Flight Instructor Oral Exam Guide: Comprehensive preparation for the FAA checkride

Flight Instructor Oral Exam Guide

Eighth Edition

by Michael D. Hayes

Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc.

7005 132nd Place SE

Newcastle, Washington 98059-3153

[email protected] | 425-235-1500 | asa2fly.com

© 2023 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc.

All rights reserved. First edition published 1994. Eighth edition published 2023.

See the ASA website at asa2fly.com/oegcfi for Reader Resources containing additional information and updates relating to this book.

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means without the prior written permission of the copyright holder. While every precaution has been taken in the preparation of this book, the publisher and Michael D. Hayes assume no responsibility for damages resulting from the use of the information contained herein.

None of the material in this book supersedes any operational documents or procedures issued by the Federal Aviation Administration, aircraft and avionics manufacturers, flight schools, or the operators of aircraft.

ASA-OEG-CFI8-EB

ISBN 978-1-64425-300-7

Additional formats available:

Softcover ISBN 978-1-64425-299-4

eBook PDF ISBN 978-1-64425-301-4

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:

Names: Hayes, Michael D., author.

Title: Flight instructor oral exam guide : comprehensive preparation for the FAA checkride / Michael D. Hayes.

Other titles: Certified flight instructor oral exam guide

Description: Eighth edition. | Newcastle, Washington : Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc., 2023.

Identifiers: LCCN 2023002634 (print) | LCCN 2023002635 (ebook) | ISBN 9781644252994 (trade paperback) | ISBN 9781644253007 (epub) | ISBN 9781644253014 (pdf)

Subjects: LCSH: United States. Federal Aviation Administration—Examinations—Study guides. | Flight training—Examinations—Study guides. | Airplanes—Piloting—Examinations—Study guides. | LCGFT: Study guides.

Classification: LCC TL712 .H39 2023 (print) | LCC TL712 (ebook) | DDC 629.132/52076—dc23/eng/20230208

LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2023002634

LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2023002635

This guide is dedicated to the many talented students, pilots, and flight instructors I have had the opportunity to work with over the years. Also special thanks to Mark Hayes, David Sickler, the staff at Howell Aircraft Service, and the many others who supplied the patience, encouragement, and understanding necessary to complete the project.

—M.D.H.

Introduction

The Flight Instructor Oral Exam Guide is a comprehensive guide designed for commercial pilots who are involved in training for the initial Flight Instructor Certificate.

This guide was originally designed for use in a Part 141 school but has quickly become popular with those training under 14 CFR Part 61 who are not affiliated with an approved school. It will also prove beneficial to flight instructors who wish to refresh their knowledge or who are preparing to renew their Flight Instructor Certificate.

The Flight Instructor—Airplane Airman Certification Standards (FAA-S-ACS-25) specifies the areas in which knowledge and skill must be demonstrated by the applicant before issuance of a Flight Instructor Certificate with the associated category and class ratings. This Flight Instructor Oral Exam Guide is designed to evaluate a pilot’s knowledge of those areas. Organized around the ACS Areas of Operation and Tasks, this guide provides questions and detailed answers specific to the ACS areas of knowledge, risk management, and skill elements relevant to the tasks. During the exam, an FAA examiner will attempt to determine that the applicant is able to make a practical application of the fundamentals of instructing and is competent to teach the subject matter, procedures, and maneuvers included in the standards to learners with varying backgrounds and levels of experience and ability. Based on very intensive debriefings after flight instructor checkrides, we have provided you with the questions most consistently asked along with the information or the appropriate reference necessary for a knowledgeable response.

This guide may be supplemented with other comprehensive study materials as noted in parentheses after each question; for example: (FAA-H-8083-9). The abbreviations for these materials and their titles are listed below. Ensure that you use the latest revision of these references when reviewing for the test. Also, check the ASA website at asa2fly.com/oegcfi for the most recent updates to this book due to changes in FAA procedures and regulations as well as for Reader Resources containing additional relevant information and updates.

Most of these documents are available on the FAA’s website (faa.gov). Additionally, many of the publications are reprinted by ASA (asa2fly.com) and are available from aviation retailers worldwide.

A review of the information and references presented within this guide should provide the necessary preparation for the FAA initial Flight Instructor Practical Test.

1

Fundamentals of Instructing

A. Effects of Human Behavior and Communication on the Learning Process

1. What is the definition of human behavior? (FAA-H-8083-9)

Human behavior is the product of factors that cause people to act in predictable ways. It can also be defined as the result of a person’s attempt to satisfy certain needs. A working knowledge of human behavior can help an instructor better understand learners.

2. Why is understanding human behavior important for effective flight instruction? (FAA-H-8083-9)

By observing human behavior, instructors can gain the knowledge needed to better understand themselves as instructors as well as the learning needs of learners. Understanding human behavior leads to successful instruction.

3. What are examples of how human behavior can affect motivation and learning? (FAA-H-8083-9)

a. Aviation learners are usually out of their normal surroundings during training, and their need for association and belonging is more pronounced. Instructors should make every effort to help new learners feel at ease and to reinforce their decision to pursue a career or hobby in aviation.

b. A learner may have a repressed fear of flying that inhibits his or her ability to learn how to fly.

c. A death in the family, a divorce, or even a failing grade on an important test may trigger harmful defensive reactions.

d. Physiological and emotional factors, such as anxiety, may have a potent effect on a person’s actions and the ability to learn from perceptions and may result in hesitation or impulsive actions. When introducing stalls, learner anxiety can be minimized by first reviewing the aerodynamic principles and explaining how stalls affect flight characteristics. Also, carefully describing the physical sensations to be expected, as well as the recovery procedures can help reduce anxiety.

4. Explain why the relationship between the instructor and learner is so important. (FAA-H-8083-9)

The instructor/learner relationship has a significant impact on how effective an instructor’s teaching will be and how much a learner will learn.

5. How does personality type affect instructors and learners? (FAA-H-8083-9)

Based on personality type, everyone has an individual style of learning. Recognizing that learning style and working with it, rather than against it, benefits both the instructor and the learner.

6. Why is it important to recognize personal instruction style? (FAA-H-8083-9)

The match or mismatch between the way an instructor teaches and the way an individual learns contributes to instructional satisfaction or dissatisfaction. Learners whose styles are compatible with the teaching styles of their instructors tend to retain information longer, apply it more effectively, learn more, and have a more positive attitude toward the course in general.

7. Define motivation. (FAA-H-8083-9)

A motivation is a need or desire that causes a person to act. Motivation can be positive or negative, tangible or intangible, subtle or obvious.

8. Where does a learner’s motivation to learn come from? (FAA-H-8083-9)

A motivation to learn can come from many sources. All of these sources of motivation have one thing in common: they all offer some type of reward in exchange for performing the hard work. Examples include:

a. A fundamental interest in and fascination with aircraft or with the experience of flight.

b. A way to boost the learner’s self-image or ego.

c. Pursuit of aviation training because it offers a promising career.

d. A belief that aviation offers fun and excitement or simply a more convenient form of transportation.

9. Explain why it’s important for an instructor to understand what motivates a learner. (FAA-H-8083-9)

Motivation is the most dominant force that governs the learner’s progress and ability to understand and can be used to the advantage of the instructor.

10. What can an instructor do to maintain a learner’s motivation and progress? (FAA-H-8083-9)

Make each lesson a pleasant experience.

11. How effective is the use of negative motivation in promoting efficient learning when compared with the use of positive motivation? (FAA-H-8083-9)

Negative motivation may engender fear; while negative motivation may be useful in certain situations, it is not as effective in promoting efficient learning as positive motivation.

Positive motivation is provided by the promise or achievement of rewards. These rewards may be personal or social, and they may involve financial gain, satisfaction of the self-concept, personal gain, or public recognition.

12. You’ve noticed that your learner has begun arriving for ground and flight lessons unprepared (e.g., reading assignments are not completed). As their instructor, what should you do? (FAA-H-8083-9)

Instructors must be prepared to deal with a number of circumstances in which motivation levels drop. It is natural for motivation to wane somewhat after the initial excitement of the student’s first days of training or between major training events, such as solo, evaluations, or practical tests. Students may come to lessons unprepared or give the general sense that aviation training is no longer a priority. During these times, it is often helpful to remind students of their own stated goals for seeking aviation training.

13. What methods can an instructor use to ensure that a learner continues to work hard and do their best? (FAA-H-8083-9)

a. Ask new learners about their aviation training goals.

b. Reward incremental successes in learning.

c. Present new challenges.

d. Occasionally remind learners about their own stated goals for aviation training.

e. Assure learners that learning plateaus are normal and that improvement will resume with continued effort.

14. Control of human behavior involves understanding human needs. What are these basic needs, and how are they important to the instructor-learner relationship? (FAA-H-8083-9)

a. Physiological—The need for air, food, and water; unless these biological needs are met, a person cannot concentrate fully on learning.

b. Security—If a learner does not feel safe, they cannot concentrate on learning.

c. Belonging—Learners are usually out of their normal surroundings during training, and their need for association and belonging is more pronounced.

d. Esteem—Humans have a need for a stable, firmly based, high level of self-respect (internal) and respect from others (external). High self-esteem results in self-confidence, independence, achievement, competence, and knowledge.

e. Cognitive—Humans have a deep need to understand what is going on around them. When a person understands what is going on, he or she can either control the situation or make an informed choice about what steps might be taken next.

f. Aesthetic—These needs connect directly with human emotions. When someone likes another person or an object, the reasons are not examined—he or she simply likes it. This need can factor into the learner-instructor relationship.

g. Self-actualization—A person’s need to be and do that which the person was born to do. Helping a learner achieve his or her individual potential in aviation offers the greatest challenge as well as greatest reward to the instructor.

15. What are defense mechanisms? (FAA-H-8083-9)

Defense mechanisms are subconscious, ego-protecting reactions to unpleasant situations. They soften feelings of failure, alleviate feelings of guilt, help an individual cope with reality, and protect one’s self-image.

16. Explain the eight common defense mechanisms a person will use that may prevent learning. (FAA-H-8083-9)

Repression—When a person places uncomfortable thoughts into inaccessible areas of the unconscious mind. Things a person is unable to cope with now are pushed away, to be dealt with at another time, or hopefully never. Example: A student pilot may have a repressed fear of flying that inhibits his or her ability to learn how to fly.

Denial—A refusal to accept external reality because it is too threatening. Denial is the refusal to acknowledge what has happened, is happening, or will happen. Example: The instructor finds the gas cap on the wing unsecured after a student completed the preflight inspection. The student, unwilling to accept reality that their inattention could have caused an inflight problem, denies that they missed it during preflight inspection.

Compensation—Students often attempt to disguise the presence of a weak or undesirable quality by emphasizing a more positive one. Compensation is the process of psychologically counterbalancing perceived weaknesses by emphasizing strength in other areas. Example: A philosophy of I’m not a fighter, I’m a lover.

Projection—When students relegate the blame for personal shortcomings and mistakes to others or attribute their personal motives, desires, and characteristics to others. Example: If a student pilot who fails a flight exam says, I failed because I had a poor examiner, the student is projecting blame onto a perceived unfair examiner instead of accepting his or her own lack of personal skill or knowledge.

Rationalization—Justifying actions that otherwise would be unacceptable; the substitution of excuses for reasons. Example: A student performs poorly on a test and then justifies the poor grade by claiming there was not enough time to learn the required information.

Reaction Formation—Faking a belief opposite to the true belief because the true belief causes anxiety. Example: A student may develop a who-cares-how-other-people-feel attitude to cover up feelings of loneliness and a hunger for acceptance.

Fantasy—When a student engages in daydreams about how things should be rather than doing anything about how things are. Example: A transitioning pilot is having trouble mastering a more complex aircraft, which jeopardizes his or her dream of becoming an airline pilot. It becomes easier to daydream about the career than to achieve the certification.

Displacement—An unconscious shift of emotion, affect, or desire from the original object to a more acceptable, less threatening substitute. Displacement avoids the risk associated with feeling unpleasant emotions and puts them somewhere other than where they belong.

17. Explain how an instructor can deal with a learner that continually uses excuses to justify substandard performance. (FAA-H-8083-9)

A perceptive instructor can assist the learner by using common sense and discussing the problem with the learner. The main objective should be to restore motivation and self-confidence.

18. What are several examples of emotional reactions that may inhibit learning during flight training? (FAA-H-8083-9)

a. Anxiety and stress

b. Impatience

c. Worry or lack of interest

d. Physical discomfort, illness, fatigue, and dehydration

e. Apathy due to inadequate instruction

19. What is the definition of anxiety, and why is a learner’s anxiety of concern to an instructor? (FAA-H-8083-9)

Anxiety is a feeling of worry, nervousness, or unease, often about something that is going to happen—typically something with an uncertain outcome. It results from the fear of anything, real or imagined, that threatens the person who experiences it, and it may have a potent effect on actions and the ability to learn from perceptions.

20. Describe how a learner might react to a stressful situation. (FAA-H-8083-9)

Normal reaction—The learner responds rapidly and exactly within the limits of their experience and training; the individual thinks rationally, acts rapidly, and is extremely sensitive to all aspects of their surroundings.

Abnormal reaction—The individual’s response to anxiety or stress may be completely absent or at least inadequate; the response may be random or illogical or the person may do more than is called for by the situation.

21. Describe several student reactions you might observe that are indicative of abnormal reactions to stress. (FAA-H-8083-9)

Extreme over-cooperation, painstaking self-control, inappropriate laughter or singing, and very rapid changes in emotions. Another example is marked changes in mood across different lessons, such as excellent morale followed by deep depression.

22. How can an instructor help learners to counter their anxieties? (FAA-H-8083-9)

Anxiety can be countered by reinforcing the learner’s enjoyment of flying and by teaching them to cope with their fears. An instructor can treat fears as a normal reaction, rather than ignoring them.

23. Explain the difference between acute fatigue and chronic fatigue. (AIM 8-1-1)

Acute (short-term) fatigue—The tiredness felt after long periods of physical and mental strain. Fatigue is the primary consideration in determining the length and frequency of flight instruction periods. It is important for a flight instructor to be able to detect fatigue, both in assessing a learner’s substandard performance early in a lesson and also in recognizing the deterioration of performance.

Chronic fatigue—This occurs when there is not enough time for full recovery between episodes of acute fatigue. Performance will continue to fall off, and judgment becomes impaired so that unwarranted risks may be taken. Recovery from chronic fatigue requires a prolonged period of rest.

24. What are some of the signs that indicate a learner may be experiencing acute fatigue? (FAA-H-8083-9)

Acute fatigue is characterized by inattention, distractibility, errors in timing, neglect of secondary tasks, loss of accuracy and control, lack of awareness of error accumulation, and irritability.

25. Describe the physical discomforts learners may experience during flight training that may affect their rate of learning. (FAA-H-8083-9)

Extremes of temperature, poor ventilation, inadequate lighting, or noise and confusion have a detrimental effect on learning. Minor illnesses such as a cold, as well as conditions such as airsickness, fatigue, dehydration and heatstroke, are also of concern.

26. Describe the steps an instructor may take if they believe that a learner may have a disqualifying psychological defect. (FAA-H-8083-9)

a. Arrange to have another instructor, who is not acquainted with the learner, conduct an evaluation flight.

b. After the flight, the instructors should confer to determine whether they agree that further investigation or action is justified.

c. If, after consultation with an unbiased instructor, the instructor believes that the learner may have a serious psychological deficiency, any endorsement of the learner to be competent for solo flight operations, or recommendation for a practical test leading to certification as a pilot, should be withheld.

27. What primary responsibility does an instructor have after determining that a learner may have serious psychological problems? (FAA-H-8083-9)

A flight instructor who believes a learner may be suffering from a serious psychological abnormality has a responsibility to refrain from instructing that learner. In addition, a flight instructor has the personal responsibility of assuring that such a person does not continue flight training or become certificated as a pilot.

28. Explain several methods an instructor can use to address the needs of adult learners. (FAA-H-8083-9)

a. Provide a training syllabus that is organized with clearly defined course objectives to show learners how the training helps them attain specific goals.

b. Help learners integrate new ideas with what they already know to ensure they keep and use the new information.

c. Recognize the learner’s need to control the pace and start/stop time.

d. Take advantage of the adult preference to self-direct and self-design learning projects by giving the learner frequent scenario-based training opportunities.

e. Use books, programmed instruction, and computers, which are popular with adult learners.

f. Refrain from spoon-feeding information to the learner.

g. Create a cooperative learning climate.

29. What are the three basic elements of communication? (FAA-H-8083-9)

Source—speaker, writer, or instructor.

Symbols—words or signs.

Receiver—listener, reader, or learner.

30. Explain the three characteristics that instructors must understand about their learners before effective communication can take place. (FAA-H-8083-9)

a. Abilities—An instructor needs to determine the abilities of the learner in order to properly communicate.

b. Attitudes—The attitudes that learners exhibit may indicate resistance, willingness, or passive neutrality.

c. Experiences—Learner experience, background, and educational level determine the approach an instructor takes.

31. What are the four barriers to effective communication? (FAA-H-8083-9)

Confusion between the symbol and the symbolized object—This results when a word is confused with what it is meant to represent. Words and symbols do not always represent the same thing to every person.

Overuse of abstractions—Abstractions are words that are general rather than specific. They stand for ideas that cannot be directly experienced and things that do not call forth mental images in the minds of learners. The word aircraft is an abstract word that might mean an airplane, a helicopter, an airship, etc.

Interference—The prevention of a process or activity from being carried out properly; composed of factors outside the control of the instructor, which include physiological (e.g., hearing loss, injury, or physical illness), environmental (e.g., noise), and psychological (e.g., fear of a situation or mistrust between the instructor and learner).

Lack of common experience between the instructor and the learner; this is the greatest single barrier to effective communication; communication can be effective only when the experiences (physical, mental, and emotional) of the people concerned are similar.

32. How can flight instructors develop their instructional communication skills? (FAA-H-8083-9)

Role playing—Instructional communication experience comes from actually doing it and is learned by role playing during the instructor’s initial training. For example, an instructor applicant can fly with a CFI who assumes the role of a learner pilot.

Instructional communication—Instructors must always determine whether the learner has actually received and retained the knowledge. Communication has not occurred unless the desired results of the communication have taken place. Also, instructors should not be afraid to use examples of past experiences to illustrate particular points.

Listening—Instructors must know something about their learners in order to communicate effectively. One way to accomplish this is to be a good listener. In addition, instructors can improve information transfer by teaching their learners how to listen.

Questioning—Good questioning can determine how well the learner understands what is being taught. It also shows the learner that the instructor is paying attention and is interested in the learner’s response.

Instructional enhancement—The more an instructor knows about a subject, the better the instructor is at conveying that information. Additional knowledge and training improves the instructor’s confidence and gives the instructional presentation more depth.

33. Name several techniques instructors can use to become better at listening to their learners. (FAA-H-8083-9)

a. Do not interrupt.

b. Do not judge.

c. Think before answering.

d. Be close enough to hear.

e. Watch non-verbal behavior.

f. Beware of biases.

g. Look for underlying feelings.

h. Concentrate.

i. Avoid rehearsing answers while listening.

j. Do not insist on having the last word.

B. Learning Process

1. What is the definition of learning? (FAA-H-8083-9)

Learning can be defined as a change in the behavior of the learner as a result of experience. If a change in your learner’s behavior has not occurred, then the learner probably has not learned what you have taught.

2. Define the term learning theory. (FAA-H-8083-9)

Learning theory is the body of principles that explain how people acquire skills, knowledge, and attitudes.

3. Modern learning theories grew out of two concepts of how people learn: behaviorism and cognitive theory. Explain these two concepts. (FAA-H-8083-9)

Behaviorism is the theory of learning that stresses the importance of having a particular form of behavior reinforced by someone other than the learner to shape or control what is learned. Classic behaviorist theory stressed a system of rewards and punishments, or the carrot-and-stick approach to learning.

Cognitive theory focuses on what is going on inside the learner’s mind and is concerned with cognition (the process of thinking and learning). Learning is not just a change in behavior; it is a change in the way a learner thinks, understands, or feels.

4. Cognitive theory has led to theories such as information processing and constructivism. Briefly explain these theories. (FAA-H-8083-9)

Information processing theory uses a computer system as a model for human learning. The human brain processes incoming information, stores and retrieves it, and generates responses to the information. This involves a number of cognitive processes, which include gathering and representing information (encoding), retaining of information, and retrieving the information when needed.

Constructivism holds that learners do not acquire knowledge and skills passively but rather actively build or construct them based on their experiences. Constructivism emphasizes the constructing or building that goes on during the learning process, and it therefore creates a learner-centered environment in which they assume responsibility for their own learning.

5. Why are perceptions so important to learning? (FAA-H-8083-9)

Perceptions result when a person gives meaning to external stimuli or sensations. Initially, all learning comes from perceptions, which are directed to the brain by one or more of the five senses: sight, hearing, touch, smell, and taste. Meaning derived from perception is influenced by an individual’s experience and many other factors.

6. Explain the factors that affect an individual’s perception. (FAA-H-8083-9)

Both internal and external factors affect an individual’s ability to perceive:

a. Physical organism—Provides individuals with the perceptual apparatus for sensing the world around them: the ability to see, hear, feel, and respond.

b. Goals and values—Every experience and sensation that is funneled into a person’s central nervous system is colored by the individual’s own beliefs and value structures.

c. Self-concept—A learner’s self-image, described in such terms as confident or insecure, has a great influence on the total perceptual process.

d. Time and opportunity—Learning some things depends on other perceptions that have preceded that learning, and on the availability of time to sense and relate those new things to the earlier perceptions.

e. Element of threat—Confronted with a threat, learners tend to limit their attention to the threatening object or condition. Fear adversely affects perception by narrowing the perceptual field.

7. Define insight. (FAA-H-8083-9)

Insight involves the grouping of perceptions into meaningful wholes. It is the mental relating and grouping of associated perceptions. As perceptions increase in number, the learner develops insight by assembling them into larger blocks of learning. Creating insight is one of the instructor’s major responsibilities.

8. How can an instructor ensure that a learner develops insight during flight training? (FAA-H-8083-9)

a. Help the learner understand how each piece relates to all other pieces of the total pattern of the task to be learned.

b. Provide a secure and non-threatening environment in which to learn.

c. Help the learner acquire and maintain a favorable self-concept.

9. Define the word knowledge and explain how a learner acquires knowledge (3 phases). (FAA-H-8083-9)

Knowledge refers to information that humans are consciously aware of and can articulate. Acquiring knowledge involves three phases:

a. Memorization—learner acquires and memorizes facts.

b. Understanding—learner begins to organize knowledge to formulate understanding.

c. Application—learner learns to use the knowledge they have compiled to solve problems and make decisions.

10. How can an instructor help learners in acquiring knowledge? (FAA-H-8083-9)

The instructor should:

a. Ask learners to recite or practice newly acquired knowledge.

b. Ask questions that probe learners’ understanding and prompt them to think about what they have learned.

c. Present opportunities for learners to apply what they know to solving problems or making decisions.

d. Present learners with problems and decisions that test the limits of their knowledge.

e. Demonstrate the benefits of understanding and being able to apply knowledge.

f. Introduce new topics as they support the objectives of the lesson, whenever possible.

11. What are the six principles (laws) of learning? (FAA-H-8083-9)

They are rules and principles that apply generally to the learning process. The first three are the basic laws; the last three are the result of experimental studies:

Readiness—Individuals learn best when they are ready to learn, and they do not learn well if they see no reason for it or lack motivation. If learners have a strong purpose, a clear objective, and a true reason for learning something, they make more progress.

Exercise—Memory and connections between concepts are strengthened with practice and weakened when practice is discontinued, which reflects the adage use it or lose it. The learner needs to practice what has been learned in order to understand and remember it.

Effect—Learning is strengthened when accompanied by a pleasant or satisfying feeling, but it is weakened when associated with an unpleasant feeling.

Primacy—The state of being first often creates a strong, almost unshakable impression and underlies the reason that an instructor must teach correctly the first time and the learner’s initial learning must be right.

Intensity—A vivid, dramatic, or exciting learning experience teaches more than a routine or boring experience.

Recency—The things most recently learned are best remembered.

12. What are the three domains of learning? (FAA-H-8083-9)

Cognitive (thinking)—A grouping of levels of learning associated with mental activity. The six major levels, in order of increasing complexity, are knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation.

Affective (feelings)—A grouping of levels of learning associated with a person’s attitudes, personal beliefs, and values. The levels (in order of increasing complexity) include receiving, responding, valuing, organization, and characterization.

Psychomotor (doing)—A grouping of