Cannabis (drug): Difference between revisions

Cannabis
	A dried flower of the Cannabis sativa plant. Note the visible trichomes (commonly referred to as crystals), which carry a large portion of the drug content.
Scientific classification
Kingdom:	Plantae
Division:	Magnoliophyta
Class:	Magnoliopsida
Order:	Rosales
Family:	Cannabaceae
Genus:	Cannabis
Species:	C. sativa
Binomial name
	Cannabis sativa; Linnaeus
Subspecies
	C. sativa L. subsp. sativa; C. sativa L. subsp. indica

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Cannabis, also known as marijuana or marihuana (from Spanish, believed to have been originally derived from the common name María Juana, which is equivalent to Mary Jane in English),^[1] and ganja (from Template:Lang-sa gañjā, hemp), among other names,^[a] refers to any sort of preparation of the Cannabis plant intended for human ingestion for the purpose of inducing psychoactive effects. The most common form of Cannabis is the natural herbal form.

The herbal form of the drug consists of mature female flowers and sub-tending leaves of pistillate (female) plants. The resinous form, known as hashish,^[2] or merely as hash, consists primarily of glandular trichomes collected from the same plant material. Kief is a type of hashish where the trichomes have been dried and crushed into a powder. Sinsemilla is a highly potent form of Cannabis plant that is non-pollinated and seedless, which essentially dedicates all resources to producing psychoactive compounds instead of focusing on reproduction.^[3]

The major psychoactive chemical compound in Cannabis is Δ⁹-tetrahydrocannabinol (delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol), commonly abbreviated as THC. At least 66 other cannabinoids are also present in Cannabis, including cannabidiol (CBD), cannabinol (CBN), tetrahydrocannabivarin (THCV), cannabichromene (CBC), cannabigerol (CBG), cannabicyclol (CBL), cannabivarin (CBV), and cannabidivarin (CBDV), among many, many others. Along with THC, some of these cannabinoids are pharmacologically active and contribute to the effects of Cannabis. These compounds act by binding to and modulating the cannabinoid receptors CB₁, CB₂, GPR₅₅, and GPR₁₁₉.

Marijuana is seen in strains of either pure breeds or intra-specific hybrids of Cannabis, typically of the subspecies indica or sativa. Strains are developed to highlight a specific combination of properties of the plant or to establish marketing differentiation.

The human consumption of Cannabis smoke is found as long ago as the 3rd millennium BC.^[4] In modern times, the drug has been used for recreational, religious or spiritual, and medicinal purposes. The United Nations estimates that about four percent of the world's adult population (162 million) use cannabis annually and about 0.6 percent (22.5 million) daily.^[5] The possession, use, or sale of psychoactive Cannabis products became illegal in most parts of the world in the early 20th century. Since then, some countries have intensified the enforcement of cannabis prohibition while others have reduced the priority of enforcement.

Potency

According to the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, "the amount of THC present in a cannabis sample is generally used as a measure of cannabis potency."^[6] The three main types of cannabis products are the herb (marijuana), resin (hashish) and oil (hash oil) forms. The UNODC states that marijuana often contains 5 per cent THC content, resin "can contain up to 20 per cent THC content", and "cannabis oil may contain more than 60 per cent THC content."^[6]

A study published in 2000 in the Journal of Forensic Sciences found that the potency of confiscated cannabis in the US rose from "approximately 3.3% in 1983 and 1984" to "4.47% in 1997." It also concluded that "other major cannabinoids [cannabidiol (CBD), cannabinol (CBN), and cannabichromene (CBC)] showed no significant change in their concentration over the years."^[7]

Australia's National Cannabis Prevention and Information Centre states that the 'buds' of the female cannabis plant contain the highest concentration of THC, followed by the leaves. The stalks and seeds have "much lower THC levels".^[8] The UN states that the leaves can contain ten times less THC than the buds, and the stalks one hundred times less THC.^[6]

Forms

Marijuana

The term marijuana refers to the dried leaves of the Cannabis plants and the flowers of female plants.^[9] This is the most widely consumed form of cannabis. It contains 3% to 22% THC.^[10] In contrast, Cannabis strains used to produce industrial hemp contain less than 1% THC. ^[11]

Hashish

Hashish, or hash, is a concentrated resin produced from the flowers of the female Cannabis plant. Hash is more potent than marijuana, and can be smoked or chewed.^[12] It varies in color from black to golden brown.

Kief

Kief is made a powder made from trichomes (often incorrectly referred to as "crystals" or "pollen") removed from the leaves and flowers of Cannabis plants. Kief can also be compressed to produce one form of hashish, or consumed in powder form.^[13]

Hash oil

Hash oil.

Hash oil, or honey oil, is an essential oil extracted from the Cannabis plant through the use of various solvents. It has a high proportion of cannabinoids (ranging from 40-90%).^[14]

Resin

Because of THC's adhesive properties, resin builds up inside the paraphernalia when cannabis is smoked. It has tar-like properties but still contains THC as well as other cannabinoids. This resin still has all the psychoactive properties of cannabis but is harsher and less healthy on the lungs. Cannabis users typically only smoke resin as a last resort when they have run out of Cannabis flowers.^[15]

Methods of consumption

A single-toke midwakh. Such utensils provide small, lower-temperature servings.

Cannabis is consumed in many different ways, most of which either involve inhaling smoke or vapor from heated plants or oral consumption.

Various devices exist for smoking cannabis. The most commonly used include screened bowls, bongs, chillums, paper-wrapped joints and tobacco-leaf-wrapped blunts. Local methods differ by the preparation of the Cannabis plant before use, the parts of the Cannabis plant which are used, and the treatment of the smoke before inhalation.

A vaporizer heats herbal cannabis to 365–410 °F (185–210 °C), which causes the active ingredients to evaporate into a gas without burning the plant material (the boiling point of THC is 392°F (200°C) at 0.02mmHg pressure, and somewhat higher at standard atmospheric pressure),^[17] A lower proportion of toxic chemicals are released than by smoking, although this may vary depending on the design of the vaporizer and the temperature at which it is set. This method of consuming cannabis produces markedly different effects than smoking due to the flash points of different cannabinoids; for example, cannabinol (CBN) has a flash point of 212.7°C^[18] and would normally be present in smoke but might not be present in vapor.

As an alternative to smoking, cannabis may be consumed orally. However, the cannabis or its extract must be sufficiently heated or dehydrated to cause decarboxylation of its most abundant cannabinoid, tetrahydrocannabinolic acid (THCA), into psychoactive THC.^[19]

Cannabinoids can be leached from Cannabis plant mater using high-proof spirits (often grain alcohol) to create a tincture, often referred to as Green Dragon.

Cannabis can also be consumed as a cannabis tea. THC is lipophilic and only slightly water soluble (with a solubility of 2.8 mg per liter),^[20] so tea is made by first adding a saturated fat to hot water (i.e. butter, cream or any milk but skim) and using a small amount of cannabis along with green or black tea leaves and some honey or sugar, steeped for about 5 minutes.

Effects

Cannabis has psychoactive and physiological effects when consumed. The minimum amount of THC required to have a perceptible psychoactive effect is about 10 micrograms per kilogram of body weight.^[21] Aside from a subjective change in perception, the most common short-term physical and neurological effects include increased heart rate, lowered blood pressure, impairment of psychomotor coordination, concentration, and short-term episodic and working memory.^[22] Long-term effects are less clear. ^[23]^[24]

Classification

While many drugs clearly fall into the category of either stimulant, depressant, hallucinogen, or antipsychotic, cannabis, containing both THC and cannabidiol (CBD), exhibits a mix of all properties, leaning towards hallucinogen properties, mostly a stimulant and/or depressant state of being with psychoactive effects. Some studies suggest other cannabinoids, especially CBD, found in the Cannabis plant alter the psycho-activity of THC by producing depressant and/or stimulant effects.^[25]^[26]^[27]

Health issues

Medical use

Though the medicinal value of cannabis has been debated, it does have several well-documented beneficial effects. Cannabis is indicated for treating and preventing nausea and vomiting, for treatment of glaucoma due to its lower of intraocular pressure, as well as a general analgesic. Individual studies also have been conducted indicating cannabis to a gamut of conditions running from multiple sclerosis to depression. Extracts of cannabis have also been created and sold as prescription drugs in the United States, primarily for the treatment of pain and nausea.

Long-term effects

The smoking of cannabis is the most harmful method of consumption, since the inhalation of smoke from organic materials such as cannabis, tobacco, and rolling papers can cause various health problems.^[28]

In comparison, study on cannabis vaporizing found that subjects were "only 40% as likely to report respiratory symptoms as users who do not vaporize, even when age, sex, cigarette use, and amount of cannabis consumed are controlled."^[29] Another study found vaporizers to be "a safe and effective cannabinoid delivery system."^[30]^[31]

A 2007 study by the Canadian government found cannabis smoke contained more toxic substances than tobacco smoke.^[33] The study determined that marijuana smoke contained 20 times more ammonia, and five times more hydrogen cyanide and nitrogen oxides than tobacco smoke. In spite of this, recent studies have been unable to demonstrate a direct link between lung cancer and frequent direct inhalation of marijuana smoke. While many researchers have failed to find a correlation,^[34]^[35] some researchers still conclude that cannabis smoke poses a higher risk of lung cancer than tobacco.^[36] Some studies have even shown that the non-intoxicating ingredient cannabidiol found in marijuana may be useful in treating breast cancer.^[37]

Cannabis use has been assessed by several studies to be correlated with the development of anxiety, psychosis, and depression,^[38]^[39] however, no causal mechanism has been proven, and the meaning of the correlation and its direction is a subject of debate that has not been resolved in the scientific community. Some studies assess that the causality is more likely to involve a path from Cannabis use to psychotic symptoms rather than a path from psychotic symptoms to cannabis use,^[40] while others assess the opposite direction of the causality, or hold cannabis to only form parts of a "causal constellation", while not inflicting mental health problems that would not have occurred in the absence of the cannabis use.^[41]^[42]

Though cannabis use has at times been associated with stroke, there is no firmly established link, and potential mechanisms are unknown.^[43] Similarly, there is no established relationship between cannabis use and heart disease, including exacerbation of cases of existing heart disease.^[44] Though some fMRI studies have shown changes in neurological function in long term heavy cannabis users, no long term behavioral effects after abstinence have been linked to these changes.^[45]

Gateway drug hypothesis

Some claim that trying cannabis increases the probability that users will eventually use harder drugs. This hypothesis has been one of the central pillars of anti-cannabis drug policy in the United States,^[46] though the validity and implications of these hypotheses are highly debated.^[47] Studies have shown that tobacco smoking is a better predictor of concurrent illicit hard drug use than smoking cannabis.^[48]

No widely accepted study has ever demonstrated a cause-and-effect relationship between the use of cannabis and the later use of harder drugs like heroin and cocaine. However, the prevalence of tobacco cigarette advertising and the practice of mixing tobacco and Cannabis together in a single large joint, common in Europe, are believed to be a factor in promoting nicotine dependency among young persons investigating cannabis.^[49]

A 2005 comprehensive review of the literature on the cannabis gateway hypothesis found that pre-existing traits may predispose users to addiction in general, the availability of multiple drugs in a given setting confounds predictive patterns in their usage, and drug sub-cultures are more influential than cannabis itself. The study called for further research on "social context, individual characteristics, and drug effects" to discover the actual relationships between cannabis and the use of other drugs.^[50]

The main variant of the gateway hypothesis is that people, upon trying cannabis for the first time and not finding it dangerous, are then tempted to try other, harder drugs. In such a scenario, a new user of cannabis who feels there is a difference between anti-drug information and their own experiences will apply this distrust to public information about other, more powerful drugs.^{[citation needed]} Some studies state that while there is no proof for this gateway theory, young cannabis users should still be considered as a risk group for intervention programs.^[51] Other findings indicate that hard drug users are likely to be "poly-drug" users, and that interventions must address the use of multiple drugs instead of a single hard drug.^[52]

Another gateway hypothesis is that while cannabis is not as harmful or addictive as other drugs, a gateway effect may be detected as a result of the "common factors" involved with using any illegal drug. Because of its illegal status, cannabis users are more likely to be in situations which allow them to become acquainted with people who use and sell other illegal drugs.^[53]^[54] By this argument, some studies have shown that alcohol and tobacco may be regarded as gateway drugs.^[48] However, a more parsimonious explanation could be that cannabis is simply more readily available (and at an earlier age) than illegal hard drugs, and alcohol/tobacco are in turn easier to obtain earlier than cannabis (though the reverse may be true in some areas), thus leading to the "gateway sequence" in those people who are most likely to experiment with any drug offered.^[47]

History

The use of *Cannabis*, at least as fiber, has been shown to go back at least 10,000 years in Taiwan.^[55] Má (Pinyin pronunciation), the Chinese expression for hemp, is a pictograph of two plants under a shelter.^[56]

Evidence of the inhalation of Cannabis smoke can be found as far back as the 3rd millennium BC as indicated by charred Cannabis seeds found in a ritual brazier at an ancient burial site in present day Romania.^[4] The most famous users of Cannabis were the ancient Hindus of India and Nepal. The herb was called ganjika in Sanskrit (गांजा/গাঁজা ganja in modern Indic languages).^[57]^[58] The ancient drug soma, mentioned in the Vedas as a sacred intoxicating hallucinogen, was sometimes associated with Cannabis.^[59]

Cannabis was also known to the ancient Assyrians, who discovered its psychoactive properties through the Aryans.^[60] Using it in some religious ceremonies, they called it qunubu (meaning "way to produce smoke"), a probable origin of the modern word cannabis.^[61] Cannabis was also introduced by the Aryans to the Scythians and Thracians/Dacians, whose shamans (the kapnobatai—“those who walk on smoke/clouds”) burned Cannabis flowers to induce a state of trance.^[62] Members of the cult of Dionysus, believed to have originated in Thrace (Bulgaria, Greece and Turkey), are also thought to have inhaled Cannabis smoke. In 2003, a leather basket filled with Cannabis leaf fragments and seeds was found next to a 2,500- to 2,800-year-old mummified shaman in the northwestern Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region of China.^[63]^[64]

*Cannabis sativa* from Vienna Dioscurides, 512 A.D.

Cannabis has an ancient history of ritual use and is found in pharmacological cults around the world. Hemp seeds discovered by archaeologists at Pazyryk suggest early ceremonial practices like eating by the Scythians occurred during the 5th to 2nd century BCE, confirming previous historical reports by Herodotus.^[65] One writer has claimed that Cannabis was used as a religious sacrament by ancient Jews and early Christians^[66] due to the similarity between the Hebrew word qannabbos (cannabis) and the Hebrew phrase qené bósem (aromatic cane). It was used by Muslims in various Sufi orders as early as the Mamluk period, for example by the Qalandars.^[67]

Cannabis became illegal in the USA in 1937 due to Marihuana Tax Act of 1937. Several theories try to explain why it is illegal in most Western societies. Jack Herer, a cannabis legalization activist and writer, argues that the economic interests of the paper and chemical industry were a driving force to make it illegal.^[68]^[69]^[70] Another explanation is that beneficial effects of hemp would lower the profit of pharmaceutical companies which therefore have a vital interest to keep cannabis illegal.^[71] Those economic theories were criticized for not taking social aspect into account. The illegalization was rather a result of racism directed to associate American immigrants of Mexican and African descent with cannabis abuse.^[72]

Today, recreational use in the Western world drives a sizable demand for the drug. Cannabis is the largest cash crop in the United States, generating an estimated $36 billion market.^[73] Most of the money is spent not on growing and producing but on smuggling the supply to buyers.

The European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction reports that typical retail prices in Europe for cannabis varies from 2€ to 14€ per gram, with a majority of European countries reporting prices in the range 4–10€.^[74] The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime claims in its 2008 World Drug Report that typical US retail prices are 10-15 dollars per gram (approximately $430 per ounce).^[75]

New breeding and cultivation techniques

It is often claimed by growers and breeders of herbal cannabis that advances in breeding and cultivation techniques have increased the potency of cannabis since the late 1960s and early '70s, when Δ⁹-tetrahydrocannabinol was discovered and understood. However, potent seedless marijuana such as "Thai sticks" were already available at that time. In fact, the sinsemilla technique of producing high-potency cannabis has been practiced in India for centuries.^{[citation needed]} Sinsemilla (Spanish for "without seed") is the dried, seedless inflorescences of female Cannabis plants. Because THC production drops off once pollination occurs, the male plants (which produce little THC themselves) are eliminated before they shed pollen to prevent pollination. Advanced cultivation techniques such as hydroponics, cloning, high-intensity artificial lighting, and the sea of green method are frequently employed as a response (in part) to prohibition enforcement efforts that make outdoor cultivation more risky. These intensive horticultural techniques have made it possible to grow strains with fewer seeds and higher potency. It is often cited that the average levels of THC in cannabis sold in United States rose dramatically between the 1970s and 2000, but such statements are likely skewed because of undue weight given to much more expensive and potent, but less prevalent samples.^[76]

"Skunk" cannabis is a potent strain of Cannabis, grown through selective breeding and usually hydroponics, which is a cross-breed of Cannabis sativa and C. indica. Skunk cannabis potency ranges usually from 6% to 15% and rarely as high as 20%. The average THC level in coffeehouses in the Netherlands is about 18–19%.^[77]

In revisions to cannabis rescheduling in the UK, the government has rescheduled cannabis back from C to B. One of the purported reasons is the high-potency cannabis.^[78]

A Dutch double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled, cross-over study examining male volunteers aged 18–45 years with a self-reported history of regular cannabis use concluded that smoking of cannabis with high THC levels (marijuana with 9–23% THC), as currently sold in coffee shops in the Netherlands, may lead to higher THC blood-serum concentrations. This is reflected by an increase of the occurrence of impaired psychomotor skills, particularly among younger or inexperienced cannabis smokers, who do not adapt their smoking-style to the higher THC content.^[79] High THC concentrations in cannabis was associated with a dose-related increase of physical effects (such as increase of heart rate, and decrease of blood pressure) and psychomotor effects (such as reacting more slowly, being less concentrated, making more mistakes during performance testing, having less motor control, and experiencing drowsiness). It was also observed during the study that the effects from a single joint at times lasted for more than eight hours. Reaction times remained impaired five hours after smoking, when the THC serum concentrations were significantly reduced, but still present. The researchers suggested that THC may accumulate in blood-serum when cannabis is smoked several times per day.

Another study showed that consumption of 15 mg of Δ⁹-THC resulted in no learning whatsoever occurring over a three-trial selective reminding task after two hours. In several tasks, Δ⁹-THC increased both speed and error rates, reflecting “riskier” speed–accuracy trade-offs.^[80]

Various strains of Cannabis

There are hundreds of named strains of Cannabis, but their origins (particularly the drug varieties) are often shrouded in mystery. The names of many legendary strains, such as Panama Red and Purple Haze, are ubiquitous in the pop-culture, but the origins of some of these infamous strains, such as G-13, are acknowledged to be urban legends, and some people even doubt their existence.^[81]

Strains of Cannabis:

The names of some strains have become embedded in the mass culture. For example, Chocolate Thai,^[82] which was popular in the early 1990s due to its supposed high potency,^[83] was adopted as the stage name of a jazz performer whose album The Real McCoy was released in 2006.^[84] Because there is no state control over the production or sale of cannabis, many "strains" may in fact be just marketing brands adopted by drug dealers to increase sales.

Legal status

Since the beginning of the 20th century, most countries have enacted laws against the cultivation, possession, or transfer of cannabis for recreational use. These laws have impacted adversely on the Cannabis plant's cultivation for non-recreational purposes, but there are many regions where, under certain circumstances, handling of Cannabis is legal or licensed. Many jurisdictions have lessened the penalties for possession of small quantities of cannabis, so that it is punished by confiscation or a fine, rather than imprisonment, focusing more on those who traffic the drug on the black market.

In some areas where cannabis use has been historically tolerated, some new restrictions have been put in place, such as the closing of cannabis coffee shop near the borders of the Netherlands,^[85] closing of coffee shops near secondary schools in the Netherlands and crackdowns on "Pusher Street" in Christiania, Copenhagen in 2004.^[86]^[87]

Some jurisdictions use free voluntary treatment programs and/or mandatory treatment programs for frequent known users. Simple possession can carry long prison terms in some countries, particularly in East Asia, where the sale of cannabis may lead to a sentence of life in prison or even execution.

Truth serum

Cannabis was used as a truth serum by the Office of Strategic Services (OSS), a US government intelligence agency formed during World War II. In the early 1940s, it was the most effective truth drug developed at the OSS labs at St. Elizabeths Hospital; it caused a subject "to be loquacious and free in his impartation of information."^[88]

In May 1943, Major George Hunter White, head of OSS counter-intelligence operations in the US, arranged a meeting with Augusto Del Gracio, an enforcer for gangster Lucky Luciano. Del Gracio was given cigarettes spiked with THC concentrate from Cannabis, and subsequently talked openly about Luciano's heroin operation. On a second occasion the dosage was increased such that Del Gracio passed out for two hours.^[88]

Adulterants

Adulterants in cannabis are less common than in other drugs of abuse. Chalk (in the Netherlands) and glass particles (in the UK) have been used at times to make cannabis appear to be higher quality.^[89]^[90]^[91] Increasing the weight of hashish products in Germany with lead caused lead intoxication in at least 29 users.^[92] In the Netherlands two chemical analogs of Sildenafil (Viagra) were found in adulterated marihuana.^[93]

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^ Arseneault, Louise; Cannon, Mary; Wiitton, John; Murray, Robin M. "Causal Association Between Cannabis and Psychosis: Examination of the Evidence". Institute of Psychiatry published in British Journal of Psychiatry (2004). #184, pp. 110–117.
^ Halpin SF, Yeoman L, Dundas DD (1991). "Radiographic examination of the lumbar spine in a community hospital: an audit of current practice". BMJ (Clinical Research Ed.). 303 (6806): 813–5. PMC 1671162. PMID 1932970. {{cite journal}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^ Mukamal KJ, Maclure M, Muller JE, Mittleman MA (2008). "An exploratory prospective study of marijuana use and mortality following acute myocardial infarction". American Heart Journal. 155 (3): 465–70. doi:10.1016/j.ahj.2007.10.049. PMC 2276621. PMID 18294478. Retrieved 2009-07-14. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^ Gonzalez R (2007). "Acute and Non-Acute Effects of Cannabis on Brain Functioning and Neuropsychological Performance". Neuropsychology Review. 17 (3): 347–61. doi:10.1007/s11065-007-9036-8. PMID 17680367. Retrieved 2009-07-14. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
^ Lundin, Leigh (2009-03-01). "The Great Smoke-Out". Criminal Brief. Retrieved 2009-03-14.
^ ^a ^b "RAND study casts doubt on claims that marijuana acts as "gateway" to the use of cocaine and heroin". RAND Corporation. 2002-12-02. Retrieved 2007-02-27.
^ ^a ^b Torabi MR, Bailey WJ, Majd-Jabbari M (1993). "Cigarette smoking as a predictor of alcohol and other drug use by children and adolescents: evidence of the "gateway drug effect"". The Journal of school health. 63 (7): 302–6. PMID 8246462.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^ Australian Government Department of Health: National Cannabis Strategy Consultation Paper, p. 4. "Cannabis has been described as a 'Trojan Horse' for nicotine addiction, given the usual method of mixing Cannabis with tobacco when preparing marijuana for administration."
^ Hall WD, Lynskey M (2005). "Is Cannabis A Gateway Drug? Testing Hypotheses About the Relationship Between Cannabis Use and the Use of Other Illicit Drugs". Drug and Alcohol Review. 24 (1): 39–48. doi:10.1080/09595230500126698. PMID 16191720. Retrieved 2009-07-14. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
^ Saitz, Richard (2003-02-18). "Is marijuana a gateway drug?". Journal Watch. Retrieved 2007-02-27.
^ Degenhardt, Louisa; et al. (2007). "Who are the new amphetamine users? A 10-year prospective study of young Australians". Retrieved 2007-09-22. {{cite web}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)
^ Morral AR, McCaffrey DF, Paddock SM (2002). "Reassessing the marijuana gateway effect". Addiction. 97 (12): 1493–504. doi:10.1046/j.1360-0443.2002.00280.x. PMID 12472629.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^ "Marijuana Policy Project- FAQ". Retrieved 2006-12-24.
^ Stafford, Peter (1992). Psychedelics Encyclopedia. Berkeley, California: Ronin Publishing, Inc. ISBN 0-914171-51-8.
^ Matthews, A.; Matthews, L. (2007). Learning Chinese Characters. p. 336..
^ Leary, Thimothy (1990). Tarcher/Putnam (ed.). Flashbacks. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons. ISBN 0-8747-7870-0.
^ Miller, Ga (1911), "Encyclopædia Britannica", Science (New York, N.Y.), 34 (883) (11th ed.): 761–762, doi:10.1126/science.34.883.761, PMID 17759460, retrieved 2006-06-15 {{citation}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help).
^ Rudgley, Richard (1998). Little, Brown and Company (ed.). The Encyclopedia of Psychoactive Substances. Retrieved 2007-02-25.
^ Franck, Mel (1997). Marijuana Grower's Guide. Red Eye Press. ISBN 0-9293-4903-2. p. 3.
^ Rubin, Vera D. (1976). Cannabis and Culture. Campus Verlag. ISBN 3-5933-7442-0. p. 305.
^ Cunliffe, Barry W. (2001). The Oxford Illustrated History of Prehistoric Europe. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-1928-5441-0. p. 405.
^ "Lab work to identify 2,800-year-old mummy of shaman". People's Daily Online. 2006. Retrieved 2007-02-25.
^ Hong-En Jiang; et al. (2006). "A new insight into Cannabis sativa (Cannabaceae) utilization from 2500-year-old Yanghai tombs, Xinjiang, China". Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 108 (3): 414–422. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2006.05.034. Retrieved 2007-02-25. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)
^ Walton, Robert P. (1938). Marijuana, America's New Drug Problem. J. B. Lippincott. p. 6.
^ "Cannabis linked to Biblical healing". Retrieved 2007-08-20.
^ Ibn Taymiyya (2001). Le haschich et l'extase. Beyrouth: Albouraq. ISBN 2-8416-1174-4.
^ Marijuana Conspiracy - by Dough Yurchey.
^ William Randolf Hearst, Lammont Dupont, Henry J. Anslinger, and hemp [Archive] - DiscussAnything.com.
^ <http://www.ireport.com/docs/DOC-237709
^ "Cure Cancer with Hemp Oil - Phoenix Tears".
^ "Debunking the Hemp Conspiracy Theory".
^ "Marijuana Called Top U.S. Cash Crop". 2008 ABCNews Internet Ventures. Retrieved 2008-12-11.
^ European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (2008). Annual report: the state of the drugs problem in Europe (PDF). Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities. p. 38. ISBN 978-92-9168-324-6. Retrieved 2009-04-17.
^ United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (2008). World drug report (PDF). United Nations Publications. p. 264. ISBN 978-92-1-148229-4. Retrieved 2009-04-17.
^ Daniel Forbes (November 19, 2002). "The Myth of Potent Pot". Slate.com. Retrieved 2009-05-15.
^ "World Drug Report 2006". United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. Retrieved 2008-02-25. Ch. 2.3.
^ BBC: Cannabis laws to be strengthened. May 2008 20:55 UK.
^ Tj. T. Mensinga; et al. "A Double-Blind, Randomized, Placebo-Controlled, Cross-Over Study on the Pharmacokinetics and Effects of Cannabis" (PDF). RIVM. Retrieved 2007-09-21. {{cite web}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)
^ Curran H.V.; et al. (2002). "Cognitive and subjective dose-response effects". NCBI. Retrieved 2007-09-21. {{cite web}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)
^ Doorenbos, Norman J., Patricia S. Fetterman, Maynard W. Quimby, and Carlton Turner. 1971. Cultivation, extraction, and analysis of Cannabis sativa L. Annals New York Academy of Sciences 191: 3-14.
^ Hirsch, Robert (1997). "Clinicians' self-assessment questions and answers in substance abuse treatment". Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment. 14 (1). Journal of Substance Abuse: 95–98. doi:10.1016/S0740-5472(97)00050-0. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
^ "Strains of Yesteryear" by DJ Short.
^ Answers.com album list.
^ Many Dutch coffee shops close as liberal policies change, Exaptica, 27/11/2007.
^ EMCDDA Cannabis reader: Global issues and local experiences, Perspectives on Cannabis controversies, treatment and regulation in Europe, 2008, p. 157.
^ 43 Amsterdam coffee shops to close door, Radio Netherlands, Friday 21 November 2008.
^ ^a ^b Alexander Cockburn (1998). Whiteout: The CIA, Drugs and the Press. Verso. pp. 117–118. ISBN 1859841392. Retrieved 2009-04-17. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
^ "Electronenmicroscopisch onderzoek van vervuilde wietmonsters" (PDF).
^ "Department of Health, Social Services and Public Safety - Contamination of herbal or 'skunk-type' Cannabis with glass beads" (PDF).
^ "Department of Health, Social Services and Public Safety - Update on seizures of Cannabis contaminated with glass particles" (PDF).
^ Busse F, Omidi L, Timper K; et al. (2008). "Lead poisoning due to adulterated marijuana". N. Engl. J. Med. 358 (15): 1641–2. doi:10.1056/NEJMc0707784. PMID 18403778. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^ Venhuis BJ, de Kaste D (2008). "Sildenafil analogs used for adulterating marihuana". Forensic Sci. Int. 182 (1–3): e23–4. doi:10.1016/j.forsciint.2008.09.002. PMID 18945564. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
^ "Marijuana Dictionary".

External links

[bookSpanish_Word_Histories_and_Mysteries-1] Company, Houghton Mifflin (2007-11-14). Spanish Word Histories and Mysteries. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. p. 142. ISBN 0618910549, 9780618910540. {{cite book}}: |last= has generic name (help); Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)

[urlIndependent_Drug_Monitoring_Unit-2] Matthew J. Atha - Independent Drug Monitoring Unit. "Types of Cannabis Available in the UK". Retrieved 2007-09-13.

[urlWhat_Does_Sinsemilla_Mean?_-_Marijuana.com-3] "What Does Sinsemilla Mean? - Marijuana.com".

[rudgley1999-4] Rudgley, Richard (1998). Lost Civilisations of the Stone Age. New York: Free Press. ISBN 0-6848-5580-1.

[WDR2006chap2-5] United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (2006), "Cannabis: Why we should care" (PDF), World Drug Report, 1, S.l.: United Nations, ISBN 9-2114-8214-3, retrieved 2006-10-10, p. 14.

[UNODC_2009-06-29-6] "Why does cannabis potency matter?". United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. 2009-06-29. Retrieved 2009-07-27.

[JFS_2000-01-01-7] ElSohly (1 January 2000). "Potency trends of D9-THC and other cannabinoids in confiscated marijuana from 1980-1997". Journal of Forensic Sciences. 45 (1). Retrieved 2009-07-27. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)

[NCPIC_2009-07-27-8] "Cannabis potency". National Cannabis Prevention and Information Centre. Retrieved 2009-07-27.

[9] "Marijuana- Definitions from Dictionary.com". dictionary.reference.com. Retrieved 2008-06-23.

[10] ttps://www.wired.com/wiredscience/2008/12/high-times-in-a/

[11] ttps://www.naihc.org/hemp_information/hemp_facts.html

[urlHashish_-_Definitions_from_Dictionary.com-12] "Hashish - Definitions from Dictionary.com". dictionary.reference.com. Retrieved 2008-06-23.

[13] ttps://www.cannabisculture.com/v2/articles/4220.html

[Hash_Oil_Info-14] "Hash Oil Info". Retrieved 2009-05-11.

[Pipe_Residue_Information-15] "Pipe Residue Information". Retrieved 2004-08-25.

[urlPhysics_and_Astronomy_Online_-_Ask_the_Experts-16] "Physics and Astronomy Online - Ask the Experts".

[merck1989-17] 1989. The Merck Index, 11th ed., Merck & Co., Rahway, New Jersey.

[urlChemSpider_-_Cannabinol-18] "ChemSpider - Cannabinol".

[urlDecarboxylation_-_Does_Marijuana_Have_to_be_Heated_to_Become_Psychoactive?-19] "Decarboxylation - Does Marijuana Have to be Heated to Become Psychoactive?".

[Physical_Properties_-_Dronabinol-20] "ChemIDplus Lite". chem.sis.nlm.nih.gov.

[The_Tolerance_Factor-21] "Marijuana and the Brain, Part II: The Tolerance Factor".

[memoryhindered-22] Riedel G, Davies SN (2005). "Cannabinoid function in learning, memory and plasticity". Handb Exp Pharmacol (168): 445–77. PMID 16596784.

[23] Long-term effects of exposure to cannabis

[24] Adverse effects of cannabis on health: an update of the literature since 1996

[mckim-25] McKim, William A (2002). Drugs and Behavior: An Introduction to Behavioral Pharmacology (5th Edition). Prentice Hall. p. 400. ISBN 0-13-048118-1.

[nida-26] "Information on Drugs of Abuse". Commonly Abused Drug Chart. Retrieved 2007-07-15. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |dateformat= ignored (help)

[Stafford-27] Stafford, Peter (1992). Psychedelics Encyclopedia. Berkeley, CA: Ronin Publishing, Inc. ISBN 0914171518.

[Harm_Reduction-28] Franjo Grotenhermen (2001). "Harm Reduction Associated with Inhalation and Oral Administration of Cannabis and THC". Journal of Cannabis Therapeutics. 1 (3–4): 133–152. doi:10.1300/J175v01n03_09. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)

[pmid17437626-29] Earleywine M, Barnwell SS (2007). "Decreased Respiratory Symptoms in Cannabis Users Who Vaporize". Harm Reduction Journal. 4: 11. doi:10.1186/1477-7517-4-11. PMC 1853086. PMID 17437626.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)

[pmid17429350-30] Abrams DI, Vizoso HP, Shade SB, Jay C, Kelly ME, Benowitz NL (2007). [url=http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=17821306 "Vaporization as a Smokeless Cannabis Delivery System: A Pilot Study"]. Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics. 82 (5): 572–578. doi:10.1038/sj.clpt.6100200. PMID 17429350. {{cite journal}}: Check |url= value (help); Missing pipe in: |url= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[pmid16637053-31] Hazekamp A, Ruhaak R, Zuurman L, van Gerven J, Verpoorte R (2006). "Evaluation of a vaporizing device (Volcano) for the pulmonary administration of tetrahydrocannabinol". Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences. 95 (6): 1308–1317. doi:10.1002/jps.20574. PMID 16637053. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[pmid17382831-32] Nutt D, King LA, Saulsbury W, Blakemore C (2007). "Development of a rational scale to assess the harm of drugs of potential misuse". Lancet. 369 (9566): 1047–53. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(07)60464-4. PMID 17382831. Retrieved 2009-07-14. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[Cannabis_smoke_'has_more_toxins'-33] "Cannabis smoke 'has more toxins'". BBC. 2007-12-19.

[Study_Finds_No_Link_Between_Marijuana_Use_And_Lung_Cancer-34] "Study Finds No Link Between Marijuana Use And Lung Cancer". Science Daily. 2006-05-26. Retrieved 2009-04-17.

[Study_finds_no_marijuana-cancer_connection-35] "Study Finds No Cancer-Marijuana Connection". Washington Post. [2006-5-26]. Retrieved 2009-04-17. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)

[36] "Cannabis bigger cancer risk than cigarettes: study". Thomson Reuters. Retrieved 2008-12-02.

[Marijuana_compound_may_stop_spread_of_breast_cancer-37] "Marijuana compound may stop spread of breast cancer". Fox News. 2007-11-19. Retrieved 2009-04-17.

[pmid=15574485-38] Henquet C, Krabbendam L, Spauwen J; et al. (2005). "Prospective Cohort Study of Cannabis Use, Predisposition for Psychosis, and Psychotic Symptoms in Young People". British Medical Journal. 330 (7481): 11. doi:10.1136/bmj.38267.664086.63. PMC 539839. PMID 15574485. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[pmid12446533-39] Patton GC, Coffey C, Carlin JB, Degenhardt L, Lynskey M, Hall W (2002). "Cannabis Use and Mental Health in Young People: Cohort Study". British Medical Journal. 325 (7374): 1195–1198. doi:10.1136/bmj.325.7374.1195. PMC 135489. PMID 12446533. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[pmid15733249-40] Fergusson DM, Horwood LJ, Ridder EM (2005). "Tests of Causal Linkages Between Cannabis Use and Psychotic Symptoms". Addiction. 100 (3): 354–366. doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2005.01001.x. PMID 15733249. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[41] Hall, Wayne; Degenhardt, Lousia; Teesson, Maree. "Cannabis Use and Psychotic Disorders: An Update". Office of Public Policy and Ethics, Institute for Molecular Bioscience University of Queensland Australia, and National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre University of New South Wales Australia published in Drug and Alcohol Review (December 2004). Vol 23 Issue 4. pp. 433–443.

[42] Arseneault, Louise; Cannon, Mary; Wiitton, John; Murray, Robin M. "Causal Association Between Cannabis and Psychosis: Examination of the Evidence". Institute of Psychiatry published in British Journal of Psychiatry (2004). #184, pp. 110–117.

[pmid1932970-43] Halpin SF, Yeoman L, Dundas DD (1991). "Radiographic examination of the lumbar spine in a community hospital: an audit of current practice". BMJ (Clinical Research Ed.). 303 (6806): 813–5. PMC 1671162. PMID 1932970. {{cite journal}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[pmid18294478-44] Mukamal KJ, Maclure M, Muller JE, Mittleman MA (2008). "An exploratory prospective study of marijuana use and mortality following acute myocardial infarction". American Heart Journal. 155 (3): 465–70. doi:10.1016/j.ahj.2007.10.049. PMC 2276621. PMID 18294478. Retrieved 2009-07-14. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[pmid17680367-45] Gonzalez R (2007). "Acute and Non-Acute Effects of Cannabis on Brain Functioning and Neuropsychological Performance". Neuropsychology Review. 17 (3): 347–61. doi:10.1007/s11065-007-9036-8. PMID 17680367. Retrieved 2009-07-14. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)

[CB-46] Lundin, Leigh (2009-03-01). "The Great Smoke-Out". Criminal Brief. Retrieved 2009-03-14.

[Rand-47] "RAND study casts doubt on claims that marijuana acts as "gateway" to the use of cocaine and heroin". RAND Corporation. 2002-12-02. Retrieved 2007-02-27.

[Torabi1993-48] Torabi MR, Bailey WJ, Majd-Jabbari M (1993). "Cigarette smoking as a predictor of alcohol and other drug use by children and adolescents: evidence of the "gateway drug effect"". The Journal of school health. 63 (7): 302–6. PMID 8246462.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[49] Australian Government Department of Health: National Cannabis Strategy Consultation Paper, p. 4. "Cannabis has been described as a 'Trojan Horse' for nicotine addiction, given the usual method of mixing Cannabis with tobacco when preparing marijuana for administration."

[pmid16191720-50] Hall WD, Lynskey M (2005). "Is Cannabis A Gateway Drug? Testing Hypotheses About the Relationship Between Cannabis Use and the Use of Other Illicit Drugs". Drug and Alcohol Review. 24 (1): 39–48. doi:10.1080/09595230500126698. PMID 16191720. Retrieved 2009-07-14. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)

[journalwatch-51] Saitz, Richard (2003-02-18). "Is marijuana a gateway drug?". Journal Watch. Retrieved 2007-02-27.

[52] Degenhardt, Louisa; et al. (2007). "Who are the new amphetamine users? A 10-year prospective study of young Australians". Retrieved 2007-09-22. {{cite web}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)

[morral2002-53] Morral AR, McCaffrey DF, Paddock SM (2002). "Reassessing the marijuana gateway effect". Addiction. 97 (12): 1493–504. doi:10.1046/j.1360-0443.2002.00280.x. PMID 12472629.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[54] "Marijuana Policy Project- FAQ". Retrieved 2006-12-24.

[bookPsychedelics_Encyclopedia-55] Stafford, Peter (1992). Psychedelics Encyclopedia. Berkeley, California: Ronin Publishing, Inc. ISBN 0-914171-51-8.

[Matthews2007-56] Matthews, A.; Matthews, L. (2007). Learning Chinese Characters. p. 336..

[leary1990-57] Leary, Thimothy (1990). Tarcher/Putnam (ed.). Flashbacks. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons. ISBN 0-8747-7870-0.

[ganjikaEB-58] Miller, Ga (1911), "Encyclopædia Britannica", Science (New York, N.Y.), 34 (883) (11th ed.): 761–762, doi:10.1126/science.34.883.761, PMID 17759460, retrieved 2006-06-15 {{citation}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help).

[rudgley1998-59] Rudgley, Richard (1998). Little, Brown and Company (ed.). The Encyclopedia of Psychoactive Substances. Retrieved 2007-02-25.

[60] Franck, Mel (1997). Marijuana Grower's Guide. Red Eye Press. ISBN 0-9293-4903-2. p. 3.

[61] Rubin, Vera D. (1976). Cannabis and Culture. Campus Verlag. ISBN 3-5933-7442-0. p. 305.

[62] Cunliffe, Barry W. (2001). The Oxford Illustrated History of Prehistoric Europe. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-1928-5441-0. p. 405.

[peoplesdaily-63] "Lab work to identify 2,800-year-old mummy of shaman". People's Daily Online. 2006. Retrieved 2007-02-25.

[jiang2006a-64] Hong-En Jiang; et al. (2006). "A new insight into Cannabis sativa (Cannabaceae) utilization from 2500-year-old Yanghai tombs, Xinjiang, China". Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 108 (3): 414–422. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2006.05.034. Retrieved 2007-02-25. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)

[65] Walton, Robert P. (1938). Marijuana, America's New Drug Problem. J. B. Lippincott. p. 6.

[66] "Cannabis linked to Biblical healing". Retrieved 2007-08-20.

[67] Ibn Taymiyya (2001). Le haschich et l'extase. Beyrouth: Albouraq. ISBN 2-8416-1174-4.

[68] Marijuana Conspiracy - by Dough Yurchey.

[69] William Randolf Hearst, Lammont Dupont, Henry J. Anslinger, and hemp [Archive] - DiscussAnything.com.

[70] <http://www.ireport.com/docs/DOC-237709

[urlCure_Cancer_with_Hemp_Oil_-_Phoenix_Tears-71] "Cure Cancer with Hemp Oil - Phoenix Tears".

[urlDebunking_the_Hemp_Conspiracy_Theory_|_DrugReporter_|_AlterNet-72] "Debunking the Hemp Conspiracy Theory".

[73] "Marijuana Called Top U.S. Cash Crop". 2008 ABCNews Internet Ventures. Retrieved 2008-12-11.

[74] European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (2008). Annual report: the state of the drugs problem in Europe (PDF). Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities. p. 38. ISBN 978-92-9168-324-6. Retrieved 2009-04-17.

[75] United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (2008). World drug report (PDF). United Nations Publications. p. 264. ISBN 978-92-1-148229-4. Retrieved 2009-04-17.

[76] Daniel Forbes (November 19, 2002). "The Myth of Potent Pot". Slate.com. Retrieved 2009-05-15.

[77] "World Drug Report 2006". United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. Retrieved 2008-02-25. Ch. 2.3.

[78] BBC: Cannabis laws to be strengthened. May 2008 20:55 UK.

[79] Tj. T. Mensinga; et al. "A Double-Blind, Randomized, Placebo-Controlled, Cross-Over Study on the Pharmacokinetics and Effects of Cannabis" (PDF). RIVM. Retrieved 2007-09-21. {{cite web}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)

[80] Curran H.V.; et al. (2002). "Cognitive and subjective dose-response effects". NCBI. Retrieved 2007-09-21. {{cite web}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)

[81] Doorenbos, Norman J., Patricia S. Fetterman, Maynard W. Quimby, and Carlton Turner. 1971. Cultivation, extraction, and analysis of Cannabis sativa L. Annals New York Academy of Sciences 191: 3-14.

[82] Hirsch, Robert (1997). "Clinicians' self-assessment questions and answers in substance abuse treatment". Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment. 14 (1). Journal of Substance Abuse: 95–98. doi:10.1016/S0740-5472(97)00050-0. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)

[83] "Strains of Yesteryear" by DJ Short.

[84] Answers.com album list.

[85] Many Dutch coffee shops close as liberal policies change, Exaptica, 27/11/2007.

[86] EMCDDA Cannabis reader: Global issues and local experiences, Perspectives on Cannabis controversies, treatment and regulation in Europe, 2008, p. 157.

[87] 43 Amsterdam coffee shops to close door, Radio Netherlands, Friday 21 November 2008.

[Whiteout-88] Alexander Cockburn (1998). Whiteout: The CIA, Drugs and the Press. Verso. pp. 117–118. ISBN 1859841392. Retrieved 2009-04-17. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)

[89] "Electronenmicroscopisch onderzoek van vervuilde wietmonsters" (PDF).

[90] "Department of Health, Social Services and Public Safety - Contamination of herbal or 'skunk-type' Cannabis with glass beads" (PDF).

[91] "Department of Health, Social Services and Public Safety - Update on seizures of Cannabis contaminated with glass particles" (PDF).

[pmid18403778-92] Busse F, Omidi L, Timper K; et al. (2008). "Lead poisoning due to adulterated marijuana". N. Engl. J. Med. 358 (15): 1641–2. doi:10.1056/NEJMc0707784. PMID 18403778. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[pmid18945564-93] Venhuis BJ, de Kaste D (2008). "Sildenafil analogs used for adulterating marihuana". Forensic Sci. Int. 182 (1–3): e23–4. doi:10.1016/j.forsciint.2008.09.002. PMID 18945564. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)

[urlMarijuana_Dictionary-94] "Marijuana Dictionary".

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v t e Cannabis in California
Propositions	California Proposition 19 (1972) California Proposition 215 (1996) California Proposition 36 (2000) California Proposition 19 (2010) Adult Use of Marijuana Act (2016)
California Senate Bills	California Senate Bill 420 (2003)
California Assembly Bills	Marijuana Control, Regulation, and Education Act (2009)
Related	Barbary Coast cannabis lounge California Bureau of Cannabis Control Emerald Triangle Lowell Herb Co San Francisco Office of Cannabis