Science, Mesopotamian

1 Science, Mesopotamian empirical content is limited, since many are clearly constructed or describe impossible phe- MATHIEU OSSENDRIJVER nomena (Brown 1998). Celestial divination is first attested in the Mesopotamian science covers all forms of Old-Babylonian period but already referred scholarly inquiry into natural and cultural to in Sumerian literary compositions from phenomena, both real and imagined. This 2400–2000 BCE. By 1000 BCE a process of elab- inclusiveness reflects the nature of Mesopota- oration had resulted in the astrological omen mian scholarship as well as a consensus among series ENUMA ANU ENLIL comprising 70 tablets. most modern historians and philosophers of The structure of an omen can be illustrated by science about the impossibility of defining an example from tablet 33: “If a solar eclipse consistent and non-anachronistic criteria for occurs on day 1 of the month Nisan the king of distinguishing science from “pseudoscience.” Akkad will die.” We are well informed about Mesopotamian science, therefore, includes the use of celestial divination by Neo-Assyrian not only mathematics, astronomy, medicine, rulers due to numerous reports (Hunger 1992) and pharmacology, but also lexical lists, astrol- written by the astrologers to king Assurbanipal ogy, divination, annalistic historiography, and (see LIBRARY OF ASSURBANIPAL). In these reports arguably even theology and rituals, which can- celestial divination comes across as an integral not all be addressed here for lack of space. part of the Assyrian religion and state ideology that enabled the king to present his rule as being in line with the decisions of the gods. LEXICAL LISTS Astrologers constantly advised the king about recently observed signs and their ritual, polit- The earliest evidence of scholarly inquiry in ical, military, or medical implications. In case Mesopotamia is contained in lexical lists, of an unfavorable sign apotropaic rituals were which are the oldest known cuneiform texts available. An eclipse could mean acute danger (3200 BCE) apart from bookkeeping records. that called for the so-called substitute king These originally monolingual (SUMERIAN), ritual, requiring the king to temporarily step later bilingual (plus AKKADIAN) compilations down from his throne and be replaced by a of CUNEIFORM signs and words exhibit various commoner, usually a prisoner, who was to degrees of systematization of natural and cul- bear the evil. tural phenomena based on orthographic or semantic principles. MATHEMATICS DIVINATION Mathematical texts from the Old-Babylonian period (1800–1600 BCE) (see MATHEMATICS, Mesopotamian divination (see DIVINATION, MESOPOTAMIAN) include tables of multiplication, ANCIENT NEAR EAST) is based on the belief that reciprocals, squares, etc., expressed in the sexa- the gods communicate with man through gesimal place-value notation, invented in the signs (omens), which could be found in all preceding Ur-III period. In some problem realms of nature and culture. Diviners used texts systems of unknowns, equivalent to mod- written collections of omens for extispicy, ern quadratic or more complex equations, are celestial phenomena, medical diagnostics, solved using so-called geometrical algebra. abnormal births (see SˇHUMMA IZBU) and daily Many of these transcend the practical needs of life (see SˇHUMMA A¯ALU) when interpreting bookkeeping. Other common topics of the signs. Although omens do reflect systematic problem texts include metrology, inheritance, exploration of natural phenomena, their and various types of riddles. The Encyclopedia of Ancient History, First Edition. Edited by Roger S. Bagnall, Kai Brodersen, Craige B. Champion, Andrew Erskine, and Sabine R. Huebner, print pages 6070–6072. © 2013 Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Published 2013 by Blackwell Publishing Ltd. DOI: 10.1002/9781444338386.wbeah21289 2 MEDICINE are Venus observations contained in the so-called Venus tablet of Ammisaduqa (see Mesopotamians construed human disease and AMMISADUQA, VENUS TABLET OF). Astronomical medical conditions as signs that must be diaries and related observational texts from interpreted like other phenomena. Diagnostic Babylonia are the fruits of a systematic program handbooks (see MEDICINE, MESOPOTAMIAN) are of observation that began near 750 BCE and thus collections of omens through which dis- continued until the first century CE. Diaries eases are attributed to various supernatural usually contain six months of observations, influences. They were used by the exorcist each month beginning with a section covering (asipu), and reflect a profound knowledge of daily positions, lunar phenomena including the phenomenology of human disease. Thera- the first sighting of the crescent, and the syn- peutic and pharmacological texts, which testify odic phenomena of the planets (see DIARIES, to detailed knowledge of herbs, belong to the ASTRONOMICAL; Hunger and Sachs 1988–2006). realm of the physician (asu), who collaborated These data were used for predicting the same with the exorcist in the healing of the patient. phenomena for a future year using the Goal- Year method, which is based on accurate periods after which the phenomena repeat at nearly the CALENDARS same celestial position and calendar date. Goal- Year predictions are thus essentially observa- Calendar issues contributed to the develop- tions excerpted from diaries preceding that ment of astronomy. Mesopotamians used a year by the appropriate period. luni-solar calendar in which the month began One instrument for measuring time used by with the first sighting of the lunar crescent. the Babylonian astronomers is the sundial, Since 12 months amount to about 354 days – which casts a shadow whose length and angle 11 days short of the solar year – it was neces- are measures of the time lapsed since sunrise. sary occasionally to insert an extra month. The waterclock is a water-filled container with From about 1400 BCE onwards starlists known a tiny hole near the bottom, so that the weight as “astrolabes” provide an ideal calendar listing of the escaped water is a measure of time. three heliacally rising constellations for every A third method, for measuring time at night, month of the year. Mulapin(“Plough Star”) is a is based on lists of time intervals between suc- compendium comprising three tablets about cessively culminating “ziqpu” stars. There various astronomical, calendrical, and astro- must have existed a simple instrument for logical topics (Hunger and Pingree 1989). By measuring angular distances similar to the the sixth century BCE Babylonian astronomers medieval Jacob’s staff. From the Achaemenid had implemented an accurate nineteen-year period onwards, when the astronomers are (“Metonic”) intercalation cycle whereby one known to have been temple employees, the extra month is inserted in seven out of nineteen temple towers (ziqqurats) might have been years. The desire to predict the first appearance used as platforms for observation. of the lunar crescent rather than depend on observation contributed to the development of the Goal-Year method (see GOAL-YEAR TEXTS) and MATHEMATICAL ASTRONOMY mathematical astronomy, two sophisticated AND ZODIACAL ASTROLOGY predictive methods to be discussed below. Near 450 BCE, when Babylonia was under OBSERVATIONAL ASTRONOMY Achaemenid control, the astral sciences saw further substantial developments along with Probably the earliest known records of astro- the introduction of the zodiac, a division of nomical phenomena (seventeenth century BCE) the ecliptic (the sun’s orbit) into twelve  3 sections of 30˚ named after nearby constella- elements of Greco-Roman astrology turn out tions. Tablets from BABYLON and URUK contain to be imported from Babylonia (Rochberg the earliest known form of mathematical 2004). Babylonian mathematical astronomy is astronomy. Times and positions of the same attested in Greek papyri from Greco-Roman lunar and planetary phenomena known from Egypt found in OXYRHYNCHOS (Jones 1999). the diaries are now predicted with mathemat- ical algorithms. The latter are preserved in SEE ALSO: Assyria; Calendar, ancient Near East. procedure texts (Ossendrijver 2011), the pre- dictions in the form of numerical tables. REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS Babylonian zodiacal astrology includes fore- runners of the horoscope (Rochberg 1998), in Brown, D. (1998) Mesopotamian planetary which the future of a newborn is derived astronomy–astrology. Groningen. from the positions of the planets at the day of Høyrup, J. (2002) Lengths, widths, surfaces. birth. Terrestrial phenomena such as weather, A portrait of old Babylonian algebra and its kin. the river gauge, market prices of certain goods, New York. Hunger, H. (1992) Astrological reports to Assyrian and historical events, all of which were kings. New York. recorded in the astronomical diaries, were Hunger, H. [and Sachs, A. J.] (1988– 2006) also meant to be predicted, by assuming Astronomical Diaries and Related Texts from that they are correlated with astronomical Babylonia, I–III,V– VI. Vienna. phenomena, as is explicitly mentioned in Hunger, H. and Pingree, D. (1989) MUL.APIN. certain texts. An astronomical compendium in cuneiform. Horn. Hunger, H. and Pingree, D. (1999) Astral sciences TRANSMISSION OF BABYLONIAN in Mesopotamia. Leiden. ASTRAL SCIENCES TO THE GRECO- Jones, A. (1999) Astronomical papyri from ROMAN WORLD Oxyrhynchus. Philadelphia. Neugebauer, O. (1969) The exact sciences in Babylonian astronomy and astrology were antiquity. New York. transmitted to the Greco-Roman world, where Neugebauer, O. (1975) History of ancient the word “Chaldaean,” originally designating mathematical astronomy. Berlin. the inhabitants of Babylonia, became synony- Ossendrijver, M. (2011) Babylonian mathematical mous with “astrologer.” The astronomer astronomy: procedure texts. Berlin. Rochberg, F. (1998) “Babylonian horoscopes.” HIPPARCHOS (second century BCE) used Transactions of the American Philosophical Society Babylonian astronomical data and introduced 88:1–164. sexagesimal calculus into Greek astronomy. Rochberg, F. (2004) The heavenly writing: PTOLEMY (second century CE) acknowledged divination, horoscopy, and astronomy in Babylonian observations as a source of cer- Mesopotamian culture. Cambridge. tain astronomical parameters underlying his Steele, J. M. (2008) A brief introduction to famous Almagest. The horoscope and various astronomy in the Middle East. London.