Sustainable Multilingualism

Today, translation cannot be imagined without various language technologies, including opportunities provided by machine translation. Owing to neural machine translation, MT has become a revolution, and since 2016, it has continued its triumphal march around the world. MT used to be one of many tools used by translators, while now it is one of the leading tools. Neural MT undoubtedly offers several advantages compared to rule-based and statistical MT. More and more systems are also adaptive and learn in real time, thus ensuring consistency and speed. The systems also provide fluent translations. Although translation fluency is one of the greatest achievements of MT, it makes it difficult to detect the errors made by MT engines during the post-editing. The article discusses the concept of a fluent translation and analyses 20 MT examples containing different errors in a fluent translation, such as grammar errors, untranslated text elements, unusable MT, wrong meaning, omissions, and hallucinations. At the same time, it should be noted that any classification of error categories depends on the selected MT system, languages, and texts and that the examples for analysis were selected in one year when translating from English to Latvian by selecting the most notable examples dictated by specific features of a translator’s job, as well as terms and confidentiality provisions.

The early acquisition of a second language presents both opportunities and challenges for young learners, particularly in balancing native language proficiency with emerging educational and social demands. This study investigates the impact of early exposure to a second language on native language development in children within a multilingual setting, with an emphasis on how modern teaching methods and technological tools shape language-learning experiences. Key research questions include: How does early exposure to a second language affect native language proficiency in a multilingual environment? What influence does early bilingualism have on children's social and academic integration in diverse classrooms? And how do parents and educators perceive the challenges and advantages of supporting bilingual development in young learners? Utilising a quantitative research design, the study collected data through structured questionnaires administered to multilingual parents and high school students living in Panchgaon, Haryana, India. Statistical methods were employed to analyse the relationships between early bilingual exposure, language competencies, cognitive development, and educational outcomes. The findings highlight a strong correlation between second language acquisition and native language development, while also identifying challenges such as cognitive confusion and educational disparities. The study highlights the importance of structured language support in early education and provides evidence-based recommendations for promoting balanced bilingualism in multilingual contexts.

Annotation. In recent years, teachers have had students from diverse language and cultural backgrounds in their classrooms due to increasing human migration in many countries. Therefore, multilingual learning and teaching have become a widespread phenomenon. Research on English language teaching and learning in multilingual contexts has gained great importance. However, teaching languages other than English and foreign language teachers' practices in this specific context have received little attention so far. Teaching the highly contextualised Japanese language poses challenges in multilingual classrooms, and teachers more frequently resort to using English as the medium of instruction. To shed light on Japanese non-native teachers' practices, the study explored and analysed two hundred and seventy-four teachers' responses to the questionnaire "Teaching the Japanese language in multilingual classrooms -English medium instruction approach (EMI)". The research attempts a worldwide study on using EMI in teaching Japanese as a foreign language (JFL). It examines a broad geographic scope of JFL teachers' practices from fifty-seven predominantly non-Anglophone countries. The present article focuses on investigating various factors affecting JFL teachers' willingness to use EMI that can be classified into demographic, linguistic, and contextual. The results revealed several factors of significant influence, such as JFL teachers' work experience, the highest education level attained, educational stage, geographic region, native language group, Japanese language proficiency, and knowledge of other languages (multilingualism). The factors that appeared to be of insufficient influence were age, study of teaching methods/linguodidactics and level of Japanese taught. The factor of JFL teachers' language proficiency (both English and Japanese) falls into a separate category of influence, where a significant difference was noted for proficient and near-native levels.

Summary This study explores the discourse of Trump as a businessman and as a president regarding the topic of immigration. Data for this research were gathered from four speeches and four interviews delivered by Trump in the eighties-nineties and four speeches and four interviews after being elected president. The analysis focuses on the way Trump represents US (ingroup) versus THEM (outgroup) at the local semantic level through the use of pronouns and implicatures and, at the local form through the use of syntax, that is, the formal relationship between clauses and sentences. In particular, I want to shed light on the following research questions: (1) How does Donald Trump represent the topic of immigration as a businessman? (2) How does Donald Trump represent the topic of immigration as a president? On the basis of the results of this research, it can be concluded that the period in which the discourse was uttered seems to have a strong bearing on the discursive strategies employe...

Summary The main purpose of this paper is to analyze how culture is embedded in the way viewers from different language backgrounds conceptualize and interpret the same multimodal metaphors. Therefore, interaction between metaphor and culture is hence a crucial aspect of research in this study. Following Lakoff and Johnson’s (1980) and Forceville’s (1996, 2009) approaches, this paper examines how a comparative study undertaken from a cross-cultural perspective can shed light on how culture is an influential factor that can trigger changes in interpretations and reactions in the viewers. Data for this research were gathered with the help of 240 participants taken from 8 different language backgrounds. The subjects of this study were supplied with a questionnaire which consisted of three multimodal metaphors and 8 questions. In particular, I want to focus on the following research questions: (1) Which figurative B-term do different cultures conceptualize in a multimodal metaphor? (2) ...

As Jan Engberg wrote in his description of the workshop the most important aspect in the legal LSP research is taking account of the overall communication process, which means taking account of the framework of legal systems and in particular the boundaries and restrictions of national legal systems. My presentation will deal with the methodology of a systematic terminological analysis of legal concepts and a new type of comparative approach to multilingual terminography where more than one legal system is involved. Legal dictionaries have been the subject of much criticism, essentially because they offer too little information on the terms and the concepts. Traditionally, legal dictionaries on the market are the product of a lexicographical approach to legal terminology listing different meanings of one word and proposing possible equivalents in the other language. Users of such dictionaries -too often not familiar with the legal system of the target language -wonder which of the given equivalents they can use in their specific (translational) situation and search the dictionary entry for possible hints or pieces of information which in most cases they do not find. A thorough change is necessary which touches the following three aspects: methodology of research, representation of results, and as well user attitude towards terminographical products.

Summary Mediation is a novel concept in language teaching and learning, and the needs and attitudes of language teachers towards it are largely unexplored. This article provides a brief overview of European language policy and discusses the action-oriented approach in the context of this paradigm shift in language learning and teaching. Finally, an exploratory study is presented that examined the needs and attitudes of language teachers from four European universities regarding mediation, as it has been formulated in the Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR) (Council of Europe, 2001) and redefined in the CEFR Companion Volume with New Descriptors (Council of Europe, 2018). The participating teachers were from the language centres of Charles University in the Czech Republic, Vytautas Magnus University in Lithuania, the University of Helsinki in Finland, and the University of Warsaw in Poland. The study survey measured the strength of (dis)agreement of the teachers with 12 sta...

Annotation. In the present era, both learning and teaching, including foreign language learning (FLL) and teaching, are being radically influenced by a massive implementation of digital technologies. The purpose of this study is to analyze foreign language teachers' attitudes towards the use of technologies in foreign language teaching across Europe and to identify clear implications for their efficient implementation. The methodology of this study includes a mixed-method research design (quantitative and qualitative) with a survey conducted with altogether 234 foreign language (FL) teachers from different universities across Europe. The results clearly show that FL teachers generally have a positive attitude towards the use of technologies in their classes and that they frequently use them in their teaching since they can make students more engaged in learning a foreign language. In fact, the FL teachers have always been at the forefront of innovative approaches to teaching and learning. In spite of this, they admit that they would welcome more professional support from the management of their home institutions and demand training in the use of new technologies. The results of the research also indicate that special attention should be paid to the lack of personal contact, students' reactions, and the expression of emotions, which is difficult and almost impossible to achieve through the use of digital media. These findings are unique since they aim specifically at current FL teachers´ attitudes and needs across Europe and can be utilized by stakeholders and FLL course designers. Moreover, they can also be extended to a larger scale, i.e., the global level.

The current study aims to examine the students' affective aspects toward English language learning after having taken ESP courses. Based on the five factors that the researcher identified as the measures of learners' interest and motivation (in the form of perceived future utility and usefulness), and attitudes, a multi-faceted questionnaire was developed and carried out. The participants were 150 university students from Busan, Korea, divided into the EGP group (48 mechanical engineering students) and the ESP group (102 biomedical engineering students). The key findings were that first, the ESP group demonstrated more positive responses than the EGP group on four out of five factors; second, there were no differences among the students' academic year within the ESP group regarding the five factors. The results from the current study are in line with the previous study (Shin, 2014) that reported the increase in learners' interest, motivation, and positive attitudes toward English language learning among the ESP group. The study also supports Ardeo ( ) which claims that English learning motivation or instrumental ELM in the ESP group is positively and significantly correlated with affective factors, thus promoting English language learning when instruction taps into learners' identities (i.e. professional identities in their respective disciplines). Based on the results from the study, suggestions were made on ways in which the quality of ESP programs in Korea can be improved. Insights from the study will shed light on current challenges within the ESP field in EFL contexts where learners have to deal with obtaining both adequate English language proficiency and optimal level of expertise in their respective disciplines.

Summary Language death is a phenomenon with symptoms related to demeaning vocabulary count and depletion of domains of language use along with the simplicity of linguistic structures. It commences by exhibiting traits of a declining number of fluent speakers, dwindling attitude of the speakers with regard to their heritage language, language shift, lack of inter-generational language transfer accompanied by a feeling that heritage language is inferior to outside languages, and Gulgulia exhibits every trait of such a dying language. It has become a waning language that is very close to its permanent extinction. The present study elucidates the ethnolinguistic vitality of Gulgulia tested through chosen sociolinguistic parameters which were found suitable to Gulgulia’s scenario. It also explores the linguistic situation of the Gulgulian community in Dhanbad, the community members’ language use in their homes and in their miscellaneous interethnic interactions and examines what relation...

The shifts and gaps in English language policies and medium of instruction have always been a hurdle in the achievement of English language and overall education goals in Pakistan. This situation has raised a continuous debate on language-in-education policy and medium of instruction in Pakistan since independence and Pakistani governments to date have been indecisive regarding this. This chaotic situation has caused a great setback to the education system in Pakistan. To understand the issues and challenges pertaining Pakistan's English language education, this paper presents a historical perspective of Pakistan's language in education policy. This paper concludes that there is a dire need of discarding the obsolete colonial language policies and formulating effective language-in-education policy for the achievement of language education goals and ultimately the education goals for the better future of the country. The first step to achieve this goal is to provide Pakistani...

This case study involved Lithuanian university students and aimed to learn about their preferences for feedback in their EFL classes, as feedback is important for the improvement of their linguistic skills. The students filled in an anonymous online questionnaire containing open and closedended questions that focused on the form, focus, types, source, frequency, timing of feedback, the types of errors it should cover, and other relevant aspects of feedback, such as feelings related to feedback in the English classroom. The findings reveal that the students prefer teacher feedback focusing on language, content, organisation, and work in progress. Such feedback should be both positive and negative, provided either in English or Lithuanian or both. The form and type of feedback are not important, but individual feedback is preferred over collective feedback. All or the most frequent errors should be corrected either after the activity or straight away after they occur.

Summary Dyslexia and L2 appropriation have been extensively documented separately; however, few studies have brought them together. Our research sheds linguistic light on dyslexia in Arabic-speaking bilingual children. The aim is to study phonology, reading and spelling in dyslexic and non-dyslexic children learning French as a second language to better distinguish between what a reading disorder is and what typical appropriation is, with possible transient difficulties related to L2 development. The general hypothesis is that there are specific markers of dyslexia in Arabic-speaking children learning French as a second language. A multiple-case study was conducted. It consisted of four dyads of children aged 8-10 years: two bilingual dyslexic children, two bilingual non-dyslexic children, two monolingual dyslexic children and two monolingual non-dyslexic children. The bilingual children were Arabic speakers who had arrived in France at the age of six. In a diachronic and synchronic...

Summary. Language death is a phenomenon with symptoms related to demeaning vocabulary count and depletion of domains of language use along with the simplicity of linguistic structures. It commences by exhibiting traits of a declining number of fluent speakers, dwindling attitude of the speakers with regard to their heritage language, language shift, lack of inter-generational language transfer accompanied by a feeling that heritage language is inferior to outside languages, and Gulgulia exhibits every trait of such a dying language. It has become a waning language that is very close to its permanent extinction. The present study elucidates the ethnolinguistic vitality of Gulgulia tested through chosen sociolinguistic parameters which were found suitable to Gulgulia's scenario. It also explores the linguistic situation of the Gulgulian community in Dhanbad, the community members' language use in their homes and in their miscellaneous interethnic interactions and examines what relation prevails between the community's language preference and their vitality. It was found that speaker variables, such as age, gender, and language competence governed the speaker's attitude toward the heritage language. The location of the speech community is also a regulating factor in determining the inclination for preservation or attrition of the native language. The analysis of the speech behavior in the Gulgulian community confirms the loss of major genres such as the art of narration. Out of all the genres of language use, only two are surviving, which is alarming.

Annotation. In the present era, both learning and teaching, including foreign language learning (FLL) and teaching, are being radically influenced by a massive implementation of digital technologies. The purpose of this study is to analyze foreign language teachers' attitudes towards the use of technologies in foreign language teaching across Europe and to identify clear implications for their efficient implementation. The methodology of this study includes a mixed-method research design (quantitative and qualitative) with a survey conducted with altogether 234 foreign language (FL) teachers from different universities across Europe. The results clearly show that FL teachers generally have a positive attitude towards the use of technologies in their classes and that they frequently use them in their teaching since they can make students more engaged in learning a foreign language. In fact, the FL teachers have always been at the forefront of innovative approaches to teaching and learning. In spite of this, they admit that they would welcome more professional support from the management of their home institutions and demand training in the use of new technologies. The results of the research also indicate that special attention should be paid to the lack of personal contact, students' reactions, and the expression of emotions, which is difficult and almost impossible to achieve through the use of digital media. These findings are unique since they aim specifically at current FL teachers´ attitudes and needs across Europe and can be utilized by stakeholders and FLL course designers. Moreover, they can also be extended to a larger scale, i.e., the global level.

This paper investigates the challenges Syrian refugee students face in Turkish classrooms, focusing on the critical aspect of language proficiency. The study aims to understand the impact of language barriers on academic performance, social integration, and the effectiveness of existing integration programs. The study engaged 18 teachers responsible for 64 Syrian students, exploring their experiences and perspectives through a mixedmethods approach. Utilizing surveys, the research delved into the coping strategies employed by teachers, the academic challenges Syrian students face, and the utilization and awareness of integration programs. The study also examined communication dynamics between teachers and parents. The findings underscore the central role of language barriers in hindering the academic and social integration of Syrian refugee students. Teachers identified the need for more Turkish language competency as the primary challenge, impacting lesson comprehension and hindering effective communication. Limited awareness and utilization of integration programs were reported, revealing gaps in addressing the holistic needs of Syrian students. The discussion section will delve into the nuanced aspects of language education and its implications for integrating Syrian refugee students. Methodological limitations will be acknowledged, including participant reach and the multilingual survey process. Future research directions will be proposed, emphasizing the need for comprehensive language education programs and a broader understanding of societal attitudes toward the permanence of Syrian refugees in Turkey.

The aim of this paper is to examine the way women and men are represented in two EFL textbooks used in Serbian high schools - Focus 2 and Solutions Pre-Intermediate. In order to thoroughly investigate the topic in question, the study employs both quantitative (frequency counts and collocation analysis) and qualitative (visual aid analysis) research methods. The quantitative data alone shows that women are underrepresented in the corpus. When combined with the qualitative analysis, the data reveals, on the one hand, stereotypical portrayals of both women and men and, on the other, efforts to challenge those stereotypes. The pedagogical implication derived from this small-scale case study is that gender bias should be discussed and problematized by teachers and their students.

Annotation. This study examined the attitudes of individuals seeking scholarships to study abroad, exploring whether their views on languages and language policy models vary based on gender, study programs, and countries. An online survey was administered to approximately 130 Hungarian government scholarship applicants from diverse nations. Statistical methods were employed to analyze responses, revealing variations and correlations between demographic and attitudinal variables. Participants expressed preferences for multilingual and monolingual language policies, aligning with their attitudes. The findings indicate that most participants pursued language learning with instrumental motivation, aiming to achieve educational and career objectives. Most participants expressed a desire for a multilingual language policy model in their home countries. While many embraced the proposal to adopt English as the medium of instruction, others maintained a critical perspective, acknowledging both the positive and negative impacts of English and multilingualism. Additionally, participants underscored the significance of preserving native languages in their respective countries.

Summary The focus of this book, which is a collection of twelve studies, is sociolinguistic transformations in marginal contexts that are not usually covered by mainstream publications. The term ‘margin’ in these studies refers to smaller nations and communities located in the peripheries of global hubs. The book includes online margins as well, contemplating the impact of the internet and mobile devices on people’s lives, where standard programs and instruments employed in informal settings are often not applicable. The collection is published on time when the notion of margins and language needs rethinking and reinterpretation. The topics can be characterized as interdisciplinary, and as such the chapters are densely intertwined with both linguistic and social issues, including the impact of technology on the creation of language varieties, the effect of territorial administration on identity development, the role of media in spreading the languages of subcultures, the effect of m...

Summary The article presents the dimensions of communication in multiethnic and multilingual education settings, the main barriers to sustainable relationships between students of different backgrounds and strategies to overcome those barriers. The main research question of the study is: What are the main barriers in sustainable relationships between students with different ethnic and linguistic backgrounds? A subsequent question is: How to overcome those barriers? Hence, the main goal of the article is to identify and address the main problems that undermine mutual understanding and collaborative learning among students. The method of the study is a literature review of the most significant studies and authors in the field. The goal is to present an analysis of their insights into the main problems of relationships between students on international campuses. The article is useful for campus leaders, students and mentors.

Summary The purpose of this study was to find the main factors that guide language policies and discover correlations between top-down and bottom-up ideologies in the context of Hungary and Kyrgyzstan. To accomplish this, the study created a database of relevant official documents, photos of linguistic landscapes and qualitative data. The study analyzed the documented top-down decisions from historical perspectives, and then compared them with the data collected from interviews and surveys, and from the collection of photos. The participants included both high-ranking political figures, professors, students and random citizens. Results showed that the official policies often do not comprehensively match with the people’s beliefs, attitudes and desires. Findings also imply that using either document analysis, or the method of linguistic landscape, or qualitative methods alone, might not sufficiently validate the results in the absence of each other, since errors may top up from vario...

 1 class: 28 students, class time: 45' and 90'; 7 th , 8 th and 9 th grades;  Portuguese (45'+45'+45'), French (90'+45'), English (90'+45');  (theoretical) Natural Sciences through English Plus (co-teaching, 45') + hora de projeto (HP) of English on Science (1 teacher, 45');  45' class of EP Science, other 45' are held in Portuguese;  tendency of selecting suitable units to teach by means of the FL. National PT Institution EP Classes • Social constructivism: naturalistic conditions; inductive process; reality construction • Advocacy/participatory: aiming at changes in practice (Creswell, 2003) Knowledge claim • Case study: descriptive-interpretative; single case with embedded units (Yin, 1994) • Integrated learning in the CLIL-type "English Plus" (EP) project • Middle grades in one Portuguese school; 1 year approximately Research design • Documental analysis (normative documents and teacher plannings) • Teacher semi-structured interview (1 Science and 2 English teachers) • Current EP student semi-structured questionnaire (respondents:7 th , 44 and 8 th , 52) • Former EP student semi-structured interview (11, from different areas, 12 th grade) • Non-structured observation of classroom practices (EP and HP classes), lesson planning and other unformal moments (email exchange, phone calls, etc.) Data collection • Descriptive statistical analysis of closed-ended answers to questionnaire (SPSS 21) • Content analysis of open-ended answers to questionnaire and to interviews (Atlas.Ti 6) Data analysis Methodology English and Science teachers (interview) Former EP students, History with English (interviews) Current EP students, Science with English (questionnaire) What language and cultural awareness emerges from participants in the CLIL-type "English Plus" (EP) in one Portuguese school?

Language change, shift and death are dynamic processes which happen under several sociohistorical, demographic, geographic and linguistic metamorphoses in the world. The economic romance with China Pakistan Economic Corridor is considered to be a "game and fate changer" for the regions especially South Asia, South East Asia, Middle East and even Africa. Whether this economic consecration would also result into changes in social dynamics or consequences in the forms of linguistic apocalypse, socio-cultural cataclysm and evolution in the literary produce would become a serious cause of ''game and fate changer'' for linguistic ecology of the regions. Perhaps, the history has not observed and witnessed pidginization, creolization and hybridization of languages at such a large scale that CPEC is going to leave nothing more than a byproduct. Here we hypothesize that this by product would change the linguistic ecology of Pakistan altogether which poses serious challenges for language maintenance in different domains of its function.

Despite some improvement in the educational situation of migrants and minorities, ethnic disparities remain a challenge in many Western countries (Autorengruppe Bildungsberichterstattung, 2018). The pupils' (academic) language skills are a significant predictor of their performance in different school domains and, therefore, they are often used to explain achievement gaps. Empirical studies showed that pupils with a migration background have lower (academic) language proficiency than their monolingual peers (Heppt et al., 2012) in the languages of instruction. Disadvantages are already manifest upon entering primary school when these children's second language (L2) skills are less well developed than the language skills of their monolingual peers (Leseman & van Tuijl, 2006; Scheele, 2010). Although not unequivocally confirmed, numerous indications show that the conceptual knowledge basis built up in the heritage languages facilitates L2 learning (Verhoeven, 2007).

Summary This article reports findings from an investigation into migrant and non-migrant origin pre-service teachers’ beliefs about multilingualism and the relationship between their linguistic trajectories as students and how they perceive themselves as future teachers. We analize the beliefs of around seventy pre-service teachers taking part in a university course, collected through an individual reflection tool based on a SWOT analysis (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, Threats) and a group discussion in which students had to discuss their ideas and create a collective document. In this article we focus on the discourse of four pre-service teachers, two of whom had migration backgrounds and two of whom who did not. Findings suggest that pre-service teachers’ life and learning experiences contribute to different emotions and feeling about language and teaching in a multilingual setting. They also influence the perception the pre-service teachers have of themselves as future te...

The traditional ornaments, characteristic for the Latvian and Lithuanian ethnographic regions, are an essential part of traditional Baltic culture. Since the 19th century researchers have studied their technical aspects and semiotics (Brastiņš, 1923; Dzērvīts, 1925; Celms 2007) but little attention has been paid to empirical terminology. The name is an integral part of the sign, it often carries semantic information helping to reveal its usage and significance. In Latvia, the names of traditional signs have been influenced by the work of Brastiņš and dievturi ("Keepers of Dievs") who attributed the names of Baltic mythological deities to ornaments linking them to the manifestations of the deity mentioned in the denominations. While these denominations are very popular in Latvia, in Lithuania very similar ornaments are called and interpreted differently. This research focuses on collecting and analysing Baltic ornament nomenclature published in Latvia and Lithuania in the first half of the 20th century. It compares the ornament naming traditions in both countries and highlights the main parallels and differences. It also reviews previous research of ornament in Latvia and Lithuania where significant differences can be seen-while semiotic research dominates in Latvia, in Lithuania more attention has been paid to the nomenclature, although in both countries the nomenclature has often been viewed separately from the visual form, making the research of ornament evolution and typology difficult. It has been found that the spectrum of ornament nomenclature at the beginning of the 20th century in Latvia was more diverse than it is now; that it is common for Latvians and Lithuanians to view ornament as a pattern rather than separate graphic elements and that geometric, plant, animal, artefact and celestial body denominations dominate the nomenclature of both languages. Symbols appearing in Baltic culture are also present in ornament nomenclature.

The traditional ornaments, characteristic for the Latvian and Lithuanian ethnographic regions, are an essential part of traditional Baltic culture. Since the 19th century researchers have studied their technical aspects and semiotics (Brastiņš, 1923; Dzērvīts, 1925; Celms 2007) but little attention has been paid to empirical terminology. The name is an integral part of the sign, it often carries semantic information helping to reveal its usage and significance. In Latvia, the names of traditional signs have been influenced by the work of Brastiņš and dievturi ("Keepers of Dievs") who attributed the names of Baltic mythological deities to ornaments linking them to the manifestations of the deity mentioned in the denominations. While these denominations are very popular in Latvia, in Lithuania very similar ornaments are called and interpreted differently. This research focuses on collecting and analysing Baltic ornament nomenclature published in Latvia and Lithuania in the first half of the 20th century. It compares the ornament naming traditions in both countries and highlights the main parallels and differences. It also reviews previous research of ornament in Latvia and Lithuania where significant differences can be seen-while semiotic research dominates in Latvia, in Lithuania more attention has been paid to the nomenclature, although in both countries the nomenclature has often been viewed separately from the visual form, making the research of ornament evolution and typology difficult. It has been found that the spectrum of ornament nomenclature at the beginning of the 20th century in Latvia was more diverse than it is now; that it is common for Latvians and Lithuanians to view ornament as a pattern rather than separate graphic elements and that geometric, plant, animal, artefact and celestial body denominations dominate the nomenclature of both languages. Symbols appearing in Baltic culture are also present in ornament nomenclature.

Сажетак: Овај рад се бави истраживањем судбине српскохрватског или хрватскосрпског језика након нестанка бивше заједничке државе већине Јужних Словена (свих сем Бугара) 1991. г. са главним акцентом на инаугурацији и промоцији једног од најмлађих словенских и европских језика -босанског. Циљ овог истраживања је да прикаже путеве развоја језика наследника бившег српскохрватског или хрватскосрпског језика са нагласком на његов најделикатнији део -босански. Овим језиком од његове званичне инаугурације 1996. г. па све до данас фактички говоре само босанскохерцеговачки и санџачки (како у Србији тако и у Црној Гори) житељи муслиманске вероисповести, али који се у етнонационалном смислу изјашњавају као Бошњаци. Специфичност босанскохерцеговачке етнојезичке ситуације у последње две деценије је у чињеници да се у овој републици званично говори трима етнојезицима иако поборници босанског језика настоје да докажу да је овај језик матерњи свим становницима Босне и Херцеговине и Санџака (Рашке) без обзира на њихово етничко и верско опредељење. Специфичност положаја босанског језика је и у томе што се његов назив разликује од назива државе у којој се говори (Босна и Херзеговина) и нације која га говори (Бошњаци). Без обзира што се у "техничком" смислу хрватски, босански, црногорски и српски језик након распада/растурања СФР Југославије сматрају посебним језицима, потребно је уложити још много труда из области "лингвистичког инжењеринга" да би се и стварно (у области синтаксе, речника, ортографије, граматичких правила и фактичке разумљивости) добила четири лингвистички оделита језика. С обзиром на чињеницу да сви новонастали језици на рушевинама српскохрватског или хрватскосрпског користе ијекавско наречје као заједничку компоненту која их још увек повезује у јединствени дијалектолошки систем, очекивати је да се у наредном периоду техника "лингвистичког инжењеринга" усмери на стварање "етничких" разлика у оквиру овог наречја, што ће у сваком случају бити тежак, али не и крајње неизводљив, посао. У овој краткој анализи политолингвистичког аспекта нестанка бивше Југославије са акцентом на феномен инаугурације босанског језика, поред упоредне методе, коришћена је и метода анализе текста као вид социолингвистичког проницања у улогу и функцију језика у стварању националног идентитета и национално-државних граница. Коришћен је такође и методолошки принцип комплементарности у смислу међусобног допуњавања података из извора и литературе. Кључне речи: српскохрватски језик, хрватскосрпски језик, босански језик, Југославија, политолингвистика.

Published by American Journals Publishing Center, USA. Website: https://www.american-journals.com/americanjournals.  This study explores the role of English proficiency as an individual difference variable in second language (L2) acquisition research within U.S. secondary schools. Using a mixedmethods approach, we investigate how English language skills influence L2 learning outcomes, motivation, and classroom dynamics. Data from 500 students and 50 teachers across various secondary schools are analyzed. The findings highlight the significance of English proficiency in L2 learning, offering insights for educators and policymakers.

Annotation. In the present era, both learning and teaching, including foreign language learning (FLL) and teaching, are being radically influenced by a massive implementation of digital technologies. The purpose of this study is to analyze foreign language teachers' attitudes towards the use of technologies in foreign language teaching across Europe and to identify clear implications for their efficient implementation. The methodology of this study includes a mixed-method research design (quantitative and qualitative) with a survey conducted with altogether 234 foreign language (FL) teachers from different universities across Europe. The results clearly show that FL teachers generally have a positive attitude towards the use of technologies in their classes and that they frequently use them in their teaching since they can make students more engaged in learning a foreign language. In fact, the FL teachers have always been at the forefront of innovative approaches to teaching and learning. In spite of this, they admit that they would welcome more professional support from the management of their home institutions and demand training in the use of new technologies. The results of the research also indicate that special attention should be paid to the lack of personal contact, students' reactions, and the expression of emotions, which is difficult and almost impossible to achieve through the use of digital media. These findings are unique since they aim specifically at current FL teachers´ attitudes and needs across Europe and can be utilized by stakeholders and FLL course designers. Moreover, they can also be extended to a larger scale, i.e., the global level.

Education across the Indian higher education sector experienced a paradigm shift since March 2020. It has created a space to rethink and redesign the teaching-learning process in the path of education 4.0. With technology dissemination and support to the education sector at its peak, it creates a need for Indian higher education sector to focus on newer pedagogies for modelling 21 st century classrooms, especially English classrooms. Hence, this paper is an attempt to showcase the need to replace the traditional classrooms with flipped classroom approach as an effective alternative for the stagnant 20 th century classroom of India. It further discusses the drawbacks of traditional classroom and the need for flipping English classrooms of Indian higher education sector.

Annotation. Plurilingualism goes beyond the mere ability to use multiple languages; it emphasizes the interconnected nature of languages within an individual's linguistic competence. In line with the European language policy, university students are becoming users of several languages, and international university students in Czech universities often learn Czech as their fourth language or beyond (L4+). Understanding how their linguistic competencies interact can impact their language acquisition experience. Learners may perceive interactions among the languages within their linguistic repertoire. The concept of Perceived Positive Language Interaction (PPLI, Thompson, 2016) pertains to the perception that languages previously studied are interrelated in a positive way, ultimately enhancing a plurilingual's ability to acquire additional languages. This study explores the relationships between Czech as an additional language and the learners' prior languages. The research aims to answer three main questions: Do learners of Czech as L4+ perceive positive interactions among their learned languages? In what areas do these interactions manifest? How does Czech relate to their other languages? The study was conducted at a Czech university that provides optional introductory Czech courses (A1/A2), primarily to students in the Erasmus+ program. Fifty-four international students filled in an open-ended online questionnaire over two consecutive semesters. The analysis revealed that while students perceived positive interactions among some of the languages they had learned, especially within language families, interactions across typologically different languages occurred, particularly between Czech and German. The participants' mother tongue also emerged as a significant factor. While language instruction often follows a monolingual approach, where the target language is the primary mode of classroom interaction (Woll, 2020), learners may significantly benefit from their previous language learning experiences when learning an additional language. Despite the relatively limited research sample, this study suggests the didactic potential of positive language interaction in language teaching and learning and highlights further research opportunities.

Annotation. Classrooms at all levels of education are becoming more diverse, as they include more and more multilingual and multicultural students. Their teachers start understanding that, especially in foreign language classes, monolingual approaches to teaching and learning are not effective anymore, and search for other pedagogical techniques and practices that would involve their students' linguistic repertoires as an asset in their classes. This study aimed to learn about the attitudes towards and experiences of the use of other languages in the English classroom by including the perspectives of English teachers and their Ukrainian students who, having fled their home country due to the war against Ukraine or having chosen to participate in student exchange, came to study at Vytautas Magnus University in Kaunas, Lithuania. Two online questionnaires including open and closed ended questions were used to gather data. Thus, the study was both quantitative and qualitative. Even though several literature review sections in this article describe a switch from monolingual to a more holistic paradigm that includes translanguaging, this and other terms employed to describe the use of other languages were not introduced to the research participants. The English teachers' and their Ukrainian students' attitudes towards and experiences of the use of other languages in the English classroom are first looked at separately and then compared in the concluding section. The findings revealed that both Ukrainian students (58.3%) and teachers (84.2%) have experience of other languages being used in their English classroom. They also agree that translation into the language that students understand is used as a strategy helping the students to understand grammar and vocabulary, yet the students indicated gesturing as a strategy used to explain unknown vocabulary. Other strategies related to the use of other languages were also mentioned and described. The teachers and the students pointed out that Russian and Lithuanian were the most frequently employed other (than English) languages in their English classroom, even though the teachers believed they used mostly Russian, whereas the students believed their teachers mostly used Lithuanian.

Annotation. Classrooms at all levels of education are becoming more diverse, as they include more and more multilingual and multicultural students. Their teachers start understanding that, especially in foreign language classes, monolingual approaches to teaching and learning are not effective anymore, and search for other pedagogical techniques and practices that would involve their students' linguistic repertoires as an asset in their classes. This study aimed to learn about the attitudes towards and experiences of the use of other languages in the English classroom by including the perspectives of English teachers and their Ukrainian students who, having fled their home country due to the war against Ukraine or having chosen to participate in student exchange, came to study at Vytautas Magnus University in Kaunas, Lithuania. Two online questionnaires including open and closed ended questions were used to gather data. Thus, the study was both quantitative and qualitative. Even though several literature review sections in this article describe a switch from monolingual to a more holistic paradigm that includes translanguaging, this and other terms employed to describe the use of other languages were not introduced to the research participants. The English teachers' and their Ukrainian students' attitudes towards and experiences of the use of other languages in the English classroom are first looked at separately and then compared in the concluding section. The findings revealed that both Ukrainian students (58.3%) and teachers (84.2%) have experience of other languages being used in their English classroom. They also agree that translation into the language that students understand is used as a strategy helping the students to understand grammar and vocabulary, yet the students indicated gesturing as a strategy used to explain unknown vocabulary. Other strategies related to the use of other languages were also mentioned and described. The teachers and the students pointed out that Russian and Lithuanian were the most frequently employed other (than English) languages in their English classroom, even though the teachers believed they used mostly Russian, whereas the students believed their teachers mostly used Lithuanian.

In this article, we discuss the changing role of applied linguistics from a diachronic perspective and outline its present role as an interdisciplinary branch of science. In the 1950s, applied linguistics was viewed as a branch of science dealing with the application of linguistics to language teaching and with tackling central issues of practical language in use. Nowadays applied linguistics encompasses a wide range of objectives, the scope of which is often hard to define. If applied linguistics had to undergo a long way of broadening the field all over the world, this period of development was left out in Latvia, applied linguistics not being officially recognized as a branch of science. The official beginning of applied linguistics in Latvia is considered to be the year 1999, when it was entered into the Science Classification of the Latvian Council of Science. At the outset, the first dissertations written in applied linguistics reflected its interdisciplinary nature as a practicedriven discipline that addresses solving languagerelated phenomena in a variety of general, academic, occupational and professional contexts. The present article argues that applied linguistics lies at the intersection of different disciplines; however, the narrow view of applied linguistics that still exists in the Latvian society calls for considering its role within our own academic niche as well as in an outward perspective, thus making the Latvian academic society aware of its importance as an interdisciplinary branch of science.

During the last decade, research interest in multilingualism has increased immensely. As a result, the present paper explores certain aspects of growing understanding and commitment to the linguistic diversity, which are considered to be some of the factors that underlie a successful interaction in a multilingual society nowadays. The theoretical framework of the study is designed considering the latest contributions of sociolinguistic ethnography in the area of multilingualism, relating the notion of multilingualism to the notion of multicompetence. The current situation demonstrates that multilingualism having developed from sociolinguistically-bound research distinguishes its own social, institutional and individual dimensions. They are associated with the practices that are linked to the use of the language for instrumental purposes in order to communicate with confidence in a socially and culturally diverse society. Consequently, researching multilingualism moves away from the analysis of coexisting language systems to a more critical approach that situates appropriate language practices in relevant social and/or political contexts. The empirical part of the study investigates one example of pop-culture, i.e., the language originated, used and constantly updated by the Starbucks-world famous coffee manufacturing industry. The study concludes that the language users are expected to possess multilingual competence to interact appropriately in social settings nowadays.

A great variety of original audiovisual (AV) texts such as films, television series, teletext, videogames, live performances may include more than one language as an outcome of the director's initial intension. The producers of the AV texts tend to portray specific cultural aspects with different linguistic variations, which are also related to particular stylistic, pragmatic or discursive functions. In certain cases, translators of such AV texts face serious challenges. One of the thorny problems arises with the adaptation of the multilingual AV texts to the deaf and hard of hearing audience. Different strategies and methods of employing the multilingual AV texts for the needs of the deaf and hard of hearing audience have been adopted in various countries; however, nowadays Lithuania has only taken its first steps in developing a unified system of working out translating and subtitling strategies of the AV texts in general. This article aims at discovering professional translation and subtitling practices along with the norms, criteria and strategies of this specific translation activity in Lithuania and abroad. Firstly, the existing overseas reality of the translation and subtitling of multilingual AV texts is described and afterwards the tendencies within the Lithuanian adaptations of AV texts are discussed.

Summary The issue of multilingualism often arises in the context of audiovisual translation, when dubbing, subtitling or voice-over is under discussion. This aspect also does not lose its significance in subtitling multilingual films for the deaf and hard of hearing. By applying this mode, the content of audiovisual product is conveyed to the deaf by employing a special instrument of audiovisual translation, namely, specialized subtitles (SDH). In this case, subtitles must include not only a translated dialogue text; the additional information that helps the deaf perceive the off screen non-verbal and verbal cues, understand the narrative and mood of the film and estimate roles of foreign languages must be added as well. The paper aims at exploring strategies for conveying multilingualism to the deaf in the films created by Lithuanian filmmakers. Three Lithuanian multilingual films “Back to Your Arms“ (2010, directed by K. Vildžiūnas), „How We Played the Revolution“ (2011, directed ...

Summary A great variety of original audiovisual (AV) texts such as films, television series, teletext, videogames, live performances may include more than one language as an outcome of the director’s initial intension. The producers of the AV texts tend to portray specific cultural aspects with different linguistic variations, which are also related to particular stylistic, pragmatic or discursive functions. In certain cases, translators of such AV texts face serious challenges. One of the thorny problems arises with the adaptation of the multilingual AV texts to the deaf and hard of hearing audience. Different strategies and methods of employing the multilingual AV texts for the needs of the deaf and hard of hearing audience have been adopted in various countries; however, nowadays Lithuania has only taken its first steps in developing a unified system of working out translating and subtitling strategies of the AV texts in general. This article aims at discovering professional tran...

Akronimai yra diskutuotina leksikos tema. Kalbant apie juos, kyla daug klausimų. Pirmiausia, kas laikytina akronimu? "Dabartinės lie tuvių kalbos žodyne" (visuose jo leidimuose), juo labiau "Lietuvių kalbos žodyne", tokio žodžio nėra. Akronimą pateikia ir aptaria "Kal botyros terminų žodynas"(KTŽ 1990) ir tarptautinių žodžių žody nai (1985, 2001). Pirmasis jį apibrėžia kaip raidine santrumpą-su trumpintą pavadinimą, kurį sudaro pirmosios pilnąjį pavadinimą su darančių savarankiškų žodžių raidės: TSRS, UNESCO; tarptautinių žodžių žodynai-kaip santrumpos rūšį, iš pavadinimo žodžių pirmų jų raidžių sudarytą naują žodį, pvz.: nepas (TŽŽ 1985), PAN (Vait kevičiūtė 2001). Taigi akronimas priskiriamas prie santrumpų, tik vienu atveju laikomas žodžiu, o kitais-ne. Apie raidines santrumpas, neminint akronimo termino, rašoma "Lietuvių kalbos rašyboje ir skyryboje" (LKRS 1992) ir "Lietuvių kalbos enciklopedijoje" (LKE 1999). Pastarojoje ties akronimų straipsniu duota nuoroda į santrumpas, o šios skiriamos į abreviatū ras ir sutrumpinimus. Abreviatūros apibrėžiamos kaip sudėtinių pa vadinimų sutrauktiniai pakaitai, sudaryti iš žodžių pirmųjų raidžių ar didesnių jo dalių: skiemenų, morfemų, griežtai nepaisant jų ribų. Tik pirmųjų raidžių, arba inicialinės, abreviatūros vadinamos akro nimais (LKE 1999: 553-554). "Lietuvių kalbos rašyboje ir skyryboje" rašoma, kad raidiniai keliažodžių pavadinimų sutrumpinimai, arba santrumpos, tiek tikri niai, tiek bendriniai (tuo jie skiriasi nuo simbolių ir grafinių žodžių sutrumpinimų, kuriuos sudaro tik vieno žodžio sutrumpinimas), gau nami trumpinant visus savarankiškus žodžius, žymint juos pirmosiomisdidžiosiomis raidėmis: SNO, JT, JAV (LKRS 1992: 73-74). Šio apibrėžimo teiginiai vertintini su tam tikromis išlygomis. To liau nurodoma, kad raidiškai galima trumpinti nc tik keliažodžius, bet ir vienažodžius pavadinimus, jei jie yra sudurtiniai ar priešdėli niai žodžiai, kurių pirmasis dėmuo nelietuviškas ir atskirai nevarto

this research paper sets out to present linguistic aspect of ideological framework in making both serbian national identity and national state building program created in the first half of 19 th century by two different serbian writers (Vuk stefanović-karadžić and ilija garašanin). in the following decades this "linguistic" framework of national identity became one of the cornerstones of serbian national ideology and foreign policy. the question of national identity and creation of national state occupied the first place of agenda in the mind of the leading serbian intellectuals and politicians in the first half of 19 th century. imbued by ideas of german Romanticism and French Revolution, serbian patriotic public actors set up a goal to create an ideologicalpolitical framework for serbian national liberation under foreign occupation-Roman Catholic Habsburg Monarchy and islamic Ottoman Empire. the present work investigates the linguistic model of national identification of the south slavs designed by Vuk stefanović karadžić in 1836 and the programme for the restructuring of the political map of the balkan Peninsula drafted by ilija garašanin in 1844. this work is an attempt to reconstruct the understanding of karadžić and garašanin of those components of group counsciousness which could affect the sense of belonging to the same community. there are three goals of this research paper: to investigate how language influenced serbian national ideologies in the first half of the 19th century; to discuss how Vuk stefanović karadžić, the most influential serbian 19th century philologist, and ilija garašanin, the most important serbian 19th century politician, answer the fundamental question of serbian nationalism from the perspective of the 19th century Romanticism: who are the serbs and what are the borders of the united serbian national state?; and to define the formation of structure of serbian linguistic nationalism in the first half of the 19th century. two research methods were applied were: the method of the text analysis of the prime historical sources and the method of comparison of different interpretations and undestandings of the works by V. s. karadžić and i. garašanin. the main research results are that V. s. karadžić's understanding of the language in the conception of serbian linguistic nationalism was primarily of ethnic nature and that i. garašanin drafted a project of the united serbian national state by implementing a linguistic model of serb national identification developed by V. s. karadžić.

Summary This study, which deals with code-switching and language choice in multilingual contexts, describes the use of Pidgin in creative works in English in Cameroon, with the focus on the forms that this language takes in the works, the types of characters who are made to speak this language, and the functions that this language plays in these works. The data comprise three plays and two novels, all published between 2000 and 2006 by experienced writers who have a good command of English and yet make their characters speak in Pidgin. The analysis shows that Pidgin in the corpus takes the form of individual lexemes like salaka (libation, sacrifice) and relatively short utterances like This sun fit kill man (This sun is so hot that it can kill someone.). The characters who speak Pidgin in these literary works are generally low-ranking and rural people, illiterates and other people who are hardly looked up to in the Cameroonian society. Finally, Pidgin helps writers to realise some s...

This article discusses information on foreign language learning and teaching (strategies, principles, pedagogy and objectives) from documents of the EU and Republican bodies, decision making on it by informed and responsible professionals, research data on the alignment of an academic course with the students' needs in foreign language teaching, reliable references and pedagogy, which amount to culture in execution in foreign language learning and teaching. The research aspect encompasses analysis of selected documents, which is followed by the author's insights and generalizations, and data on classroom research into the development of an academic course, in which the teacher's aspirations are trimmed and the students' inclinations are satisfied. Analysis of the documents (their volume, the number of languages learnt and taught in the EU, the age of young learners) features as a quantitative aspect in foreign language education, while research into the development of an academic course and near-native proficiency as a measure of competence in foreign language learning feature as a qualitative aspect in EFL. The role of social attitudes and of individual culture are highlighted in the treatment of errors and in the selection of language standard in EFL, which are minor questions and feature as premises rather than as objectives in the discussion. The article promotes a harmony and moderation in aligning administrative and pedagogic requirements with educational goals and information, technological achievements and perfected instruction.