IT Career JumpStart: An Introduction to PC Hardware, Software, and Networking

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To our bears, the work that went into this book was always for you.

—Naomi and Joey Alpern

To Penny—Your patience, love, and understanding made this possible.

—Randy Muller

Acknowledgments

We would like to thank our superb Acquisitions Editor, Jeff Kellum, without whose determination and follow-through this book would never have come to fruition. He was a steady force throughout all the ups and downs during the roller coaster ride this book took before taking shape and becoming a reality—even if he did originally ask if we could write two chapters a week and be done in six to eight weeks. Huge thanks, also, to our co-author, Randy, for working through chapters in parallel, allowing us to meet Jeff’s new set of more down-to-earth timelines and also helping to lighten the load. Randy: We’re looking forward to the next chance meeting!

Many thanks go out to Susan Herman, our Developmental Editor, and Liz Britten, our Production Editor, for pushing hard to get drafts turned in on time and reviewed and returned promptly, even when the universe decided not to cooperate and continued to throw obstacle after obstacle in the way.

Thanks also to the rest of the team and all the rest of the editorial staff at Wiley for all the work behind the scenes that is required to bring a book to print. Finally, we want to thank our kids, Darien and Justin, for putting up with long weekend afternoons spent with mommy and daddy clicking away on keyboards. In the end it’s all for them.

—Naomi and Joey Alpern

About the Authors

Naomi J. Alpern currently works for Microsoft Consulting Services as a Senior Consultant specializing in Unified Communications and IT Architecture and Planning. Since the start of her technical career, she has worked in many facets of the technology world, including IT administration, technical training, and most recently, full-time consulting. Naomi holds a Bachelor of Science in Leisure Services Management from Florida International University. Additionally, she holds many Microsoft certifications, including an MCSE and MCT, as well as other industry certifications such as Citrix Certified Enterprise Administrator, Security+, Network+, and A+. Naomi lives in Charlotte, NC, where she spends her spare time, along with her husband, Joey, chasing after their two young sons, Darien, 8, and Justin, 4. On the odd occasion that she runs into some alone time, she enjoys curling up with a cheesy horror or mystery novel for company.

Joey Alpern currently works as an independent consultant specializing in web development and database component integration. Since the start of his technical career, he has worked in various industries, ranging from the creation of internal systems for technical staffing agencies to dotcom startups; his most recent adventure occurred in the luxury cruise industry. Joey holds a Bachelor of Science in Computer Science from Florida International University. With over 13 years of development and coding experience, he is comfortable with multiple languages, including C++, Java, Visual Basic, .Net, and even Pascal. Additionally, he is Java certified and often finds working with computers easier than working with people.

Randy Muller is an independent trainer and consultant specializing in Unified Communications and Security. Randy was an army officer stationed in Germany where he began his IT career. Since then he has been an IT consultant, author, and a technical trainer. Randy holds degrees from Indiana University in History and Geography and has numerous Microsoft certifications including MCT, and also has certifications in Security+, CEH, and CHFI. Randy lives in Stevensville, Montana, with his wife, Penny and her three sons, Jack, Andy, and Chris. When he is not travelling to his training assignments, Randy enjoys planning his next house.

Introduction

Computers are very common today, and just about any computer is connected to a network. People with the knowledge and expertise to configure and maintain networks are needed in any organization. Networking can be a complex topic, especially for those new to the field of Internet technology (IT). Having a basic understanding of the various hardware and software components used in a computer network is key for any IT professional. By stripping down a network to its bare essentials and discussing this complex topic in a clear and concise manner, we hope to help the beginner understand fundamental IT concepts, and thus create a base knowledge for more advanced topics and technologies.

This book covers all the prerequisites for anybody looking for a career in IT. It is designed for the novice user who wants to become familiar with how computers work and eventually wants a career in IT.

What This Book Covers

Before you begin pursuing a career in IT, you should have certain prerequisite information:

A working knowledge of an operating system such as Unix, Windows 7, Windows Server 2008, or Windows Server 2008 R2

Proficiency with the Windows interface and a working knowledge of Windows Explorer

An understanding of networking concepts such as networks, servers, clients, network adapter cards and hardware, protocols, network operating systems, and drivers

An understanding of computer hardware, including processors, memory, hard disks, communication ports, and peripheral devices

This book covers these prerequisites in easy-to-understand language with graphics to illustrate the concepts. Information is presented in small chunks so that it won’t be overwhelming.

Based on the knowledge you need to begin your certification preparations, this book is organized as follows:

Chapters 1–4 These chapters deal with computer hardware. They cover computer processors, data storage, input/output devices, and hardware configuration issues.

Chapters 5–7 These chapters cover software. You will learn about the different local operating systems, get a good overview of the command line, and learn the basics of the Windows 7 interface.

Chapters 8–11 These chapters cover common networking concepts such as the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model, peer-to-peer and client-server network models, network topologies, networking hardware, network protocols, and common network operating systems.

Chapters 12–15 These chapters focus on Windows 7 and Windows Server 2008 R2, covering their history, the platforms, user and group management, and file and print resource management.

Making the Most of This Book

At the beginning of each chapter of IT Career JumpStart, you’ll find a list of topics that you can expect to learn about within that chapter.

To help you soak up new material easily, we’ve highlighted new terms in italics and defined them in the margins of the pages. In addition, several special elements highlight important information:

Notes provide extra information and references to related information.

Tips are insights that help you perform tasks more easily and effectively.

Warnings let you know about things you should do—or shouldn’t do—as you learn more.

At the end of each chapter, you can test your knowledge of the topics covered by answering the chapter’s Review Questions. (You’ll find the answers to the Review Questions in Appendix A.)

There’s also some special material for your reference. If you’d like to quickly look up the meaning of a term, the Glossary contains terms that have been introduced throughout the book. If you are wondering what acronyms stand for, refer to Appendix B, which shows the acronyms in this book spelled out.

Chapter 1

The Computer’s Brain: Processors and Memory

Processor performance

Processor types

History and evolution of Intel processors

Intel’s competition—AMD, multiprocessor computers

Physical memory

Bus architecture and bus types

pro•cess v: to complete a series of actions

Every computer consists of a microprocessor and memory. Without the two, the computer would not function. The microprocessor, commonly referred to as the central processing unit (CPU), is the brain of the computer. Like the human brain, the CPU is responsible for managing the timing of each operation and carrying out the instructions or commands from an application or the operating system.

The CPU uses memory as a place to store or retrieve information. Memory comes in several forms, such as random access memory (RAM) and read-only memory (ROM). Memory provides a temporary location for storing information and contains more permanent system configuration information.

Introduction to Processors

The most central component to the computer is the processor. It is responsible for executing the instructions that are given to the computer. The processor determines the operating systems you can use, the software applications you can run on the computer, and the computer’s ability and performance. It is also typically one of the major factors in computer cost. Computers that contain newer and more powerful processors are more expensive than computers with less complex processors. This has led processor manufacturers to offer several different lines of processors for the home user, business workstation, and server markets.

Processor Performance

The goal of processor performance is to make applications run faster. Performance is commonly defined by how long it takes for a specific task to be executed. Traditionally, processor performance has been defined as how many instructions can be completed in each clock cycle, or instructions per clock (IPC), times the number of clock cycles. Thus, performance is measured as

IPC × Frequency

Processor Types: A First Look

So many types of computer processors, also referred to as microprocessors, are on the market today that it can be quite confusing to wade through them all. All processors are not created equal, and each processor has its own characteristics that make it unique. For instance, a processor that is built around an architecture common to other processors of the same time period may actually operate at double or triple the speed. Fierce competition among the various chip makers lays the groundwork for new technological innovations and constant improvements.

The most obvious difference among processors is the physical appearance of the chips, meaning that many processors differ noticeably from one another in size and shape. The first processor that Intel released was packaged in a small chip that contained two rows of 20 pins each. As processor technology improved, the shape and packaging scheme of the processor also changed. Modern processors, such as the Intel Core i7 class processors, use the same socket as the Xeon processors and can only be placed on the motherboard, which has the appropriate socket. This design also reduces the cost involved in producing the CPU.

motherboard

The main board in a computer that manages communication between devices internally and externally.

central processing unit (CPU)

The microprocessor, or brain, of the computer. It uses logic to perform mathematical operations that are used to manipulate data.

Another noticeable difference among processors is the type of instruction set they use. The instruction sets that are most common to processors are either Complex Instruction Set Computing (CISC) or Reduced Instruction Set Computing (RISC).

Complex Instruction Set Computing (CISC)

A full complement of instructions used by a processor to complete tasks such as mathematical calculations. Used in the most common type of processor produced; Intel processors are currently based on this standard.

Reduced Instruction Set Computing (RISC)

A reduced set of instructions used by a processor. PowerPC and Alpha processors are manufactured using this standard. The reduced instruction set enables a microprocessor to operate at higher speeds.

CISC has been a common method of processing operations, especially in Intel CPUs. CISC uses a set of commands, which include subcommands that require additional CPU memory and time to process. Each command must go through a decode unit, located inside the CPU, to be broken down into microcode. The microcode is then processed one command at a time, which slows computing.

microcode

The smallest form of an instruction in a CPU.

RISC, on the other hand, uses smaller commands that enable it to operate at higher speeds. The smaller commands work directly with microcode, so there is no need for a decode unit. This factor—along with a RISC chip’s capability to execute multiple commands simultaneously—dramatically increases the processing power.

Finally, different manufacturers design processors to varying specifications. You should be sure that the processor type and model you choose are compatible with the operating system that you want to use. If the processor is not 100-percent compatible with the operating system, the computer will not operate at its best or might not work at all.

The terms processor, microprocessor, chip, and CPU are used interchangeably.

Deciphering Processor Terminology

For most computer novices, terms such as microcode efficiency and internal cache RAM can sound like part of a foreign language. To help you keep things straight, here are some common terms and their definitions:

Clock cycles The internal speed of a computer or processor expressed in megahertz (MHz) or gigahertz (GHz). The faster the clock speed, the faster the computer performs a specific operation.

megahertz (MHz)

One million cycles per second. The internal clock speed of a microprocessor is expressed in MHz.

gigahertz (GHz)

One billion cycles per second. The internal clock speed of a microprocessor is expressed in GHz.

CPU speed The number of operations that are processed in one second.

Data path The number of bits that can be transported into the processor chip during one operation.

bit

A binary digit. The digit is the smallest unit of information and represents either an off state (zero) or an on state (one).

Floating-point unit (FPU), or math coprocessor A secondary processor that speeds operations by taking over math calculations of decimal numbers. Also called a numeric processor.

Level 1 (L1), or internal, cache Memory in the CPU that is used to temporarily store instructions and data while they are waiting to be processed. One of the distinguishing features of different processors is the amount of internal cache that is supported.

Level 2 (L2), or backside, cache Memory that is used by the CPU to temporarily store data that is waiting to be processed. Originally located on the motherboard, CPU architectures such as the Pentium II, III, and 4 have incorporated L2 cache directly on the same board as the CPU. This holds true in today’s i5 and i7 processors with L2 and L3 cache on board. The CPU can access the on-board L2 cache two to four times faster than it can access the L2 cache on the motherboard.

Level 3 (L3), or backside, cache Memory that is used by the CPU to temporarily store data that is waiting to be processed and is used in conjunction with the L2 cache. The L3 cache is used to hold memory feeds to the L2 cache, and its memory is typically slower than the L2 memory but faster than main memory.

Microcode efficiency The capability of a CPU to process microcode in a manner that uses the least amount of time and completes the greatest number of operations.

Word size The largest number in bits that can be processed during one operation.

All the computer’s components, including the processor, are installed on the motherboard. This fiberglass sheet is designed for a specific type of CPU. When purchasing a motherboard, you should check with the motherboard manufacturer to determine which types of CPUs are supported.

The Intel Processor Lineup

Over time, Intel has introduced several generations of microprocessors. Each processor type is referred to as a generation; each is based on the new technological enhancements of the day. With each product release come new software and hardware products to take advantage of the new technology.

Several generations of Intel processors are available today. Since the arrival of the first Intel chip in the IBM PC, Intel has dominated the market. It seems that every time you turn around, a new chip promises greater performance and processing capabilities than the previous one.

What makes Intel the market leader is its ability to bring the newest innovations in chip technology to the public, usually before its competitors, who are not far behind. Competition is fierce, and each manufacturer attempts to improve on the designs of the others, releasing similar chips that promise better performance.

The following table shows the specifications for some of the newer Intel processors issued to date. You should read the specifications and reviews for each processor to understand its capabilities and reliability.

* Mobile Processor

Factors Affecting Performance

Many factors come together to determine the performance of any computer. All other factors being equal, faster components will give better performance, but any computer will be limited by its weakest links. As an analogy, consider that putting a larger engine in a standard automobile will make it faster, but only if the automobile is going in a straight line. As soon as you try to make the car follow a twisting road, other components such as the drivetrain and the tires can limit the performance of the larger engine.

Within a processor family, faster processors will outperform slower processors. But when we’re comparing processors from different families, that rule does not apply. For example, the rating of 400 MHz for a processor from one family does not indicate that it will run significantly faster than a 333 MHz processor from a more advanced processor family.

As you learned earlier, clock cycles and data path are two factors that can influence the performance of your computer. Other factors are

Cache memory Very fast memory that sits between the CPU and the main RAM. Cache memory can be as fast as 5 to 10 nanoseconds, whereas main RAM is usually not faster than 60 to 70 nanoseconds. (Yes, a lower number is better here because it indicates that the memory takes less time to move data.)

Bus speed The rate at which data can be transferred between the CPU and the rest of the motherboard. Typical bus speeds are 1 GHz and higher with the current standard for motherboards entering the market.

The type of peripherals on your computer can affect system performance. If your application spends a lot of time accessing your hard disk, selecting a better-performing disk system would improve CPU efficiency. Storage systems are covered in detail in Chapter 2, Storing Your Files: Data Storage.

History of Intel Chips

Intel released the world’s first microprocessor, the Intel 4004, in 1971. It was a 4-bit microprocessor containing a programmable controller chip that could process 45 instructions. The 4 bits meant that the chip had four lines for data to travel on, much like a four-lane highway. Because of its limitations, it was implemented only in a few early video games and some other devices. The following year, Intel released the 8008, an 8-bit microprocessor with enhanced memory storage and the capability to process 48 instructions.

Intel then began to research and develop faster, more capable processors. From that research emerged the 8080, which could process instructions 10 times faster than its predecessors. Although the speed had dramatically improved, it was still limited by the number of instructions it could process. Finally, in 1978, Intel broke many barriers by releasing the first of many computer-ready microprocessors, the 8086. The 8086 was a breakthrough technology with a bus speed of 16 bits and the capability to support and use 1 MB of RAM. Unfortunately, the cost of manufacturing such a chip and compatible 16-bit components made the chip unaffordable. Intel responded the following year with the production of an 8-bit chip, the 8088.

Intel continued to break new ground as the release of each new generation of processor offered improved functions and processing capabilities. The most dramatic improvement was the number of instructions, based on a scale of millions, that the processor could process in one second. This rate, referred to as millions of instructions per second (MIPS), ranges from 0.75 MIPS for the 8088 to over 159,000 MIPS for the Core i7 990X.

millions of instructions per second (MIPS)

A measurement of the number of microcode instructions that a CPU or microprocessor can complete in one second, or cycle.

The second most dramatic improvement was the speed of the internal clock, measured in gigahertz. All processors are driven by an internal clock mechanism that keeps the rhythm of the chip, much like the rhythm of a heartbeat. The faster the speed of the internal clock, the faster the processor can process instructions. Intel continued to increase the speed of the internal clock from 4.77 MHz for the original 8088 to more than 3.6 GHz for the newest generation of Core i7 Intel microprocessors.

The Pentium Family

Intel released the Pentium chip to take advantage of Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI) bus architecture. This processor consisted of 3.1 million transistors and a new 64-bit data path. The chip was originally designed to operate at 66 MHz but was scaled down to 60 MHz to support the new transistor design, which was experiencing heat and power problems. The first chips deployed also suffered from a bug in the microcode that hampered the processor’s capability to calculate complex mathematical equations with precision. This problem was immediately fixed through a new batch of chips.

transistor

A microscopic electronic device that uses positive electrons to create the binary value of one, or on, and negative electrons to create the binary value of zero, or off. Modern CPUs have millions of transistors.

Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI)

A bus standard for the transfer of data between the CPU, expansion cards, and RAM. PCI communicates at 33 MHz.

bus architecture

Any linear pathway on which electrical signals travel and carry data from a source to a destination.

The most significant development in the Pentium was the use of two parallel 32-bit pipelines that enabled it to execute twice the number of instructions as previous Intel processors—a technological advancement that Intel named superscalar technology. Almost all processors today use this technology.

pipeline

A place in the processor where operations occur in a series of stages. The operation is not complete until it has passed through all stages.

Released with the Pentium family of processors was Multimedia Extension (MMX) technology. MMX technology is often referred to as multimedia-enhanced technology, but this is not completely accurate. MMX-equipped processors contained additional instruction code sets that increased the processing speed for audio, video, and graphical data by up to 60 percent as compared to traditional Pentium processors. The MMX chips dramatically improved the response time of games and multimedia-based applications.

Multimedia Extension (MMX)

A processor technology that dramatically improves the response time of games and multimedia-based applications. The technology was introduced through the MMX-equipped line of Intel Pentium chips.

The types of Pentium processors include

Pentium

Pentium MMX

Pentium Pro

Pentium II (PII)

Celeron

Pentium II Xeon

Pentium III (PIII)

Pentium III Xeon

Itanium/Itanium 2

Pentium 4

Tualatin

Core i3

Core i5

Core i7

Pentium

The Pentium chip introduced the world to the first parallel 32-bit data path, which enabled the Pentium to process 64 bits—twice as much data as before. The Pentium was the first microprocessor chip designed to work with the PCI bus specification and had internal clock speeds ranging from 60 MHz to 200 MHz.

Pentium MMX

The Pentium with MMX technology included an expanded instruction code set with 57 new MMX microcode instructions. MMX enabled the microprocessor to increase the processing speed of audio, video, and graphics by up to 60 percent.

Pentium Pro

The Pentium Pro was the successor to Intel’s Pentium processor. One of the unique features of this microprocessor was its internal RISC architecture with CISC-RISC translator service. The translator service was able to use the CISC set of instructions, common to all Intel chips, convert them to the RISC set, the faster of the two, and then complete the tasks as necessary using RISC.

The architectural enhancement that really distinguished the Pro from the original Pentium would influence how most microprocessors would later be developed. The Pro was two chips in one: On the bottom of the Pentium was the actual processor. Connected directly overhead of the processor was an L2 cache. By placing the L2 cache close to the processor, Intel was able to greatly increase the performance of the Pentium Pro.

Pentium II (PII)

The Intel Pentium II, or PII, processor was essentially an enhanced Pentium Pro processor with MMX extensions, cache memory, and a new interface design. The PII was designed to fit into a single-edge cartridge (SEC) that plugs into a 242-pin slot.

single-edge cartridge (SEC)

An advanced packaging scheme that the Intel Pentium II and later models used. The processor was encased in a cartridge module with a single edge that plugged into a 242-pin slot on the system board, much as an expansion card plugged into the system board.

Celeron

The only noticeable difference between the Celeron and regular Pentium II processors is the lack of cache memory within its cartridge. Later models of the Celeron include cache memory on the same chip as the processor.

Pentium II Xeon

One of the major enhancements in the Pentium II Xeon was a larger on-board cache. This processor was available