Back to School: 1,001 Facts You Learned and Forgot in High School

INTRODUCTION

ATTENTION, ALL STUDENTS. This is your principal here. It’s been a long time since you walked down these halls, and sat at these tiny desks, but the time has come to get schooled once again. What happened to all of the biology, geometry, ancient history, and foreign languages that you learned here all those years ago? That’s what we’d all like to know.

By re-enrolling, you’re admitting that you’ve forgotten almost as much as you learned back in high school, but you’re also admitting that some of this stuff might actually be useful to know. (If your sixteen-year-old self could only see you now.) Over the course of these lessons, we’ll try to fill your head with as much knowledge as we can cram in there, but this time it’s going to stick. Sure, photosynthesis, and the Cold War, and the prepositional phrases don’t come up a lot in everyday conversation, but when they do, do you want to be able to contribute to thoughtful conversation? The choice is yours.

This book gives you a chance to redo ten of your favorite courses from your high-school days without having to deal with prom queens and jocks or stoners and bullies. From geography to literature, and philosophy to phys. ed., you’ll learn all the most useful facts you thought were long forgotten, and maybe a few things you never knew in the first place.

Just remember a few school rules: no cheating, no gum-chewing, and no texting in class. While you’re here, feel free to join some extracurriculars, but just remember to study up, because there will be a final exam. So grab your pencil and your notebook, because it’s time to go back to school.

The bell is about to ring, so head straight to first period, and don’t be late.

PERIOD 1

ENGLISH

READING AND WRITING ARE PERHAPS THE MOST IMPORTANT SKILLS you will take from high school to adulthood. If you can’t communicate properly, it will be difficult to succeed at whatever career you choose. This class will be a refresher course in proper grammar and writing skills, followed by a whistle-stop tour of English and American literature. When someone asks you your favorite book at a dinner party, this might just give you a few to choose from.

FRESHMAN YEAR: LANGUAGE ARTS

PUNCTUATION

Use of PUNCTUATION dates back to ancient Greece and Rome. Orators placed marks in their speeches to indicate where and when to pause. These marks were given names such as period, comma, and colon, correlating to the kind of pauses needed. Punctuation was used infrequently, and it was not until the fifteenth century, with the introduction and rise of printing in England, that the punctuation we know today began to be used.

A PERIOD is used at the end of a sentence to create a statement and complete a thought. A period can also be used at the end of a command, such as, When you’ve finished the last part of the exam, put your pencils down. A period is also used to end an indirect question, for example, Her boss asked her why she didn’t come to work on Monday.

The COMMA has many uses. A comma should be used to separate any independent clause joined by the conjunctions and, yet, so, but, for, nor, and or. A comma is also used to separate items in a list or series and after an introductory adverb clause. The comma can also be used to interrupt a sentence to add extra information. For example, Her dog, which had jumped in the puddle, was soaking wet.

As a general rule you can use a SEMICOLON instead of a period to connect two sentences without a conjunction. For example, Give me your number; I’ll call you when I get home. A semicolon should also be used before transitional adverbs like however, therefore, and namely. One can also use a semicolon in a series if one or more of the items includes a comma, or when two sentences are joined by a coordinating conjunction and there are commas in the first sentence.

EXTRACURRICULARS: NEWSPAPER

OXFORD COMMA SPURS CONTROVERSY

The OXFORD COMMA, also known as the serial comma or the Harvard comma, may be punctuation’s most controversial mark. It is used immediately before a coordinating conjunction (usually and, or, nor) in a list of items. Some reference books, like the MLA Style Manual and Guide to Scholarly Publishing and The Chicago Manual of Style demand its use, while The Associated Press Stylebook and The Canadian Press Stylebook are firmly against it. Those opposed find it redundant, and those in favor feel it resolves ambiguity.

A COLON is used if one wishes to emphasize the second of two independent clauses. For example, The time had passed: his date never showed up. A colon can also be used to introduce a list, a quotation, an appositive (in which two phrases are placed next to each other, with one serving to define or change the other), or another idea related to the independent clause.

An EM DASH is used to place emphasis on or set content apart from the rest of the text. Named because it is the width of an M, this dash is longer and places more importance on text than parentheses do. For example, A lot of people were in the crowd—Tom and Scott among them. The EN DASH, which is the width of an N, is shorter and is used to indicate a span of values between two numbers. For example, For ages 3–5.

SENTENCE COMPOSITION

Knowledge of PARTS OF SPEECH, or word classes, is critical in understanding how composition works. Parts of speech are NOUNS, (people, places, or things); PRONOUNS (words like he, she, and it used to replace nouns); ADJECTIVES (words that describe nouns); VERBS (actions); ADVERBS (words that modify adjectives, verbs, other adverbs, or an entire clause or sentence by expressing place, manner, or time); CONJUNCTIONS (words used to connect phrases or sentences such as and, but, and because); ARTICLES (words that indicate nouns and specify their application, such as a, an, and the); PREPOSITIONS (words like at, by, with, and from used to link nouns, pronouns, or phrases to other parts of the sentence); and INTERJECTIONS (words that show emotion and are capable of standing alone, like wow, or ugh.)

The three main parts of a sentence are the subject, the verb, and often, the object. The SUBJECT is usually the noun, and it is who or what the sentence is about. The VERB then follows the subject, indicating what action takes place. Lastly, the OBJECT follows the verb and is what receives the action. In the sentence Tom threw the ball to Sally, Tom is the subject because the sentence is about him. The action, threw, is the verb, and Sally is the object, the receiver of Tom’s action.

A MODIFIER is any word, clause, or phrase that adds meaning to another word or part of a sentence. There are two types of modifiers, premodifiers and postmodifiers. The head is any word that will be modified. A premodifier goes before the head, as in A history book, and a postmodifier appears after the head, for example, A book about history.

A PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE adds meaning to the verbs and nouns in a sentence. It is composed of two parts: a preposition (a word that expresses how a noun or pronoun relates to other words in the sentence), and the object of the preposition. For example, when looking at the phrase In the building, the word in is our preposition because it indicates the relationship, and the building is the object of the preposition. Some other examples of prepositions include above, between, inside, up, down, and through.

ADJECTIVE CLAUSES help indicate which part of a sentence is more important than the rest of the sentence by a process known as subordination. The adjective clause is a dependent word group that modifies the noun and usually includes words like which, who, whose, and that. In the sentence, The dog that ate everyone’s lunch wanted seconds, that ate everyone’s lunch is the adjective clause.

A PARTICIPLE is a verb form that is used as an adjective. For example, cooked, cooking, and having cooked are participles of the verb cook. A participle phrase is a sentence that consists of a present or past participle, with any modifiers, objects, and complements. In the example, Running down the aisle, she knocked over the soup display, running down the aisle is the participle phrase.

FIGURES OF SPEECH

A FIGURE OF SPEECH is a literary device used to add interest, emphasis, freshness, or special meaning to words. A figure of speech can also be referred to as a rhetorical device or locution. Figures of speech are used in figurative (meaning not literal) language, allowing for imagination and more creative ways to describe something.

A SIMILE is one of the most common figures of speech. In similes, one thing is described to be like another thing. The important part about similes is their use of the word like or as. For example, He eats like a pig and It’s as light as a feather are both similes. Other forms of simile can be found in sentences with as if and than. Two examples are, I completely forgot how to work the machine, as if it was my very first time, and Larger than life.

METAPHORS are very similar to similes, only they do not use like, as, as if, or than. Instead, they simply state that one thing is another thing. In the sentence, Her home is a pigsty, we understand that this does not mean her home is a literal pigsty, but rather a very messy place. A metaphor and simile can mean the same thing, but they are worded differently. He is a snake is a metaphor. He is like a snake is a simile.

HYPERBOLE is a form of exaggeration used to elicit a strong response. Hyperboles are not to be taken literally and are often used for humor. For example, He is older than the dinosaurs, and I’m a million times smarter than you, are both hyperboles. There is great exaggeration in these sentences. Hyperbole is very common in media and advertising.

An OXYMORON pairs two opposite or contradicting ideas to create a new meaning or paradoxical image. For example, bittersweet chocolate. Bitter and sweet are opposites, and yet when put together, they take on a whole new meaning. Other examples of oxymora include deafening silence, jumbo shrimp, and freezer burn.

Other common examples of figures of speech include ALLITERATION, where there is a repetition of the beginning consonant; ANAPHORA, the repetition of a single word or phrase at the beginning of successive phrases or paragraphs; ONOMATOPOEIA, the use of words that imitate the sounds they are referring to; and ANTITHESIS, which juxtaposes opposite ideas in a single, balanced sentence.

THE PARAGRAPH

A PARAGRAPH is a group of sentences that are related in the subject they are discussing. Good paragraphs are crucial to being a good writer or just having your writing make sense to the reader. Paragraphs organize sentences so that the main idea can get across in an easy and coherent way. A good rule of thumb to follow is to always keep one idea for every paragraph.

The TOPIC SENTENCE tells the reader what the rest of the paragraph will be about. Though the topic sentence does not need to be the very first sentence in the paragraph, it certainly is a good approach to take. The idea is that one would be able to summarize from the topic sentence what that paragraph is about. The sentence doesn’t have to blatantly state the topic at the beginning, as long as the paragraph is understandable.

SUPPORTING SENTENCES do just that; they support. If the topic sentence is the main idea of the paragraph, then the supporting sentences should provide the necessary information (images, data, analysis) to back up that statement. A good rule of thumb when writing paragraphs is they should be five to seven sentences long. That should provide enough support for the main idea you are trying to get across.

The CONCLUDING SENTENCE is kind of like the reverse of the topic sentence. Instead of beginning a topic for discussion, this is meant to conclude the main idea of the paragraph. One type of concluding sentence would be to summarize all that was said in the topic sentence and supporting sentences. Not every paragraph needs a concluding sentence, but if the paragraph is long or has lots of information, a concluding sentence can be very useful.

It can be hard to know when a paragraph has enough information or perhaps too little information. To make sure your paragraph is well developed, here are some helpful tips: Make sure you describe the topic you’re going to talk about, then analyze and cite any information that supports it. Include facts and details, talk about causes and effects, use stories or anecdotes, define terms, and compare and contrast when you can.

There are a couple of ways to know when you need to start a new paragraph. The most obvious is when you begin discussing a new topic or a new idea. Similarly, if the material contrasts the material before it, you should begin a new paragraph. Even if your idea is continuing, however, a paragraph that goes on for too long can become hard to read. Start a new paragraph to give the reader’s eyes a break. Lastly, you want new paragraphs to begin your introduction and your conclusion.

EDITING

Editing and proofreading are not interchangeable. Both are very important to the process of good writing. EDITING is about making sure language is used correctly. It’s about ensuring that every term that is used is the correct term, and often includes research. PROOFREADING is a final check of your writing to make sure that everything is grammatically sound and that there are no syntax or spelling errors.

Once your writing is finished, it is absolutely necessary that you go back and edit. Your first draft should never be your final draft. Think about your audience. Who are you writing this for? Is it a technical audience? Do you need to explain any technical terms or will they understand what you’re talking about? How old is your audience? Children have a shorter attention span than adults. Think about the length of your sentences. Make sure what you have written is appropriate for your readers.

Once you have made any changes that are needed, your last step is to proofread. There are several methods of proofreading. First, be aware of your strengths and weaknesses. If punctuation is not your strong suit, make sure to check every sentence for punctuation errors. One very effective way to proofread is to read what you’ve written from bottom to top and from right to left. By doing this, mistakes will stick out like a sore thumb. You should also scan your paper all the way through for any typos. Reading your writing out loud will also give new insights and help you spot any errors.

SOPHOMORE YEAR: LITERATURE & POETRY

LITERARY TERMS

In literature, GENRE refers to a specific category marked by a distinctive style, form, or content. It is instantly recognizable and follows common conventions pertaining to that genre. Examples of genres include NONFICTION, in which everything written is true; MYSTERY, a fictional story that follows and solves a crime; and FANTASY, which features elements that are not realistic.

An ALLEGORY is a narrative that is symbolic of something else. With allegories, behind the literal translation of the story, a second, more meaningful story or idea can be found. For example, the literal story of Lord of the Flies is about children stranded on an island where chaos ensues; however, the allegory is about civilization as a whole and the evil of humankind.

CATHARSIS is a point in the narrative when there is a release of negative emotions, which in turn ends up either helping the character or helping the audience understand the character. The term comes from the Greek katharsis which means purification or cleansing. The term was first applied to literature in Aristotle’s Poetics, in which he describes the impact of drama on an audience.

AMBIGUITY allows room for different interpretations of a work of literature by creating an openness in the text. Ambiguity is sometimes considered a flaw, a