Cowrie Shells and their Imitations as Ornamental Amulets in Egypt and the Near East

Title: Cowrie shells and their imitations as ornamental amulets in Egypt and the Near East Author(s): Amir Goalni Journal: Polish Archaeology in the Mediterranean 23/2, Special Studies: Beyond ornamentation. Jewelry as an Aspect of Material Culture in the Ancient Near East, edited by A. Golani , Z. Wygnańska Year: 2014 Pages: 71-94 ISSN 1234–5415 (Print), ISSN 2083–537X (Online) Publisher: Polish Centre of Mediterranean Archaeology, University of Warsaw (PCMA UW), Wydawnictwa Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego (WUW) www.pcma.uw.edu.pl – www.wuw.pl polish archaeology in the mediterranean XXiii/2 SPECIAL STUDIES POLISH ARCHAEOLOGY IN THE MEDITERRANEAN (PAM) annual reports of the polish centre of mediterranean archaeology, University of Warsaw Editorial Board piotr Bieliński Krzysztof m. ciałowicz Wiktor andrzej daszewski michał gawlikowski Włodzimierz godlewski Karol myśliwiec International Advisory Board Jean charles Balty charles Bonnet giorgio Buccellati stan hendrickx Johanna holaubek peer-reviewed by members of the PAM committee of independent reviewers polish centre of mediterranean archaeology University of WarsaW polish archaeology in the mediterranean XXiii/2 SPECIAL STUDIES Beyond ornamentation jewelry as an aspect of material culture in the ancient near east editors Amir GolAni, ZuZAnnA WyGnAńskA POLISH ARCHAEOLOGY IN THE MEDITERRANEAN (PAM) Annual reports of the Polish Centre of Mediterranean Archaeology, University of Warsaw pam editor-in-chief: iwona Zych volume 23/2: Special Studies Beyond Ornamentation. Jewelry as an Aspect of Material Culture in the Ancient Near East scientiic editors: amir golani, Zuzanna Wygnańska all texts peer-reviewed Bibliographic editor: aleksandra Zych language consultation: iwona Zych technical editor: iwona Zych editorial assistance: agnieszka szymczak digital processing: ewa czyżewska image processing and copyediting assistance: ewa czyżewska, szymon maślak, marta momot, marek puszkarski, Urszula Wicenciak original graphic design: Jerzy Kowalski, updated by ewa czyżewska for pcma dtp: ewa czyżewska, assistant Urszula Wicenciak cover: Beads from a mitanni grave at tell arbid, syria (photo J. Wierzbicki) ISSN 1234–5415 (Print), ISSN 2083–537X (Online) © Polish Centre of Mediterranean Archaeology, University of Warsaw, Warszawa 2014 © Copyright by Wydawnictwa Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego, Warszawa 2014 all rights reserved. no part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the polish centre of mediterranean archaeology of the University of Warsaw. polish centre of mediterranean archaeology, University of Warsaw 00-497 Warszawa, poland, ul. nowy Świat 4 e-mail: [email protected] www.pcma.uw.edu.pl University of Warsaw press pl -00-497 Warszawa, ul. nowy Świat 4 www.wuw.pl; e-mail: [email protected] internet Bookshop: www.wuw.pl/ksiegarnia Printed in Poland contents CONTENTS abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 preface ................................................. ................................... 9 introduction Amir Golani, Zuzanna Wygnańska ...................................... .............. 11 map of major sites discussed in the text ................................ 18 the bead workshop at site mps 4, mil plain, azerbaijan: craft specialization and the manufacture of shell jewelry in the neolithic Ilia Heit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 a Badarian – naqadian cognitive link? a possible insight on the basis of a Badarian hippopotamus-shaped pendant from egypt Maarten Horn. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 cowrie shells and their imitations as ornamental amulets in egypt and the near east Amir Golani . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 tracing the “diadem Wearers”: an inQuiry into the meaning of simple-form head adornments from the chalcolithic and early Bronze age in the near east Zuzanna Wygnańska . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 amulets? on the possible function of zoomorphic pendants from child burials in tell rad shaqrah (syria) Dariusz Szeląg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 Jewelery manufacture in the Kura-araxes and Bedeni cultures of the southern caucasus: analogies and distinctions for the reconstruction of a cultural changeover Eleonora Carminati . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 West anatolian beads and pins in the 2nd millennium Bc: some remarks on function and distribution in comparison with neighboring regions Magda Pieniążek, Ekin Kozal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 5 pam 23/2: special studies contents Beads, pendants and other ornaments from late 3rd–2nd millennium Bc occupation on failaka, Kuwait Ann Andersson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209 vitreous beads from the Uluburun shipwreck Rebecca S. Ingram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 personal display in the southern levant and the Question of philistine cultural origins Josephine Verduci . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247 revealed by their jewelry: ethnic identity of israelites during the iron age in the southern levant Amir Golani . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269 personal ornaments at hasanlu, iran Megan Cifarelli . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297 index of sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317 guidelines for authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323 pcma publications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324 6 pam 23/2: special studies cowrie shells and their imitations as ornamental amulets in egypt and the near east egypt & near east COWRIE SHELLS AND THEIR IMITATIONS AS ORNAMENTAL AMULETS IN EGYPT AND THE NEAR EAST amir golani israel antiquities authority Abstract: shells of the genus Cypraea, commonly known as “cowries”, are common inds in archaeological excavations throughout the near east from the prehistoric period onward. hey are oten found modiied by the removal of their backs in order to facilitate stringing. although certain species of these shells were historically used as currency, their prime importance was as amuletic jewellery. he extensive distribution and chronological time span of these shells attests to their immense popularity among many ancient and unrelated cultures. heir value stems probably from the suggestive form of the shell itself, the shell being considered as a protective amulet guarding against sterility, ensuring fertility and warding of the “evil eye”. While the shell itself may have been acquired by trade, the form of the shell was emulated in other materials that aforded the form added symbolic power. Keywords: cowrie shells, shell ornaments, amulets, ancient jewelry, imitation, near east, ancient egypt shells are among the most durable natural materials next to stone and bone that can be recovered from archaeological excavations. Until recently, however, they have been only casually retrieved and seldom reported on in any detail. nowadays archaeological shells have begun to receive due attention, although many publications still largely overlook this component of material culture. one of the earliest natural materials used by man, shells were oten exploited as a source of food, whereas whole or crushed shells were used as building materials, made into vessels, tools and various other implements. hey were used as a medium of exchange and for oferings, and were also traded, making them an important part of the evidence for the existence of trade contacts with other regions (safer, gill 1982). finally, shells are among the oldest and readily available means of decoration (clark 1986: 23f., Baryosef mayer 2005). he modiication of natural shells and their manufacture into ornaments is relatively simple (see francis 1982; Wapnish 1997) and almost any shell can be used for ornamentation, many 71 pam 23/2: special studies amir golani egypt & near east with little or no modiication other than being strung. as personal ornaments of speciic shape and form, shells may exhibit a broad range of symbolic meanings as ritual objects and some shells may be used as protective amulets. heir symbolic and protective signiicance further emphasizes their value as expressions of power and status (trubitt 2003). a common name for a group of small to large marine gastropods of the Cypraeidae family. he taxonomic designation ‘Cypraea’ derives from cyprus, where worship of aphrodite, the goddess of love, is thought to have begun (reese 1988: 262; stol 2000: 52). he name ‘cowrie’ is of indian origin and in 6th century sanskrit denoted ‘change’ or ‘currency’ (Kovács 2008: 6). he term is now used in reference to shells of the Cypraea family, including some 160 species worldwide, generally inhabiting shallow tropical or subtropical waters. he rounded, shiny, porcelain-like cowrie shells are pleasing to look at and to handle. hey come in a broad range of sizes and colors, and are compact and durable, making them convenient trade items. certain species have historically been used as currency in several parts of the world (hogendorn, Johnson 1986: 12–19; gregory 1996), but this aspect of cowrie use will not be dealt with here. cowries are worn and traded today throughout the world and are also used as ornaments in modern society. in the near east, human use of a broad array of shells for ornamentation is a very ancient tradition dating back to the epipaleolithic period. cowries from the red sea and the mediterranean have been found among other shells at settlement sites throughout israel and Jordan (reese 1986: 328–330; 1991: 188). hese shells are usually intact or were perforated at their narrow end. With the change from hunter–gatherer societies to early farming communities in the 9th millennium Bc, a more restricted range of shells, among these the cowrie, came into use in the southern levant (Bar-yosef et alii 1986: 137, 151; Kovács 2008: 16). his change conteXt shells in their ornamental function, either modiied or not, appear in diverse archaeological contexts. hey are mentioned in ancient textual sources and occasionally depicted as ornaments on statues and igurines (e.g., Beck 1995: figs 3.16–3.17, 3.19–3.20), thus providing further evidence of their value. heir presence in tombs validates their interpretation as status objects that may have also functioned as ornaments. in occupational ills they are found entirely by chance, lost by their owners or detached from their original context by postdepositional processes. in hoards or accumulations of wealth hidden by their owners they occur as objects of intrinsic value (e.g., at larsa, huot 1978: 195– 196; arnaud, calvet, huot 1979; at Ur, Woolley, mallowan 1976: U. 16929 a–B; and at Babylon, reuther 1926: 16). hey are also found in foundation deposits comprising accumulated wealth that was deposited and essentially sacriiced with no intent of future retrieval (see ellis 1968: 132–133, 135–136; golani 2008: fig. 24). coWrie shells a recurrent type of shell found in diferent archaeological contexts is the cowrie (or cowry, plural cowries), 72 pam 23/2: special studies, cowrie shells and their imitations as ornamental amulets in egypt and the near east egypt & near east may be due to modiied trade distribution stemming from the development of more permanent settlements and may also be due to developing attitudes related to the symbolic importance of these shells. from the neolithic period onwards, cowries with their dorsum or rounded back removed made an appearance in egypt and the near east [Fig. 1]. he shape was achieved by sawing or by abrasion on a rough surface, such as a lat stone, and was probably done to facilitate the stringing of the shells as pendants or as beads that could have been worn by themselves or as necklaces of several beads together, headbands, girdles or bracelets. removal of the dorsum also enabled these shells to be displayed together in larger numbers as a lat chain, making them convenient to be worn in groups as a belt, for example, or to be sewn onto clothing. his form of modiication also ensured that the base of the shell would remain in frontal display and could easily be sewn onto clothes (Kovács 2008: 18). most of these cowries originated from the red sea (e.g., Cypraea annulus, Cypraea turdus, Cypraea erosa nebrites, Cypraea moneta), whereas only a few examples (e.g., Cypraea lurida) were of mediterranean origin. red sea cowries were probably preferred due to their larger size and are evidence of trade connections with this region. during the Bronze age, cowries became more common as grave goods, usually associated with burials of women and children (Kovács 2008: 17). hey were also popular in predynastic egypt and also in the southern levant of the Bronze and iron ages (see Bar-yosef mayer 2007: table 18.3). for example, cowrie shells comprised a third (128) of all the shells recovered from excavations of iron age ii levels at Kadesh Barnea (10th–7th/6th centuries Bc). of these, a fourth were found modiied with their dorsum removed (Bar-yosef mayer 2007: 280–281), indicating that the modiication of the shell was of importance and may have been practiced at the site itself. in egypt, cowries were found in graves of young girls from predynastic times (reese 1991: 189) and in the southern levant modiied cowries were discovered arranged around the skull in female burials, e.g. at tomb 201 from the 10th– Fig. 1. Cowrie shells with cut of or ground down dorsum (Photo A. Golani) 73 pam 23/2: special studies amir golani egypt & near east 8th centuries Bc at tell el-far’ah(s) (petrie 1930: 36 center let), indicating that they had been worn as a headband. in egypt of the middle Kingdom, red sea cowries occurred strung as beads on a girdle around the hips of female igurines (Breasted 1948: pl. 89: fig. b; desrochesnoblecourt 1953: pl. i; hodžaš 1971: fig. 13 [see Fig. 2]). he recurring and prominent display of cowries in the pelvic area suggests that the shells were not just ordinary decorative beads, but were probably imbued with a function beyond ornamentation. cowries have also been found in burials of children, such as tomb 120 from the 13th century Bc at tell el-sa’idiyeh (pritchard 1980: pl. 25:3). in addition to their association with females and children as expressed in burials and attested by the iconography of ancient egyptian igurines, cowries were occasionally found adorning animals. he egyptians were especially fond of decorating their domestic cats with cowries (mogensen 1930: pl. 53; seipel 1989: 318, [no. 486]), suggesting a protective function of these shells with respect to animals as well. heir association with males seems to be sporadic. a cultic representation of a large, hollow, jar-shaped anthropomorphic statue of a bearded man from a 7th century Bc edomite shrine at horvat Qitmit in israel [Fig. 3] shows a string of what appear to be cowrie shells modeled in clay (Beck 1995: 45, 115–116 [no. 23], figs 3.16–3.17, 3.19–3.20), apparently fringing the man’s garment. leather cloaks and shawls with cowrie shell decoration continue to be worn even today in africa and asia (Beck 1995: 115–116), although the shells on the Qitmit igurine may also be interpreted as a long necklace. regardless of how they were worn or otherwise aixed to the garments, the association of cowries with the male worshiper at Qitmit only serves to highlight the cultic/religious and possibly amuletic value of these items. Fig. 2. Egyptian female igurine of the Middle Kingdom with a cowrie girdle (Ater Breasted 1948: Pl. 89, Fig. b) 74 pam 23/2: special studies, cowrie shells and their imitations as ornamental amulets in egypt and the near east egypt & near east he importance of cowries extends throughout the fertile crescent as noted in neo-assyrian records that speciically mention cowrie shells alongside precious items, as well as silver and gold (e.g., fales, postgate [eds] 1992: 66, 68, 72, 118, 129). such texts highlight the cultic and religious importance of cowries, as well as their economic value expressing status and wealth. a growing appreciation of the shells resulted in their extended distribution. he use of cowries spread northwards into europe and ornaments made of red sea cowries reached southern europe as early as the 1st century ad (lennartz 2004), becoming more common by the 7th century ad, at which time they are found as far north as scandinavia (reese 1991: 188–189). Fig. 3. Bearded worshiper rom Horvat Qitmit in Israel with a string of cowries (Ater Beck 1995: Figs 3.16–3.17, 3.19–3.20; courtesy of the Institute of Archaeology, Tel Aviv University) symBolic meaning of coWries he extensive distribution of cowries attests to their immense popularity among many ancient and unrelated cultures, in the past as well as the present. heir recording in sexed burials, as well as various depictions showing how they were worn in ancient egypt and the southern levant, combined with the recurring use of cowries in association with females, children and occasionally animals and cultic male igures, suggest that their popularity may be due to their speciic form which bears symbolic signiicance. ethnographers, cultural historians and archaeologists alike are in general agreement that the symbolism of the cowrie shell is linked with the appearance of its underside: the lengthwise, serrated opening resembling a female vulva or a squinting eye. hus, cowries have been commonly interpreted as amulets intended to protect against sterility, to increase fertility and to ward of the evil eye and bring good luck (clark 1986: 23f.; andrews 1990: 65; 1994: 42). he elongated opening of the shell on its ventral side was suggestively associated by many ancient cultures with female genitalia. as a result, cowries were connected with fertility, pregnancy and 75 pam 23/2: special studies amir golani egypt & near east hence the recurrent association of cowrie shells with women and young girls. he relationship between the cowrie amulet and the body part protected by it is clearly demonstrated in egyptian igurines prominently displaying cowries in the pelvic area [Fig. 2]. he inding of cowries in female graves is another expression of their protective powers that may have also been used to promote regeneration. he ancient sumerians and Babylonians also saw shells (not necessarily, but quite possibly cowries) as associated with pregnancy and the sumerian ideogram for ‘pregnancy’ is the same as for ‘shell’ (stol 2000: 51–52). in addition, it has been suggested that the way in which the organism leaves the shell itself may recall the act of childbirth. cowries may thus be connected with the act of giving life, symbolizing rebirth and the aterlife, possibly intended to ensure existence or resurrection ater death (reese 1991: 189). cowries have also been related to deities personifying fertility, such as aphrodite of cyprus, for example, and their cults. he resemblance of the underside of a cowrie shell to a half-open human eye has also been recognized and interpreted as a prophylactic against the ‘evil eye’ and its malicious efects. he link between cowries and human eyes is attested by numerous skulls with plastered faces, having cowries inserted into the eye sockets, e.g., the inds from neolithic Jericho, and igurines with cowrie-like eyes that are well-known from the neolithic period (e.g., Bar-yosef, garinkel 2008: figs 358, 339–341). however, it should be noted that cowries were not the only shells used to depict eyes in neolithic plastered skulls. he symbol of the eye has long played a prominent role in superstitious belief and practice. he ‘evil eye’, cast willfully or not with envy, jealousy or admiration, can harm people and animals (see elsworthy 1895; safer, gill 1982: 140–141). Women, children, and domestic animals were thought to be especially vulnerable to the evil eye. he evil eye superstition is still prevalent throughout the middle east, the mediterranean and in india, and numerous types of amulets are employed against it. he amuletic and prophylactic aspects of cowries that have been noted above are not mutually exclusive and may have been employed concurrently as protection against the evil eye. hey were especially vital to women during pregnancy and childbirth. even today, in eastern africa and egypt, women wear aprons sewn with cowrie shells to protect the pelvic organs from the aborting and sterilizing efect of a malevolent gaze (aldred 1971: 15–16). Because of their recognized symbolic and cultic value, cowrie shells also functioned as status symbols. in africa, cowries were commonly used as a media of exchange, so their use was also employed to denote royal authority and power (safer, gill 1982: 94). imitations of coWries in other materials further evidence of the high regard in which cowries were held, comes from imitations of the cowrie form in precious metals, stone and siliceous materials, such as faience and glass. imitations have been found in contexts as early as the neolithic period in the form of ceramic igurines itted with cowrie eyes (Bar-yosef, garinkel 2008: figs 339–341). in egypt, 76 pam 23/2: special studies, cowrie shells and their imitations as ornamental amulets in egypt and the near east egypt & near east cowrie shells were imitated as early as the sixth dynasty in blue terracotta, carnelian, quartz, glass or glass paste or as stylized plates (Kovács 2008: 18, 162–172). during the middle Kingdom in egypt, outstanding imitations of hollow cowries were made of sheet gold, silver and electrum (aldred 1971: pls 19, 31; d’amicone 1984; hayes 1990: 239, fig. 153; andrews 1994: 42, figs 49:g, 69:a) [Fig. 4]. egyptian goldsmiths also occasionally put bits of metal into the hollow parts of the cowrie imitation, causing a jingling, rattling sound when the wearer moved. he imitations were generally made of precious stones, artiicial materials and metals of far greater value than the shells themselves. for the egyptians, gold and silver had added symbolic meaning: gold was linked to the sun and was symbolically Fig. 4. Amuletic girdle with cowrie shells imitated in electrum, Twelth Dynasty, Egypt (Ater Andrews 1994, Fig. 69; courtesy © Trustees of the British Museum) 77 pam 23/2: special studies amir golani egypt & near east representative of the lesh of the gods, whereas silver was associated with the moon and represented the gods’ bones (andrews 1994: 105–106). in ancient egypt, various semiprecious stones as well as artiicially manufactured faience and glass, the colors of which oten imitated these stones, were also held to posess symbolic powers (Baines 1985; Wilkinson 1994: 1–4). Beads in the general shape of cowries, usually termed ‘cowroids’ in the literature, were a favorite with the ancient egyptians from the middle Kingdom onwards and were also used in the southern levant at the same time (Brandl 1984). hese beads functioned as seals and usually bore hieroglyphs or various designs on their lat underside. hey may have been fashioned in this form to generally resemble the cowrie shell and were usually made of semiprecious stones or siliceous materials, such as faience. as the lat underside was needed for an inscription or design, the ventral slit of the shell was not depicted, so it is uncertain whether the artisan actually had a cowrie in mind when fashioning the bead. phoenicians of the iron age ii period also fashioned cowrie imitations, e.g., examples made of faience and egyptian Blue, found in the phoenician necropolis of akhziv in northern israel (dayagimendels 2002: fig. 4.21:57; cowie 2004: 247). golden cowries were also made by the phoenicians in the 7th–6th centuries Bc (e.g., inds from sardis in western asia minor, curtis 1925: pls 3:3, 12, 5:33). he phoenicians were well-known for their eclecticism and oten made use of egyptianizing traits and iconographic motifs that were oten long obsolete in egypt of the hird intermediate period (markoe 1990: 116). even today, the cowrie form continues to be imitated in various materials, fashioned into ornamental jewelry. imitations of cowrie shells were pro-duced by cultures which otherwise had easy access to the shells themselves. so, why did they go to the trouble and expense of making imitations? shell and bone were among the least prestigious materials used in the manufacture of ornaments in ancient egypt and the near east. relatively common, they were easily obtainable and held little or no intrinsic symbolic meaning. his may be why beads made of shell and bone were less common than beads made of other materials in the southern levant of the iron age ii period (golani 2013: 176–177). as demonstrated by s. pollock, lower status burials from the early dynastic royal cemetery at Ur had more shell and bone beads than did burials of higher status, which were usually male and in which the use of semiprecious stones and precious metals was more prevalent (pollock 1983). a similar situation was reported by hughes-Brock with regard to the late mycenaean period burials in greece, where cheaper, white, bone and shell beads were reserved for women and child burials, while other beads of more expensive materials or with colors of more signiicance were usually associated with males (hughes-Brock 1999). clearly, when the shell itself was worked and had lost its original form, such as in the production of beads from a shell, it was not the material that gave the object status. herefore, an imitation of the cowrie form was undertaken apparently not because of the rarity, symbolic signiicance or prestige of the shell material, but because of other factors. if the reason was not economic, 78 pam 23/2: special studies, cowrie shells and their imitations as ornamental amulets in egypt and the near east egypt & near east then the shell must have been reproduced and thus emulated in other materials because of the symbolic potency of its form. hus, while the shell had to be acquired by trade, the form and the inherent powers that it bestowed could be acquired by imitation. if the duplication involved materials with symbolic attributes of their own, then the signiicance of the form was enhanced. in this regard, it should also be noted that in ancient egypt cowrie imitations have been found so far only in burial contexts. his suggests that the role of cowrie imitations was to give added signiicance to the deceased in the aterlife, conferring the much sought-ater strength of rejuvenation, rebirth and protection from the evil eye in the netherworld, a signiicance that was highlighted, enhanced and further empowered by the use of material other than shell, furnished with a color or other intrinsic properties of symbolic potency. in the southern levant, most cowrie imitations also derived from burials, but a few were found in habitational contexts (tufnell 1953: pl. 36:53; sass 2004: figs 28.17:10, 28.32:9). he latter, however, are chance inds of unclear contextual signiicance. representations of shells in other materials were not reserved to cowries alone, as imitations of other species have been noted in the archaeological record as well (andrews 1990: figs 11, 157). other types of shells may have also had amuletic or prophylactic signiicance, yet their meaning is at present unclear. distribution, oten far removed from their origin, indicates that they were widely traded and very popular among many cultures from time immemorial. people today continue to value cowries as ornaments for their aesthetic appeal, but may not be aware of the symbolic signiicance accorded to these shells by ancient societies. he amuletic use of cowries appears to have begun in the neolithic in the southern levant and may be related to changes of social structure in the more permanent settlements, the inhabitants of which may have placed added importance on fertility and the need for protection. By their resemblance to the female vulva, cowries personiied the female principle and the force of reproduction, functioning as protective amulets for adolescent girls to ensure conception, birth and to cure sterility. Believers in this principle wished to secure for the deceased in the aterlife symbolic powers of rebirth and regeneration, symbolized by the shell and by the animal within it. as cowries also resemble a half-open squinting human eye, they were apparently regarded as potent protection against the malicious powers of the evil eye in this world and the next, oten believed to be the cause of malady or misfortune. he ownership and wearing of more cowries may have been understood as stronger and more efective protection, so that people sought to acquire more shells in order to gain stronger social and magical beneits. hus, cowries became items of tangible social and economic value and their accumulative protective powers became an object of trade. as protective amulets, the symbolic potency of the cowrie form was enhanced sUmmary cowrie shells are one of the most common types of shell ornaments encountered in the archaeological record. heir immense 79 pam 23/2: special studies amir golani egypt & near east use of other materials of symbolic power to produce the cowrie form served to emulate and enhance the cowrie’s amuletic protective powers. when it was duplicated in other materials that were oten ascribed symbolic meaning of their own. as the form of the shell and not the shell itself was of signiicance, the amir golani israel antiquities authority poB 586, Jerusalem 91004, israel [email protected] references aldred, c. 1971 Jewels of the Pharaohs. 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