finally here. (I’m is short for I am.)

Isn’t that lemonade too cold? (Isn’t is short for is not.)

To learn more about apostrophes, turn to Chapter 14.

Period, question mark, exclamation point: These three punctuation marks signal the end of a sentence. A period is a little dot. It follows a sentence that makes a statement. A question mark is made from a curve and a dot. It follows a sentence that asks a question. An exclamation point is a vertical line and a dot. It shows emphasis — the punctuation mark that shouts. Look at these punctuation marks in action:

Mary’s socks are blue. (The period ends the statement.)

Are Tim’s shoes blue also? (The question mark ends the question.)

No, they are not! (The exclamation point adds emphasis.)

To learn more about these three important punctuation marks, see Chapter 13.

Comma: This little curved hook starts on the line and reaches below. A comma tells the reader to pause. Notice the commas in these sentences:

Katie, my friend, is visiting from Chicago.

Katie arrived yesterday, but she has to leave tomorrow.

Chicago, which is in the state of Illinois, is a large city.

Tim, have you ever visited Chicago?

If you