The Afro-Latino Memoir

The Afro-Latino Memoir

Race, Ethnicity, and Literary Interculturalism

Trent Masiki

The University of North Carolina Press CHAPEL HILL

This book was published with the assistance of the Authors Fund of the University of North Carolina Press.

© 2023 Trent Masiki

All rights reserved

Set in Merope Basic by Westchester Publishing Services

Manufactured in the United States of America

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Masiki, Trent, author.

Title: The Afro-Latino memoir : race, ethnicity, and literary interculturalism / Trent Masiki.

Description: Chapel Hill : The University of North Carolina Press,

[2023]

| Includes bibliographical references and index.

Identifiers: LCCN 2023004226 | ISBN 9781469675268 (cloth ; alk. paper) | ISBN 9781469675275 (pbk. ; alk. paper) | ISBN 9781469675282 (ebook)

Subjects: LCSH: Thomas, Piri, 1928–2011—Criticism and interpretation. | Moore, Carlos—Criticism and interpretation. | Vega, Marta Moreno—Criticism and interpretation. | Chambers, Veronica—Criticism and interpretation. | Cepeda, Raquel—Criticism and interpretation. | American literature—Hispanic American authors—History and criticism. | American literature—African American authors—History and criticism. | Autobiography.

Classification: LCC PS153.H56 M38 2023 | DDC 810.9/8—dc23/eng/20230316

LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2023004226

Cover illustration: Olga Albizu (1924–2005), Radiante (1967, oil on canvas, 172.7 × 157.5 cm). Smithsonian American Art Museum, Washington, D.C. (gift of JPMorgan Chase).

For Naima and Samara

Contents

Acknowledgments

Introduction

Between Cultures and Canons

CHAPTER ONE

Laughing the Demons Away

Piri Thomas and the Black Aesthetic

CHAPTER TWO

From Bohemian Piolo to Leftist Jorocón

The Pan-African Radicalization of Carlos Moore

CHAPTER THREE

Morenophilia/Morenophobia

Marta Moreno Vega, Afro-Caribbean Religion, and Ethnic Intermarriage

CHAPTER FOUR

Post-Soul Latinidad

Black Nationalism in the Memoirs of Veronica Chambers and Raquel Cepeda

Coda

Literary Nationalism, Postrace Aesthetics, and Comparative Latino Literary Studies

Notes

Bibliography

Index

Acknowledgments

It was either during the process of applying to the program or during the first year of my doctoral studies that one of my professors said, We know you can write, but do you have something to say? That is when I knew that the W. E. B. Du Bois Department of Afro-American Studies at the University of Massachusetts-Amherst was the right place for me. The Afro-Latino Memoir: Race, Ethnicity, and Literary Interculturalism would not have been possible without the historical foundation, theoretical grounding, methodological training, and racial justice mission I received from the core and affiliate faculty members in my doctoral program. I am eternally grateful to them for modeling how to be a lifelong student, teacher, and scholar of Africana studies. I am especially thankful to James E. Smethurst, Steven C. Tracy, and Rachel L. Mordecai for continuing to read my work, provide professional guidance, and write letters of support.

The Afro-Latino Memoir exists because UNC Press and Lucas Church, my editor, believed it should. Thank you, Lucas, for having faith in my manuscript. Earnest thanks to the peer reviewers who recognized its merit as well; the scope and level of detail in your feedback were absolutely essential. For investing in my research, teaching, and scholarly potential, I am profoundly indebted to the Fulbright US Scholar program, the National Endowment for the Humanities (NEH), the Center for Humanistic Inquiry (CHI) at Amherst College, and the Kilachand Honors College (KHC) and African American Studies program at Boston University. Thanks to the generous support of the Fulbright program, I spent a year teaching expository writing and US literature in Panama. My year abroad enhanced my understanding of how race and ethnicity are constructed and lived in Latin America and the littoral Caribbean. My NEH Summer Stipend and CHI Fellowship provided me with the funding, resources, and time I needed to write the third chapter of this book, a chapter that was not originally conceived as part of this project. I am immensely appreciative of my CHI cohort; Darryl Harper, the CHI director; and his wife, Sonia Y. Clark. To my CHI cohort, thank you for helping me think through and articulate my ideas about the value of putting the post-soul in conversation with Afro-Latinidad. Darryl, thank you for being a steady and compassionate leader in the midst of the pandemic. To Sonia, thank you for your professional advice, impeccable culinary skills, and limitless wit and joy.

Prior to joining the CHI, I spent three transformative years at Boston University as a KHC postdoctoral scholar. The success of KHC’s postdoctoral program is due to the phenomenal leadership of Carrie J. Preston and her executive team. Heartfelt thanks to you Carrie for being genuinely invested in the professional development and personal growth of the postdoctoral scholars. To Joanna Davidson, thank you for observing my class and for having me speak in the Walter Rodney Lecture series. To my dear friend Richard Tonetti, thank you for infusing KHC with your humor and good spirit. Thanks also to my fellow KHC postdocs, both near and far. The three years we spent codesigning syllabi, teaching seminars, developing cocurricular programming, discussing pedagogy, reading cultural theory, holding mock job talks, peer reviewing job materials, and crafting book proposals were an invaluable apprenticeship. Though our postdoc years are well behind us, John Frederick Bell and I keep the KHC fellowship aflame in Worcester. During my time at Boston University, I had the great pleasure of working with Louis Chude-Sokei, chair of the African American Studies program and editor of The Black Scholar. Louis, thank you for making it possible for me to teach my Afro-Latino Memoir course, guest-lecture in your Black Thought course, and discuss, in various forums, my research on Afro-Latino literature and culture. I am forever thankful to you for offering me the opportunity to conceive and guest edit Post-Soul Afro-Latinidades, a special issue of The Black Scholar. At this point, I would be remiss if I did not also express my appreciation to Boston University’s Center for Antiracist Research, its Postdoctoral Association, and its Office of Professional Development and Postdoctoral Affairs. These three institutions provided op-ed writing workshops, hosted the postdoctoral seminar series, and conducted grant writing seminars, respectively.

Over the course of my intellectual journey in Afro-American and Latino studies, I have been humbled by the generosity of my colleagues. Many thanks to John H. Bracey Jr. and Randy Ontiveros for introducing me to book editors. I am much obliged to Agustin Laó-Montes, A Yęmisi Jimoh, Ylce Irizzary, Antonio López, Lee Bebout, Elena Machado Sáez, Ricardo L. Ortíz, Michael Birenbaum Quintero, Esther Jones, and Ousmane Power-Greene for offering professional advice and support on a range of levels. For publishing my article on Black nationalism in the memoirs of Veronica Chambers and Raquel Cepeda, I am supremely thankful to Lourdes Torres and the editorial board of the journal Latino Studies. The fourth chapter of this book is an expanded version of that article.

Since 2016, I have been fortunate to work with several excellent journal editors and anonymous peer reviewers. I am grateful to these editors and peer reviewers for their candid and substantive feedback on my scholarly articles. The experience I gained publishing those articles prepared me for this book project. I am especially grateful to Emily J. Lordi, Médar Serrata, Jorge Santos, and Travis Franks for reading and commenting on drafts of my articles and book chapters. Sincere thanks to Flávia Santos de Araújo, Isabel Espinal, Angélica María Sánchez Barona, Maria Ximena Abello, Spencer Kuchle, Watufani M. Poe, Rose Lenehan, and Janice Yu for serving on and organizing conference panels and symposia with me. In addition to reading my work and serving on panels with me, Regina Marie Mills co-guest edited Post-Soul Afro-Latinidades. For that labor of love, I am truly beholden. Thanks are also due to Ayendy Bonifacio for anchoring Post-Soul Afro-Latinidades with his erudite and lyrical personal essay. Besides my colleagues, I would like to applaud the librarians at Boston University, Amherst College, and Worcester Polytechnic Institute for tracking down the various and varying sources I needed to complete this project. Distinct acknowledgments to the interlibrary loan team at Boston University for always going the extra mile, specifically during the pandemic.

To the village of friends and family members in Shreveport, Worcester, Woburn, and Arizona, thank you for being there for me and my family in ways both large and small. Special recognition to Lamont A. Slater for his moral support and intellectual camaraderie. Brother Slater, thank you for being an oasis of encouragement in the burning sands of doctoral and professional achievement.

For their remarkable patience, I am most grateful to my family. Naima and Samara, my wise and victorious daughters, are the sources of my inspiration. To my wife, Suzy, thank you for your boundless love and support. None of this would have been possible without you.

The Afro-Latino Memoir

Introduction

Between Cultures and Canons

In March 2002, Latinos displaced African Americans as the nation’s largest ethnic minority group.¹ Since then, Latinos have steadily grown and maintained their demographic primacy. In the 2020 US Census, 18.7 percent of Americans identified as Hispanic or Latino, whereas only 12.4 percent of Americans identified as solely Black/African American.² The loss of African Americans’ demographic distinction is one of several features that marks the end of the post-soul era (mid-1970s–2000),³ an era in which integration and neoliberalism reshaped African American life, culture, and political activity. In 2005, Nelson George, the cultural critic who coined the term post-soul,⁴ predicted that African Americans would build greater intercultural solidarities with Latinos by 2025 because so many Latinos were indeed Afro-Latinos.⁵ As recently as 2016, Afro-Latinos constituted 25 percent of the ever-growing Hispanic population.⁶ Currently, 2.4 million Americans identify as Black Hispanics.⁷ George’s prediction that African Americans would form cultural and political solidarities with the growing Afro-Latino population is based on the presumption of a linked racial fate.⁸ The discourse of linked fate animates the Afro-Latino turn in Latino and Africana Studies.⁹

By popularizing the history of Afro-Hispanics in the US, Latin America, and the Caribbean, scholars Miriam Jiménez Román, Juan Flores, and Henry Louis Gates Jr. have done the important work of bridging the connection between Latino and Africana studies for a mass audience. In 2010, Jiménez Román and Flores published The Afro-Latin@ Reader: History and Culture in the United States. The following year, Gates released the PBS documentary Black in Latin America. These two works are emblematic of an increasing scholarly and public interest in global Afro-Latino history and culture, an interest that overlaps with the United Nation’s International Year for People of African Descent (2011) and its International Decade for People of African Descent (2015–24). The accessibility of Jiménez Román and Flores’s reader and of Gates’s documentary enhance public awareness of the transnational circulation and transcultural history Afro-Latinidad in the Americas.¹⁰ As Jiménez Román and Flores point out, Afro-Latino immigrants have been forming cultural and political solidarities with African Americans for over 150 years.¹¹ The first significant wave of Afro-Latino immigration from the Hispanic Caribbean was a consequence of the Cuban cigar industry establishing factories in Florida and New York to escape the upheaval of Cuba’s Ten Years’ War (1868–1878).¹² Although Cuban immigrants arrived in New York City and lived among free African Americans as early as 1823, relatively few of them were Afro-Cubans before 1868.¹³ A second wave of Afro-Latino immigration to the US occurred after the conclusion of the short-lived Spanish-American War, in which the US acquired Cuba, Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines in 1898.¹⁴ Twentieth-century waves of Afro-Latino immigration include those that occurred in the postwar era as a consequence of Operation Boot Strap (1947) in Puerto Rico, the Cuban Revolution (1959), and the Dominican Republic’s Civil War (1965).¹⁵

The long history of Afro-Latinos in the US not only raises questions about what constitutes Latino literature but also about what constitutes African American literature. Why does the Oxford Companion to African American Literature (1997) include a sizeable entry on Piri Thomas, the Puerto Rican author of the groundbreaking memoir Down These Mean Streets (1967)? Why does the Norton Anthology of African American Literature (2014) include entries on foreign Hispanophone writers like Nicolás Guillén, but not on Afro-Latino authors like Thomas, who was born in Harlem, became a member of the Harlem Writers Guild, and participated in the Black Arts Movement conferences of the 1960s and 1970s? Thomas was such a staple figure in the Black Arts Movement that major African American magazines like The Crisis and Negro Digest reviewed and sold his books.¹⁶ They also kept readers abreast of the book banning cases that plagued Down These Mean Streets from 1971 to 1982.¹⁷ Thomas’s story illustrates the profound impact of African American culture on the constitution of Afro-Latino identity and literature. The understudied influence of African American literature, culture, and racial discourse on postsegregation Afro-Latino life writing is the subject of The Afro-Latino Memoir: Race, Ethnicity, and Literary Interculturalism.

The Afro-Latino Memoir opens the border between the canons of Latino and African American literature by centering a long, but often neglected, history of African American intercultural exchange and political solidarity in Latino autobiography and life writing. I argue that Afro-Latino coming of age memoirs written in the postsegregation era expand not only what it means and has meant to be Latino in the US, but also what it means and has meant to be African American. Six key questions outline the stakes of my argument. Are the African American experience and Afro-Latino identity mutually constitutive? If so, then what is Latino about African American literature? What is African American about Latino literature? Should the Afro-Latino memoir be included in the African American as well as the Latino literary canon? What cohesiveness do both canons stand to gain or lose by such inclusion? What can the Afro-Latino memoir reveal about the relationship between Latinidad, Pan-Africanism, and Black nationalism? Using cultural poetics, life writing theory, and intertextual, intersectional, and close textual analysis,¹⁸ I demonstrate that Afro-Latino memoir writers strategically use their affiliation with the African American condition to articulate and assert their sense of national and diasporic belonging. Analyzing how various modes of Black nationalism shape what it means to be and become Afro-Latino uncovers the intercultural and transnational nature of Afro-Latinidad. The Afro-Latino Memoir combines literary analysis and historical methods to reveal how African American nationalism, narrative strategies, cultural tropes, and political ideologies inform the conceptualization and performance of Afro-Latinidad in the US from the postwar to the post-soul era. The Afro-Latino Memoir makes a unique and significant contribution to the field of US multiethnic literary studies by shedding new light on how African American literary production, expressive culture, political ideology, and religiosity shaped the writers in this study. It challenges narratives of Latino American and African American cultural strife, promotes interdisciplinary engagement and collaboration among scholars, and provides a shared cultural history that Latino Americans and African Americans can use to build formidable political coalitions in the twenty-first century. Despite their literary, historical, and cultural significance, Afro-Latino memoirs are marginalized in both Latino and African American studies. The Afro-Latino Memoir remedies this problem by recovering Afro-Latino memoirs from their undeserved neglect.

The African American presence and influence in Afro-Latino memoirs are woefully understudied in US multiethnic literature. In Afro-Latin@s in Movement: Critical Approaches to Blackness and Transnationalism in the Americas, Petra R. Rivera-Rideau, Jennifer A. Jones, and Tianna S. Paschel argue that, until the 1970s, Latin American and Latino studies scholarship often marginalized Afro-Latino history, culture, and political organizing, limiting examinations to particular areas: music, dance, food, physical strength, and sexual prowess.¹⁹ Black studies fared no better, contend Rivera-Rideau, Jones, and Paschel: African Diaspora Studies … have largely neglected to incorporate Afro-Latin Americans or Afro-Latinos into their analysis, a curious omission given the substantial black population in the region.²⁰ Transnationalism and transculturalism between Latino, Latin American, Caribbean, and African American communities are not completely neglected by scholars working in Black and African American cultural studies, but historically the projects in these fields have been nationally focused and Anglophonecentric. However, when theorists and historians in literary and cultural studies do explore Latino and African American interculturalism, they tend to highlight a relatively small fraternity of writers: Arthur (Arturo) A. Schomburg, Nicolás Guillén, Piri Thomas, and more recently, Evelio Grillo.²¹ Although two of these four Afro-descendant authors are memoirists, there has been little sustained critical attention given to the African American influences in Latino memoirs beyond Thomas’s Down These Mean Streets (1967) and Grillo’s Black Cuban, Black American (2000). What can be learned about Latino and African American interculturalism from studying the memoir rather than some other literary genre? Newspapers, magazines, public records, and archives contain evidence of the people, events, and narratives that populate memoirs. The memoir, therefore, is subject to historical analysis and public scrutiny in ways that other literary genres are not. The memoir allows literary and cultural studies scholars to develop narratives of Afro-Latino life that exceed what can be learned about ethnoracial identity formation from a mere close textual analysis of fictional characters, thematic concerns, and formal structures in novels, plays, poems, songs, or films.

The memoirists in my study include Piri Thomas, Carlos Moore, Marta Morena Vega, Veronica Chambers, and Raquel Cepeda.²² These five writers have ethnonational roots in various parts of the Hispanic Caribbean: Puerto Rico, Cuba, Panama, and the Dominican Republic. Four of the five were born and raised in the continental US. The period of history covered in their memoirs ranges from 1928 to 2013. The majority of these writers established close personal and professional relationships with African American radicals and activists. For example, Piri Thomas was inspired and mentored by John Oliver Killens and Carlos Moore was ideologically groomed by Lewis H. Michaux and Maya Angelou. African American cultural icons and movements inspired Veronica Chambers and Raquel Cepeda. Chambers, for instance, alludes to Zora Neale Hurston, Toni Morrison, Audre Lorde, and W. E. B. Du Bois as literary ancestors while Cepeda finds spiritual salvation and Pan-African solidarity in hip-hop culture and the Afrocentric theosophy of the Five Percent Nation, a splinter sect of the Nation of Islam. The chapters in The Afro-Latino Memoir are sequenced according to the birth order of the writers. This chronological scheme provides a narrative arc that illuminates how the ethos of the Black Arts and post-soul eras respectively influenced conceptions and expressions of Afro-Latinidad.

Using cultural, intersectional, and intertextual analysis, I show how and why the writers in this study use African American narrative strategies, cultural tropes, and political ideologies to write themselves into the archive of US literary history. The narrative strategies I explore include the use of what Robert B. Stepto calls symbolic geography. Symbolic geography is a literary concept that describes two defining features of African American autobiographical writing: ascent and immersion narratives. Both of these narrative strategies describe journeys of African American racial identity formation. The classical ascent narrative is a story about a slave’s escape out of Southern bondage into Northern freedom. Ascent narratives focus on heroic self-transformation through, among other things, the attainment of education, financial security, political empowerment, and increased social mobility.²³ The immersion narrative is a cultural immersion ritual that involves travel to and prolonged residence in the Deep South by a subject who, typically, did not grow up there.²⁴ Usually, the journey is voluntary. In the immersion narrative, the South is prefigured as the taproot of African American identity and cultural authenticity. The South becomes the place where the immersion hero acquires the balms of group identity that ameliorate the alienation produced by living outside of the ancestral homeland.²⁵ The cultural tropes I examine in this study include racial initiation, literary ancestry, colorism, passing, tricksterism, and masking. These cultural tropes are common to each of the memoirs. I highlight them as they occur in each of the memoirs, allowing readers to trace the thread of recurrence from chapter to chapter. The ideological influences I investigate exist in the affiliations the writers in this study had with various African American organizations and cultural groups: the Harlem Writers Guild, literary conferences at Fisk University and Howard University, the National Memorial African Bookstore, the Cultural Association for Women of African Heritage, the Africology and African American Studies Doctoral Program at Temple University, and the Five Percent Nation, a splinter sect of the Nation of Islam. The genealogies of influence in my study reveal that the literary and cultural histories of Latinos and African Americans have been more intertwined and mutually informing than typically imagined.

In addition to their engagement with various forms of African American nationalism, all of the authors in this study published their memoirs in the postsegregation era. I call this era of cultural production the Afroethnic Renewal because it is coterminous with a radical demographic shift in the Black/African American population. As scholars Ira Berlin, Christina M. Greer, and Candis Watts Smith note, postsegregation era immigration re-Africanized the US.²⁶ Berlin calls this phenomenon the fourth great migration. He defines the fourth great migration as the influx of immigrants of African descent who entered the US as a consequence of the 1965 Immigration and Nationality Act, the 1986 Immigration and Control Act, and the 1990 Diversity Immigrant Visa Program. The immigrants of the fourth great migration came from Africa, Latin America, and the Hispanic Caribbean.²⁷ Increasingly, both African and Afro-Latino immigrants are reshaping US culture in ways that interrogate and expand traditional conceptions of African American identity, politics, and expressive culture. As immigrants of African descent and their US-born children integrate themselves into the culture and politics of the US, they place pressure on popular and official conceptions of the term Black/African American, forcing it to expand its definitional scope. Heightened intercultural fusion and sociopolitical solidarity between African Americans and other communities of African descent in the US characterizes the literature and cultural production of the Afroethnic Renewal.

There is ample territory to cover at the intersection of Latino American and African American life writing studies. It is time to center marginalized memoirists like Carlos Moore, Marta Moreno Vega, Veronica Chambers, and Raquel Cepeda. Bringing renewed attention to Afro-Latino literary and cultural history in the US through the study of Afro-Latino memoirs provides Latino American and African American communities the common ground on which they can build lasting bridges of political solidarity rather than walls of exclusion in the era of Black Lives Matter. This is the much-needed cultural work performed by The Afro-Latino Memoir.

The Afro-Latino Memoir is the first scholarly monograph to focus on African American nationalism, narrative strategies, and cultural tropes in Afro-Latino memoirs. As a bridge text, it advances the theory that postsegregation Afro-Latino literary production not only challenges conventional notions of Latino subjectivity but also expands what it means to be and become African American. The Afro-Latino Memoir does this by employing conceptual tools and methods from African American, Latino, literary, and life writing studies. In addition to the aforementioned texts on Afroethnic immigration, this book is in conversation with new and established theories regarding the history and nature of African American literature and its relationship to literary nationalism. The Afro-Latino Memoir is inspired by established and recent studies that explore the nature and purpose of African American literature, studies by scholars ranging from Robert B. Stepto, John Ernest, and Gene Andrew Jarret to Kenneth W. Warren and Margo N. Crawford.²⁸ It is equally inspired by Tommie Shelby, William L. Van Deburg, Wilson Jeremiah Moses, and John H. Bracey’s histories and theories of Black nationalism.²⁹ As much as it relies on James E. Smethurst’s examination of the Black Aesthetic and the Black Arts Movement,³⁰ The Afro-Latino Memoir is also engaged with the work of post-soul cultural critics, theorists, and their detractors: Greg Tate, Trey Ellis, Nelson George, Mark Anthony Neal, Thelma Golden, Debra Dickerson, Bertram D. Ashe, K. Merinda Simmons, Margo N. Crawford, and Emily J. Lordi, among others.³¹

In recent years, several books that examine Latino and African American sociopolitical entanglements have made significant contributions to Latino studies. The Young Lords: A Radical History (2020) by Johanna Fernández and An African American and Latinx History of the United States (2018) by Paul Ortiz are two representatives of this trend. The Afro-Latino Memoir relies heavily on the historical and cultural studies of Jesse Hoffnung Garskof, Vanessa Valdéz, Nancy R. Mirabal, Claudia Milian, Antonio López, Frank A. Guridy, Agustin Laó-Montes, Marta E. Sánchez, Anani Dzidzenyo and Suzanne Oboler, Lisa Brock and Digna Castañeda Fuertes, and Juan Flores, among others.³² These scholars have produced important critical studies that examine Afro-Latino history, subjectivity, and transcultural engagement with African Americans, works that expand conventional notions of Latinidad and establish a cultural history of Afro-Latino Pan-African solidarity. However, The Afro-Latino Memoir goes further by applying their theories to African American narrative strategies and cultural tropes in Afro-Latino literature. To that end, The Afro-Latino Memoir, extends the current scholarship in Latino studies on intercultural affinities between Afro-Latinos and African Americans.

Ricardo L. Ortiz, Ralph E. Rodriquez, Jill Toliver Richardson, Ylce Irizarry, David J. Vázquez, Marta Caminero-Santangelo, Marta E. Sanchez, Raphael Dalleo, Elena Machado Saez, Ifeoma C. K. Nwankwo, Lisa Sánchez González, Eugene Mohr, Richard L. Jackson, William Luis, and Harold Augenbraum and Ilan Stavan have produced important studies that explore what constitutes Latinidad, what qualifies as a Latino literary text, and representations of panethnic and intraracial subjectivity in Latino literature.³³ The examination of Afro-Latino memoirs in the majority of their studies tends to be limited to an analysis of Down These Means Streets by Piri Thomas. The Afro-Latino Memoir intervenes in the field by simultaneously bringing attention to understudied Afro-Latino memoirists and by revealing new insights about Down These Mean Streets and its relationship to the Black Arts Movement.

Regarding memoir and life writing theory, The Afro-Latino Memoir relies on theoretical frameworks developed by Philippe Lejeune, G. Thomas Couser, Paul John Eakin, Ben Yagoda, Leigh Gilmore, James Olney, and Sidonie Smith and Julia Watson, among others.³⁴ In terms of Latino and African American life writing, this project is indebted to the work of Norma Cantú, Silvio Torres-Saillnt, Lourdes Torres, Kenneth Mostern, William L. Andrews, David L. Dudley, Joanne M. Braxton, and Stephen Butterfield.³⁵ It is also indebted to the literature on the bildungsroman, particularly to theories advanced by Alejandro Latinez, Stella Bolaki, Martin Japtok, Thomas L. Jeffers, Gunilla Theander Kester, and Geta LeSeur.³⁶ The Afro-Latino Memoir contributes to multiethnic life writing studies by revealing new insights about how African American nationalism mediates the intersection of race, ethnicity, and transculturation in Afro-Latino coming of age memoirs.

Memoir, the Bildungsroman, and Ethnoracial Apprenticeship

Why focus on the memoir? Is life writing or literary fiction the better medium for examining the relationship between Afro-Latino identity formation and the African American condition? Unlike forms of literature that are not bound by the autobiographical pact,³⁷ memoirs are committed to historical facticity and veracity.³⁸ This commitment speaks to life writing’s exalted status in Latino studies. Literary scholar Silvio Torres-Saillant argues that autobiography may be regarded as the most important form in Latino literature because the genre dramatizes its community’s perennial concern with questions of identity, citizenship, and belonging.³⁹ The conventional wisdom about Latino autobiographical literature is that it has five defining features. One, it tends to represent a communal portrait of the author’s ethnic group. Two, it favors the bildungsroman narrative arc. Three, it is often formally experimental. Four, its thematic content tends to be sociopolitical, addressing the intersectionality of class, culture, sexuality, citizenship status, and ethnoracial identity. Five, it tends to chronicle the author’s incorporation into society and achievement of the American Dream even as it simultaneously critiques anti-Latino bigotry. These five pillars constitute the consensus view about the genre.⁴⁰ Although there are several scholarly articles, book chapters, and monographs on Latino autobiography, to my knowledge, there are no critical studies exclusively devoted to the Latino memoir. Furthermore, few of the books on Latino life writing fully address the politics of Afro-Latino passing, invisibility, triple consciousness, and Pan-African solidarity with African Americans, suggesting the need for the intervention The Afro-Latino Memoir makes.

What is a memoir, what is a bildungsroman, and what is the relationship between the two? In Memoir: An Introduction, G. Thomas Couser defines a memoir as a nonfiction literary genre that depicts the lives of real, not imagined, individuals.⁴¹ Although the memoir developed in tandem with the novel,⁴² Couser reminds us that it is not supposed to require fiction’s willing suspension of disbelief.⁴³ Relying on memory rather than research and depicting a portion of its subject’s life rather than the entirety, Memoir’s commitment to the real, asserts Couser, "doesn’t just limit its content (what it can be about), it also limits its