User:Jodawi/sandbox/foo

See also: Wikipedia:Pronunciation respelling key and Pronunciation spelling

Pronunciation respelling is a notation used to convey the pronunciation of words, in a language, such as English, which does not have a phonemic orthography.

There are two basic types of pronunciation respelling. "Phonemic" systems, as commonly found in American dictionaries, consistently use one symbol per English phoneme. These systems are conceptually equivalent to the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) commonly used in bilingual dictionaries and scholarly writings, but tend to use symbols based on English rather than Romance-language spelling conventions (e.g. ē for IPA /i/) and avoid non-alphabetic symbols (e.g. sh for IPA /ʃ/). On the other hand, "non-phonemic" or "newspaper" systems, commonly used in newspapers and other non-technical writings, avoid diacritics and literally "respell" words making use of well-known English words and spelling conventions, even though the resulting system may not have a one-to-one mapping between symbols and sounds.

As an example, the last name of actor Jake Gyllenhaal, written ˈdʒɪlənhɔːl in the IPA, might be written jĭl′·ən·hôl or JIL-ən-hawl in a phonemic system, andJill-in-hall in a non-phonemic system.

Development and use

Pronunciation respelling systems for English have been developed primarily for use in dictionaries. They are used there because it is not possible to predict with certainty the sound of a written English word from its spelling or the spelling of a spoken English word from its sound. So readers looking up an unfamiliar word in a dictionary may find, on seeing the pronunciation respelling, that the word is in fact already known to them orally. By the same token, those who hear an unfamiliar spoken word may see several possible matches in a dictionary and must rely on the pronunciation respellings to find the correct match.

Traditional respelling systems for English use only the 26 ordinary letters of the Latin alphabet with diacritics, and are meant to be easy for native readers to understand. English dictionaries have used various such respelling systems to convey phonemic representations of the spoken word since Samuel Johnson published his Dictionary of the English Language in 1755. Today such systems remain in use in American dictionaries for native English speakers, but they have been replaced by the International Phonetic Alphabet(IPA) in linguistics references and many bilingual dictionaries published outside the United States.

The pronunciation which dictionaries refer to is some chosen "normal" one, thereby excluding other regional accents or dialect pronunciation. In England this standard is normally the so-called Received Pronunciation, based upon the educated speech of southern England. The standard for American English is known as General American (GA).

Sophisticated phonetic systems have been developed, such as James Murray's scheme for the original Oxford English Dictionary, and the IPA, which replaced it in later editions and has been adopted by many British and international dictionaries. The IPA system is not a respelling system because it uses symbols such as ðand θ which are not used in English spelling. Most current British dictionaries use IPA for this purpose.

Traditional respelling systems

The following chart matches the IPA symbols used to represent the sounds of the English language with the phonetic symbols used in several dictionaries, a majority of which transcribe American English.

These works adhere (for the most part) to the one-symbol-per-sound principle. Other works not included here, such asWebster's New Twentieth Century Dictionary of the English Language (unabridged, 2nd ed.), do not, and thus have several different symbols for the same sound (partly to allow for different phonemic mergers and splits).

The full titles of abbreviated column headings in the following table are viewable in interactive media (as opposed tohard copy). Hover over the abbreviations to see the full titles.

Consonants
IPA1	IPA2	APA	WPRK	NOAD	AHD	RHD	WBO	MECD	DPL	DPN	NBC	MWCD	COD4	POD	Cham	AB	Dictcom	BBC	Wikipedia¹	Wikipedia²	Examples
tʃ	tʃ	č	ch	ᴄʜ	ch	c͡h	ch	ch	ch	ch	ch	ch	ch	ch	ch	ch	ch	ch, tch	ch	ch	church
h	h	h	h	h	h	h	h	h	h	h	h	h	h	h	h	hh	h	h	h	h	hat
hw	hw	hw	wh	(h)w	hw	hw	hw	hw				hw		hw	(h)w		hw		hw	wh	which
dʒ	dʒ	ǯ	j	j	j	j	j	j	j	j	j	j	j	j	j	jh	j	j	j	j	judge
x	x	x	kh	ᴋʜ	KH	ᴋ͡ʜ	kh					k	(χ)	kh	hh		ᴋʜ	kh	kh	kh	loch(Scottish), Buch (German)
ɬ	ɬ	ł													hl			hl			llan (Welsh)
ɡ9	g	g	g	g	g	g	g	g	g	g	g	g	g	g	g	g	g	g	g	g, gh	game, tag, regal
ŋ	ŋ	ŋ	ng	ɴɢ	ng	n͡g	ng	ng	ŋ	ng	ng	ŋ	ng	ng	ng	ng	ng	ng (ng-g, nk)	ng	ng	thing
ʃ	ʃ	š	sh	ꜱʜ	sh	s͡h	sh	sh	sh	sh	sh	sh	sh	sh	sh	sh	sh	sh	sh	sh	ship, dish, ration
θ	θ	θ	th	ᴛʜ	th	t͡h	th	th	th	th	th	th	th	th	th	th	th	th	th	th	thin, thigh, beneath
ð	ð	ð	dh	ᴛʜ	th	th̸	th	th	th	t̷h	th:	th	dh	th	dh	dh	th	dh	dh	dh	this, thy
j	j	y	y	y	y	y	y	y	y	y	y	y	y	y	y	y	y	y	y	y	yes
ʒ	ʒ	ž	zh	ᴢʜ	zh	z͡h	zh	zh	zh	zh	zh	zh	zh	zh	zh	zh	zh	zh	zh	zh	vision, pleasure
The following letters have the same values all systems listed: b, d, f, k, l, m, n, p, r1, s, t, v, w, z.
Vowels
IPA1	IPA2	APA	WPRK	NOAD	AHD	RHD	WBO	MECD	DPL	DPN	NBC	MWCD	COD4	POD	Cham	AB	Dictcom	BBC	Wikipedia¹	Wikipedia²	Examples
æ	æ	æ	a	a	ă	a	a	a	a	a	a	a	ă	a	a	ae	a	a (arr)	ă	a (arr)	pat, lad, cat, ran
eɪ	e	e(y)	ay	ā	ā	ā	ay	ay	ā	ay	ay	ā	ā	ay	ā	ey	ey	ay	ā	ay	pay, day
ɛər	ɛr	εr	air	e(ə)r	âr	âr	air	air	-	-	air	ar	ār	air	ār	eh r	air	air	ār	air	care, hair, there
ɑː	ɑ	a	ah	ä	ä	ä	ah	aa	ä	aw, o	ah	ä, ȧ	ah	aa	ä	aa	ah	aa	â	ah	father, palm
ɑr	ɑː	ar	ar	är	är	är	ahr	aar	är	-	ahr	är	a͡r	aar	är	aa r	ahr	ar	âr	ar	arm
ɛ	ɛ	ε	e	e	ĕ	e	eh	e	e	ɛ	e	e	ě	e	e	eh	e	e (err)	ĕ	e (err)	let, head
iː	i	i(y)	ee	ē	ē	ē	ee	ee	ē	ē	ee	ē	ē	ee	ē	iy	ee	ee	ē	ee	bee, see
ɪər	ɪr	ιr	eer	i(ə)r	îr	ēr	ihr	eer				ir	ēr	eer	īr	ih r	eer	eer	ēr	eer	pier, near, here
ɪ	ɪ	ɪ	i	i	ĭ	i	ih	i	i	i	i	i	ǐ	i	i	ih	i	i (irr)	ĭ	i (irr)	pit, city
aɪ	aɪ	ay	eye, -y6	ī	ī	ī	y	ī	ī	y	igh	ī	ī	ī	ī	ay	ahy	y	ī	y, eye	item, pie, by, my
ɒ	ɑ	a	o	ä	ŏ	o	o	o	ä	o	ah	ä	ǒ	o	o	aa	o	o (orr)	ŏ	o (orr)	pot, not, wasp
oʊ	o	o(w)	oh	ō	ō	ō	oh	ō	ō	ō	oh	ō	ō	ō	ō	ow	oh	oh	ō	oh	toe, no
ɔː	ɔ	ɔ	aw	ô	ô	ô	aw	aw	ô	aw, o	aw	ȯ	aw	aw	ö	ao	aw	aw	ô	aw	caught, paw
ɔr			or, awr	ôr	ôr							ȯr					awr	or	ôr	awr, or	north, war
ɔər			or, ohr														awr, ohr		ōr	ohr, or	force, wore
ɔɪ	ɔɪ	ɔy	oy	oi	oi	oi	oy	oy	oi	oy	oi	ȯi	oi	oy	oi	oy	oi	oy	oy	oy	noise, boy
ʊ	ᴜ	ᴜ	uu	o͝o	o͝o	o͝o	u	o͝o	oo	u	oo	u̇	o͝o	o͝o	ŭ2	uh	oo	uu	ŏŏ	uu	took, put
ʊər	ᴜr	ᴜr	oor	o͝or	o͝or	o͝or	ur	oor				u̇r	oor		oor	uh r	oor	oor	oor	oor	tour
uː	u	u(w)	oo	o͞o	o͞o	o͞o	oo	oo	o͞o	ū	oo:	ü	o͞o	o͞o	oo2	uw	oo	oo	ōō	oo	boot, soon, through
aʊ	aᴜ	aw	ow	ou	ou	ou	ow	ow	ou	ow	ow	au̇	ow	ow	ow	aw	ou	ow	ow	ow	out, now
ʌ	ʌ	ʌ	u	ə	ŭ	u	uh	u	u	ʋ	UH	ə	ǔ	u	u	ah	uh	u (urr)	ŭ	u (urr)	cut, run, enough
ɜr, ɝː	ɜr	ur	ər	ər	ûr	ûr	ur	ur	ʉr	er	ER	ər	e͡r	ər	ûr	er	ur	ur	ûr	ur	urge, term, firm, word, heard, bird
ə	ə	ə	ə	ə	ə	ə	uh	ə	ə	e	uh	ə	a, e, i, o, u	ə	ə	ah	uh	uh	ə	ə	about, item, gallop, circus
ɨ	ə	ə	ə, i 7	ə	ə	ə	uh	ə	ə	e	uh	ə	a, e, i, o, u	ə	ə	ah	uh	i	ı	i, ə	rabbit, edible, garbage
ər	ɚ	ər	ər	ər	ər	ər	uhr	ər	ər	er	er	ər	er	ər	ər	er	er	uhr	ər	ər	butter, winner
juː	ju	yu	ew	yo͞o	yo͞o	yo͞o	yoo	yoo	yo͞o	yū	yoo:	yü	ū	yo͞o	ū	y uw	yoo	yoo	ū	ew	pupil
a												ȧ					ᴀ		ȧ		ami (French)
øː, œ	œ	ɔ̈		œ	œ	ɶ						œ̄, œ					ɶ	oe	ö		feu (French), schön, zwölf (German)
yː, ʏ	y	ü		ʏ	ü	ʏ						u͞e, ue					ʏ	ue	ü		tu (French), über (German)
ɔ̃	õ	ɔ̨		ôɴ	ôɴ	ôɴ						ōⁿ		oɴ			awɴ	o(ng)	ôⁿ		bon(French)3
Stress
IPA1	IPA2	APA	WPRK	NOAD	AHD	RHD	WBO	MECD	DPL	DPN	NBC	MWCD	COD4	POD	Cham	AB	Dictcom	BBC	Wikipedia¹	Wikipedia²	Examples
ˈa	ˋa	á	ᴀ	ˈa	aʹ							ˈa	a.	á	a'	1	a	A	a′	A	primary (tonic) stress
ˌa	ˊa	à		ˌa	aʹ 5							ˌa	(a.)			2	a	a			secondary stress
a		a	a	a												0	a8		a	a	tertiary stress

Title abbreviations

• IPA1 – Compromise dialect-neutral English pronunciation using the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), as used in Wikipedia.
• IPA2 – General American pronunciation using IPA in A Pronouncing Dictionary of American English (1944 [1953]), John S. Kenyon, Thomas A. Knott. Springfield, Massachusetts: Merriam-Webster.
• APA – Americanist phonetic notation, used primarily in linguistics literature in the U.S.
• WPRK - Wikipedia Pronunciation Respelling Key, used in some Wikipedia articles to spell out the pronunciations of English words.
• NOAD – New Oxford American Dictionary (2001, 2005, 2010). New York: Oxford University Press. (Diacritical transcription).
• AHD – American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (2000). Boston: Houghton-Mifflin. Also used by the Columbia Encyclopedia.
• RHD – Random House Dictionary of the English Language (1966).
• WBO – World Book Online (1998).
• MECD – Microsoft Encarta College Dictionary.
• DPL – Dictionary of Pronunciation, Abraham Lass and Betty Lass.
• DPN – Dictionary of Pronunciation, Samuel Noory.
• NBC – NBC Handbook of Pronunciation.
• MWCD – Merriam Webster's Collegiate Dictionary.
• COD – The Concise Oxford Dictionary (1964 [1974]), 5th edition, E. McIntosh, ed. Oxford: OUP. (This notation was used up to the 7th edition; newer editions use the IPA.)
• POD – The Pocket Oxford Dictionary (2006), 2nd edition, E. Jewell, Oxford: OUP.
• Cham – The Chambers Dictionary (2003).
• AB – Arpabet, a commonly used computerized encoding of English pronunciation. It is used by the CMU Pronouncing Dictionary.
• Dictcom – Dictionary.com offers both spelled pronunciation[1] and IPA[2]
• BBC – BBC Phonetic Respelling.[3]

Notes

• ^1 The more precise IPA symbol [ɹ] is sometimes used for English /r/.
• ^2 Older editions of The Chambers Dictionary used o͞o for ŭ and o͞o for oo.
• ^3 Nasalized vowel, as in the French phrase un bon vin blanc (IPA: [œ̃ bɔ̃ vɛ̃ blɑ̃]).
• ^4 Older editions of the Concise Oxford Dictionary used a mix of two systems: the "phonetic scheme" shown in the table above and a system "without respelling". The latter added diacritics to conventional spellings.
• ^5 These are the stress marks in the print edition. Online, primary and secondary are both written '.
• ^6 Spelt eye as a syllable of its own; with a consonant, it is spelled y: iodineEYE-ə-dyn; item YT-əm; pipe PYP.
• ^7 Spelt ə, and sometimes i.
• ^8 For tertiary stress, not only are the letters italicized, but they are in a different font, also. Secondary/tertiary stress is only marked when judged to be unpredictable, but is not distinguished from primary stress when it is marked.
• ^9 In IPA, it is an "opentail G" ɡ / (unicode character U+0261 "LATIN SMALL LETTER SCRIPT G")[4], not a "looptail G" g / (unicode character U+0067 "LATIN SMALL LETTER G")[5].

Pronunciation without respelling

Some dictionaries indicate hyphenation and syllabic stress in the headword. A few have even used diacritics to show pronunciation "without respelling" in the headwords.

The Concise Oxford Dictionary, 1st through 4th edition, used a mix of two systems. Some editions of Webster's Unabridged Dictionary have offered a method for teachers to indicate pronunciation without respelling as a supplement to the respelling scheme used in the dictionary. Pronunciation without respelling is also sometimes used in texts with lots of unusual words, such as Bibles, when it is desirable to show the received pronunciation. These will often be more exhaustive than dictionary respelling keys because all possible digraphs or readings need to have a unique spelling.

Concise Oxford Dictionary's system without respelling

COD variant	IPA
ph	/f/
kn (initial)	/n/
wr (initial)	/r/
g, dg	/dʒ/ (before e, i, y) /ɡ/ otherwise
c	/s/ (before e, i, y) /k/ otherwise
ai, ay	/eɪ/
air	/ɛər/
ae, ea, ee, ie	/iː/
ė, ie (final), ey	/ɪ/
ear, eer, ier	/ɪər/
aw	/ɔː/
oy	/ɔɪ/
ou	/aʊ/
i͡r, u͡r	/ɜr/
eu, ew	/juː/

Version found in mid-20th c. Collins ed. of the Authorized Version of the Bible

Symbol	Original gloss	Approximate IPA equivalent*
-	syllable boundary (always added; original hyphens become –)	/./
-́	syllable boundary after stress*	/ˈ/ or /ˌ/ before syll.
ä	ah, arm, father	/ɑː/
ă	abet, hat, dillema	/æ, ə‡/
ā	tame	/eɪ/
â	fare	/ɛə†/
ạ	call	/ɔː/
ĕ	met, her, second	/ɛ, ɜ†, ɨ‡/
ē	mete	/iː/
ë	a in tame	/eɪ/
ī	fine	/aɪ/
ĭ	him, fir, plentiful	/ɪ, ɜ†, i‡, ɨ‡/
î	machine	/iː/
ị	peculiar	/j/
ō	alone	/oʊ/
ŏ	on, protect	/ɒ, ə‡/
ô	nor	/ɔː/
o̱	son	/ɒ/ or /ɔː/ according to dialect
ū	tune	/juː/
û	rude	/uː/
ŭ	us	/ʌ, ə‡/
u̇	turner	/ɜ†/
ȳ	lyre	/aɪ/
y̆	typical, fully	/ɪ, ɨ‡, i‡/
a͞a	a of am	/æ/
a͡a	a of fare	/ɛə/
ǣ, a͞e	mediæval	/iː/
a͡i	aisle	/aɪ/
a͟i	hail	/eɪ/
a͞o	o of alone	/oʊ/
a͡u	maul	/ɔː/
e͡e	heed	/iː/
e͡i	i of fine	/aɪ/
e͡u	neuter	/juː/
e͡w	lewd	/juː/
o͡i	oil	/ɔɪ/
c̣	celestial	/s/
c͟h	character	/k/
c͞i	delicious	/ʃ/
ġ	giant	/dʒ/
ṡ	his	/z/
s͞i	adhesion	/ʒ/
T͞h	Thomas	/t/
t͞i	attraction	/ʃ/
*		IPA symbols interpreted by Wikipedia.
†		This reading or symbol is only obtained or used before "r"
‡		this reading is only obtained in unstressed syllables

International Phonetic Alphabet

The International Phonetic Alphabet is a standardized method of phonetic transcription developed by a group of English and French language teachers in 1888. In the beginning, only specialized pronunciation dictionaries for linguists used it, for example, the English Pronouncing Dictionary edited by Daniel Jones (EPD, 1917). The IPA was used by English teachers as well, and started to appear in popular dictionaries for learners of English as a foreign language, such as the Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary (1948), and Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English(1978).

IPA is very flexible, allowing for a wide variety of transcriptions between broad phonemic transcriptions which describe the significant units of meaning in language, and phonetic transcriptions which may indicate every nuance of sound in detail.

The IPA transcription conventions used in the first twelve editions of the EPD was relatively simple, using aquantitative system indicating vowel length using a colon, and requiring the reader to infer other vowel qualities. Many phoneticians preferred a qualitative system, which used different symbols to indicate vowel timbre and colour. A.C. Gimson introduced a quantitative-qualitative IPA notation system when he took over editorship of the EPD (13th edition, 1967), and by the 1990s, the Gimson system had become a de facto standard for phonetic notation of BritishReceived Pronunciation (RP).

Comparison of short and long vowels in various IPA schemes for RP

word	quant.	qual.	Gimson
rid	rid	rɪd	rɪd
reed	riːd	rid	riːd
cod	kɔd	kɒd	kɒd
cord	kɔːd	kɔd	kɔːd

The first native (not learner's) English dictionary using IPA may have been the Collins English Dictionary (1979), and others followed suit. The Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd edition (OED2, 1989) used IPA, transcribed letter-for-letter from entries in the first edition, which had been noted in a scheme by the original editor, James Murray.

While IPA has not been adopted by popular dictionaries in the United States, there is a demand for learner's dictionaries which provide both British and American English pronunciation. Some dictionaries, such as the Cambridge English Pronouncing Dictionary and the Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English provide a separate transcription for each.

British and American English dialects have a similar set of phonemes, but some are pronounced differently; in technical parlance, they consist of different phones. Although developed for RP, the Gimson system being phonemic, it is not far from much of General American pronunciation as well. A number of recent dictionaries, such as the Collins COBUILD Advanced Learner's English Dictionary, add a few non-phonemic symbols /ʳ i u ᵊl ᵊn/ to represent both RP and General American pronunciation in a single IPA transcription.

Adaptations of the Gimson system for American English

/ɒ/	Pronounced [ɑː] in General American.
/e/	In American English falls between [e] and [æ] (sometimes transcribed /ɛ/)
/əu/	This traditional transcription is probably more accurately replaced by /ou/ in American English.
/r/	Regular r is always pronounced
/ʳ/	Superscript r is only pronounced in rhotic dialects, such as General American, or when followed by a vowel (for example adding a suffix to change dear into dearest)
/i/	Medium i can be pronounced [ɪ] or [iː], depending on the dialect
/ɔː/	Many Americans pronounce /ɔː/ the same as /ɒ/ ([ɑː])
/ᵊl/	Syllabic l, sometimes transcribed /l/ or /əl/
/ᵊn/	Syllabic n, sometimes transcribed /n/ or /ən/

Clive Upton updated the Gimson scheme, changing the symbols used for five vowels. He served as pronunciation consultant for the influential Concise Oxford English Dictionary, which adopted this scheme in its ninth edition (1995). Upton's reform is controversial: it reflects changing pronunciation, but critics say it represents a narrower regional accent, and abandons parallelism with American and Australian English. In addition, the UCL linguist John C Wells said that he could not understand why Upton had altered the presentation of "price" toprʌɪs.

Upton outlined his reasons for the transcription in a chapter of A Handbook of Varieties of English. He said that the PRICE vowel represented how the starting point could be anything from centralised front to centralised back. The change in the NURSE vowel was intended as a simplification as well as a reflection that nɜːs was not the only possible realisation in RP. The other alterations were intended to reflect changes that have occurred over time.

Upton's reform

word	Gimson	Upton
bet	bet	bɛt
bat	bæt	bat
nurse	nɜːs	nəːs
square	skweə	skwɛː
price	praɪs	prʌɪs

The in-progress 3rd edition of the Oxford English Dictionary uses Upton's scheme for representing British pronunciations. For American pronunciations it uses an IPA-based scheme devised by Prof. William Kretzschmar of theUniversity of Georgia.

Pronunciation respelling systems in dictionaries for English-language learners

For many English language learners, particularly learners without easy Internet access, dictionary pronunciation respelling are the only source of pronunciation information for most new words. Which respelling systems are best for such learners has been a matter of debate. One important difference between the traditional respelling systems and the IPA is that the former contain information about the English writing system and the latter does not. Traditional respellings help learners to generalize about the regularities of English spelling. For example, the traditional respelling of "read", past tense, is "red", which exemplifies a common spelling pattern. On the other hand, because it uses different symbols, the IPA merely adds to the vocabulary of known words from which learners may infer the regularities of the spelling system.

In countries where the local languages are written in non-Latin, phonemic orthographies, various other respelling systems have been used. In India, for example, many English bilingual dictionaries provide pronunciation respellings in the local orthography. This is the case for several Indian languages, including Hindi, Urdu, Malayalam, and Tamil. To reduce the potential distortions of bilingual phonemic transcription, some dictionaries add English letters to the local-script respellings to represent sounds not specified in the local script. For example, in English-Tamil dictionaries, the sounds /b/ and /z/ need to be specified, as in this respelling of "busy": "bபிzஸி."

Because these respellings primarily use symbols already known to anyone with minimal literacy in the local language, they are more practical to use in such contexts than the IPA or the Latin respelling systems with diacritics. Another advantage of local-script respellings for English learners is that they retain the "flavour" of local English speech, allowing learners to make connections between their spoken and written English experiences. However, these systems also have limitations. One limitation is that they do not illuminate the English writing system. Like the IPA, they represent phonemes differently from the ways in which the phonemes are normally spelled. So these notations do not guide readers to infer the regularities of English spelling. Also, the practicality of these systems for learning English locally may be offset by difficulties in communication that could arise in the context of other pronunciation norms such as GA or RP.

Pronunciation respelling systems for children's dictionaries

Most beginner dictionaries are picture dictionaries, or word books. For preliterate native speakers of a language, the pictures in these dictionaries both define the entry words and are the "keys" to their pronunciation. Respellings for English begin to appear in dictionaries for novice readers. Generally, US-based dictionaries contain pronunciation information for all headwords, while UK-based dictionaries provide pronunciation information only for unusual (e.g., ache) or ambiguously spelled (e.g., bow) words.

As the normal age of literacy acquisition varies among languages, so do the age-range designations of children's books. Generally, age ranges for young children's books in English lag behind those of languages with phonemic orthographies by about a year. This corresponds to the slow pace of literacy acquisition among English speakers as compared to speakers of languages with phonemic orthographies, such as Italian. Italian children are expected to learn to read within the first year of elementary school, whereas English speaking children are expected to read by the end of 3rd grade. Pronunciation respellings begin to appear in dictionaries for children in 3rd grade and up.

There seems to be very little research on which respelling systems are most useful for children, apart from two small studies done in the 1980s and 1990s. Both studies were limited to traditional respelling systems without diacritics (setting aside both the IPA and the Webster-based systems used in American dictionaries). Both studies found that in such systems, word respellings may be cumbersome and ambiguous, as in this respelling of "psychology": "suy-kol-uh-jee".

The authors of the two studies proposed alternative systems, though there were no follow-up studies. Yule's "cut system" leaves out extra letters, adds specific spellings for sounds with variable spellings, and adds accents to show long vowels, as in this respelling of "occasion": o-cà-zhon. Fraser advocated a "non-phonemic" approach using a small set of common spelling patterns in which words would be respelled chunk by chunk, rather than phoneme by phoneme, as in this respelling of "persiflage": per-sif-large. According to both authors, the reduced vowel "schwa" need not be shown in a respelling, so long as syllabification and syllable stress are shown.

The following overlapping issues concerning pronunciation respelling in children's dictionaries were directly raised by Yule and Fraser: the level of difficulty, the type of notation, the degree of divergence from regular spelling, and pronunciation norms. Yule also raised the question of the types of impact respelling systems could have on children's literacy acquisition. These issues could be usefully addressed in studies that include American respelling systems as well as the IPA.

An issue that has arisen since the Yule and Fraser studies concerns the utility of pronunciation respellings given the availability of audio pronunciations in online dictionaries. Currently the advantage of written respellings is that they may be read phoneme by phoneme, in parallel to the way novice readers are taught to "stretch out" words to hear all the sounds they contain, while the audio pronunciations are given only as whole words spoken in real time. When audio pronunciations are made flexible, it will become possible to study and compare the utility of different combinations of pronunciation features in the online children's dictionaries.

Other uses of pronunciation respelling

Outside of dictionaries, press agencies in English periodically release lists of respelled given names of internationally relevant people, in order to help news TV and radio announcers and spokespersons to pronounce them as closely as possible to their original languages.

See also

• English spelling reform
• Wikipedia:Manual of Style (pronunciation)
• WP:IPA for English
• International Phonetic Alphabet
• IPA chart for English dialects
• SAMPA
• Arpabet
• General American
• Wikipedia:Pronunciation respelling key
• English pronunciation of Greek letters

References

• Gaskins, Irene; et al. (1996/1997). "Procedures for Word Learning: Making Discoveries About Words". The Reading Teacher. 50 (4): 312–327. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |year= (help); Explicit use of et al. in: |first= (help)CS1 maint: year (link)
• Emsley, Bert (1940). "Progress in Pronouncing Dictionaries". American Speech. 15 (1): 55–59. doi:10.2307/452729. JSTOR 452729. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
• Fraser, Helen (1996). "Guy-dance with Pro-nun-see-ay-shon". English Today 47. 12 (3): 29–37.
• Fraser, Helen (1997). "Dictionary Pronunciation Guides for English". International Journal of Lexicography. 10 (3): 181–208. doi:10.1093/ijl/10.3.181.
• Students' Deluxe Dictionary (New ed.). Coimbatore: Deluxe Publishers. n.d.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: year (link)
• Landau, Sidney I. (2001). Dictionaries: The Art and Craft of Lexicography (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521780403.
• Oxford Junior Illustrated Dictionary. Oxford University Press. 2011.
• Seymour, P.H.K.; et al. (2003). "Foundation Literacy Acquisition in European Orthographies". British Journal of Psychology. 94 (2): 143–147. doi:10.1348/000712603321661859. PMID 12803812. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |first= (help)
• Wells, John (2001). "IPA transcription systems for English", at University College London Department of Phonetics and Linguistics site. Retrieved 2006-08-16.
• Yule, Valerie (1991). "Pilot Experiments in Cutting Surplus Letters". {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
• Windsor Lewis, Jack (2003). "IPA vowel symbols for British English in dictionaries". Journal of the International Phonetic Association. 33 (2): 143–152. doi:10.1017/S0025100303001257. Retrieved 2007-11-29. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
• Upton, Clive (2004). "Received Pronunciation". In Schneider, Edgar W (ed.). A Handbook of Varieties of English. Vol. 1. Phonology. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. pp. 217–230. ISBN 9783110175325.
• Antimoon.com. "Introduction to phonetic transcription", atAntimoon.com. Retrieved 2006-08-16.
• Oxford English Dictionary. "Pronunciation", from the Preface to the Third Edition. Retrieved 2006-09-10.
• Oxford English Dictionary. "Key for Second Edition Entries", from the OED website. Retrieved 2006-09-10.
• Oxford English Dictionary. "Key to New Edition Entries", from the OED website. Retrieved 2006-09-10.
• Merriam-Webster Online, n.d. "Pronunciation Overview", Retrieved 2011-07-23.

External links

• Merriam-Webster Online Pronunciation Overview,Pronunciation Guide,Guide to Pronunciation
• Pronunciation Guides in Children's Dictionaries [6]
• Key to the Pronunciation, Oxford English Dictionary
• The use of Phonetic and other Symbols in Dictionaries: A brief survey
• Pronunciation key, the Free Dictionary