通用学术英语unit6课文翻译

Unit6

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① Toulmin (1958) suggested that arguments simply including my-side reasons are inadequate to be persuasive. The true persuasive arguments are those taking account of the other-side's point of view.

① 图尔敏（Toulmin，1958）提出，仅仅包含己方理由的论点不足以具有说服力。真正有说服力的论点是那些考虑了对方观点的论点。

② However, Baron (1995) found that the persuasiveness of written arguments with both my-side and other-side reasons have not always been evaluated better than arguments consisting only of my-side reasons.

② 然而，巴伦（Baron，1995）发现，包含己方和对方理由的书面论点的说服力并不总是比仅包含己方理由的论点评价更高。

③ This suggests that referencing counterarguments are insufficient to increase persuasiveness.

③ 这表明，仅仅提及反论点不足以增加说服力

④ To write persuasive arguments, the preceding studies suggest that not only mentioning counterarguments but rebutting them is essential (e.g., Allen, 1991; Hale, Mongeau, & Thomas, 1991).

④ 为了写出有说服力的论点，前面的研究表明，不仅要提及反论点，还必须反驳它们（例如，Allen，1991；Hale，Mongeau，& Thomas，1991）。

⑤ For example, Wolfe et al. (2009) controlled the way in which counterarguments were responded to in written arguments (Ex. rebuttal, dismissal, and concession) and asked participants in each condition to rate their agreement with the claim, the quality of the argument, and their impression of the author. As a result, rebuttals led to significantly higher agreement, quality, and impression ratings than arguments with no counterargument.

⑤ 例如，沃尔夫等人（Wolfe et al.，2009）控制了书面论点中对反论点的回应方式（如反驳、驳回和让步），并要求每个条件下的参与者对论点的认同度、论点质量以及对作者的印象进行评分。结果显示，与没有反论点的论点相比，反驳导致了更高的认同度、质量和印象评分。

⑥ Overall, in a meta-analysis, O'Keefe (1999) found that readers judge rebutting texts to be more persuasive than texts that do not.

⑥ 总体而言，在一项元分析中，奥基夫（O'Keefe，1999）发现，读者认为反驳的文本比不反驳的文本更具说服力。

⑦ Although many studies emphasise importance of rebutting in written arguments, the mechanism of how rebuttals affect a reader's evaluation is unclear. For further research, we need to investigate the effects of rebutting by focusing on the following three points.

⑦ 尽管许多研究强调了在书面论点中反驳的重要性，但反驳如何影响读者评价的机制尚不清楚。为了进一步研究，我们需要通过关注以下三点来研究反驳的效果。

STUDY TIP

Every study, no matter how well it is conducted, has some limitations. The limitations of a study are those flaws in design or methodology that influence or impact the interpretation of the findings in the research, including but not limited to the insufficiency of experiment data and unexpected changes during the experiment. Likewise, the limitations admitted by the author himself and revealed by later studies may vary significantly.

每一项研究，无论开展得多么出色，都存在一些局限性。研究的局限性是指设计或方法论中存在的缺陷，这些缺陷会影响对研究结果的解读，包括但不限于实验数据不足和实验过程中出现的意外变化。同样，作者自己承认的局限性和后续研究揭示的局限性可能有很大差异。

P149Text1

10. What are air fresheners?

9. Where are air fresheners used?

8. What do air fresheners emit?

7. How do air freshener emissions affect the indoor environment?

6. How do air freshener emissions affect human health?

5. Do air fresheners disclose their ingredients?

4. Do emissions from "green" air fresheners differ from regular air fresheners?

3. What about involuntary exposure to air fresheners within indoor environments?

2. What are possible solutions or alternatives?

1. What are research directions needed for science, health, and policy?

10. 空气清新剂是什么？

9. 空气清新剂在哪些地方使用？

8. 空气清新剂会释放出什么物质？

7. 空气清新剂的排放如何影响室内环境？

6. 空气清新剂的排放如何影响人类健康？

5. 空气清新剂是否披露其成分？

4. “绿色”空气清新剂的排放与普通空气清新剂的排放有什么不同？

3. 在室内环境中，非自愿暴露于空气清新剂的情况如何？

2. 可能的解决方案或替代方法是什么？

1. 科学、健康和政策需要哪些研究方向？

P150STUDY TIP

The diagram in 1.3 presents the logical order of a synthesis as well as an academic study in general. The steps are summarised below:

Step 1: Defining the issue under discussion

Step 2:Narrowing down the issue to current study

Step 3: Posing problems in earlier studies

Step 4:Proposing solutions

Step 5:Offering suggestions

The actual synthesising process may contain more or less steps than the five listed above, but this general frame prevails.

图1.3展示了综合研究以及学术研究的一般逻辑顺序。这些步骤总结如下：

1.明确讨论的问题

2.将问题缩小到当前研究范围

3.提出早期研究中的问题

4.提出解决方案

5.提出建议

实际的综合过程可能比上述五个步骤多或少，但这种一般框架是普遍存在的。

P151Text2

Food is arguably the most important product of consumption, which is essential for sustaining life (Lueck Avery, Kreit & Falcon, 2010). Food contributes to the continuous regeneration of our bodies and provides the basic energy for living. On the other hand, food can be a source of exquisite hedonic experiences and has strong cultural connotations related with refinement and fashion, especially in well-developed countries and wealthier social communities. 

食物可以说是最重要的消费品，对维持生命至关重要 (卢克·艾弗里, 克雷特 & 法尔肯, 2010)。食物有助于我们身体的持续再生，并提供生存所需的基本能量。另一方面，食物也可以是精致享乐体验的来源并具有强烈的文化内涵，与优雅和时尚息息相关，这尤其体现于发达国家和较富裕的社会群体。

Despite the green revolution introduced globally in the 1970s, the exponential growth of human population creates significant challenges for the future. Nearly 870 million people suffer today of malnutrition, most of them being localized in the poor countries from Africa, Asia and South America (WorldHunger, 2013). Climate change and environmental degradation are currently reducing the available agricultural land, and creating extreme climatic conditions, which result in additional problems to feeding the world population (Hanjra & Qureshi, 2010). Some possible alternatives envisaged by food futurologists include insects, laboratory-grown meat, or algae (Winterman, 2009). 

尽管 19世纪70 年代全球引入了绿色革命，但人口的指数级增长给未来带来了重大挑战。如今有近 8.7 亿人遭受营养不良之苦，其中大多数人位于非洲、亚洲和南美洲的贫穷国家 (世界饥饿组织, 2013)。目前气候变化和环境退化使可用的农业用地减少，并造成极端气候条件，这给养活世界人口带来了额外的问题 (汉杰拉 & 库雷希, 2010)。食品未来学家设想的一些可能的替代方案包括昆虫、实验室培育的肉类或藻类 (温特曼, 2009)。

Many reports and articles investigate food and its impact on environment and society; the diversity of these studies is striking and confirms the central role played by food in society, culture, and the world ecosystem. Existing studies outline the challenges raised by the further growth of human population, especially in developing countries that already have food shortages (Agoramoorthy, 2008; Meier, 2007; Tudge, 1988); the problems determined by climate change and environmental degradation (Dahlberg, 1994; Dietrich, Schmitz, Lotze-Campen, Popp & Müller, 2014; Neuvonen et al., 2014); and the impact of globalization on food production and consumption (Gordon, 1998; Green & Foster, 2005;Pinstrup-Andersen & Pandya-Lorch, 1998; Shiva, 2004). The discipline of futures studies (FS) is called upon to provide potential solutions to these problems (Kreit, Lueck Avery & Falcon,2011), by proposing and analysing alternative scenarios about the future of food: "I am confident that the FS community is suitably diverse, open enough, and supportive enough of each other's perspectives that we can think and write about food more often and within a spectrum of localised, alternative futures." (Hurley, 2008: 698).

许多报告和文章研究了食物及其对环境和社会的影响；这些研究的多样性令人瞩目，也证实了食物在社会、文化和世界生态系统中所扮演的核心角色。现有研究概述了因人口进一步增长而产生的挑战，尤其是在已然面临粮食短缺的发展中国家（阿戈拉穆尔蒂，2008年；迈耶，2007年；塔奇，1988年）；由气候变化和环境退化引发的问题（达尔伯格，1994年；迪特里希、施密茨、洛策 - 坎彭、波普及米勒，2014年；纽沃宁等人，2014年）；以及全球化对食品生产和消费的影响（戈登，1998年；格林与福斯特，2005年；平斯特鲁普 - 安德森与潘迪亚 - 洛尔希，1998年；希瓦，2004年）。未来研究（FS）这一学科被呼吁为这些问题提供潜在解决方案（克赖特、吕克·埃弗里与福尔肯，2011年），其方式是提出并分析有关食物未来的替代情景：“我相信，未来研究群体具有足够的多样性、开放性，且能充分支持彼此的观点，因此我们能够更频繁地思考和撰写关于食物的内容，且能在一系列本土化的替代未来情境中进行探讨。”（赫利，2008年：698页 ）

These problems can also be tackled using biotechnology techniques (Despain, 2010). Genetic engineering can nowadays modify the genome of plants and animals, to make them more resistant to draught or pests, or enrich their production of specific nutrients, enzymes or vitamins. However, genetically-modified foods (GMFs) are also perceived as major threats for biodiversity, environment and human health, being often labelled with the negative metaphor of "Frankenfoods" (Hellstein, 2003). This controversial situation creates complex dilemmas and paradoxes that can significantly influence the future of GMFs and consequently, the future of food production and consumption. Unfortunately, many existing studies adopt a superficially dichotomized (i.e. benefits versus risks) approach (Engel, Frenzel & Miller, 2002; Jones, 1999; Paillotin, 1998; Uzogara, 2000), or focus on a limited aspect of GMFs (e.g. safety, labelling, environmental impact) (Gaugitsch, 2002; Goodyear-Smith, 2001; Konig et al., 2004; Rowland, 2002), neglecting their complex interdependence with social, cultural, economic and political forces that shape human society.

这些问题同样可通过生物技术手段解决（德斯潘，2010）。如今，基因工程技术能够改造动植物基因组，增强其抗旱抗虫能力，或提升特定营养素、酶及维生素的产量。然而，转基因食品（GMFs）亦被视为对生物多样性、环境及人类健康的重大威胁，常被冠以"弗兰肯食品"（Frankenfoods）这一负面隐喻标签（赫尔斯坦，2003）。此种争议性局面造成了复杂的伦理困境与矛盾，可能深刻影响转基因食品的未来走向，最终关乎粮食生产与消费的未来。不幸的是，很多现有研究采用简单二分法（即益处 vs. 风险）（恩格尔、弗伦泽尔和米勒，2002；琼斯，1999；派洛汀，1998；乌佐加拉，2000），或聚焦转基因食品的单一维度（如安全性、标识制度、环境影响）（高吉奇，2002；古德伊尔-史密斯，2001；柯尼希等，2004；罗兰，2002），忽视了转基因技术与塑造人类社会的社会文化、经济及政治力量间错综复杂的相互依存关系。

Attempting to address this gap, this study presents and analyses the situation of genetically-modified foods, proposing a series of scenarios regarding their future evolution and impact on human society. In contrast to previous studies, we aim to provide a more nuanced view of the role of food biotechnology, and of its complex interdependence with social, cultural, economic and political factors. To achieve this purpose, the paper applies a future studies methodology (Kosow & Gaßner, 2007) by identifying the past and the present trends and factors that shape the evolution of food biotechnology, and then extrapolating their complex interaction into three alternative scenarios, which predict the evolution of GMFs until 2050. These scenarios were sent to two French and three U.K. food experts who commented on their plausibility and consistence. Taking into account this feedback, we amended the initial scenarios, the improved versions being then presented for validation and comments to a demographically-representative sample of 200 French and 200 U.K. consumers.

SOURCE:Gurau, C. & Ranchhod, A. (2016). The future of genetically-modified foods: Global threat or panacea? Futures,83:24-36

为了填补这一空白，本研究报告介绍并分析了转基因食品的情况，就其未来的演变及其对人类社会的影响提出了一系列设想。与以往的研究不同，我们的目标是对食品生物技术的作用及其与社会、文化、经济和政治因素之间复杂的相互依存关系提供一个更加细致入微的视角。为实现这一目标，本文采用了未来研究方法（科索沃&加斯纳,2007），确定了影响食品生物技术演变的过去和现在的趋势和因素，然后将其复杂的相互作用推断为三种可供选择的情景，预测了2050年之前转基因食品的演变。这些方案已送交两位法国和三位英国食品专家，他们对方案的合理性和一致性提出了意见。考虑到这些反馈意见，我们对最初的方案进行了修改，然后将改进后的版本提交给具有人口代表性的200名法国和200名英国消费者样本进行验证和评论。

资料来源：古劳 C. & 兰乔德 A. (2016)。《转基因食品的未来：全球威胁还是灵丹妙药？》 《未来》，83:24-36

P153STUDY TIP

Seminal works in academic settings are those of central importance to a research topic. Often they report a major breakthrough, an insight or a novel thinking that stimulates later thinking. The seminal works are, in many cases, a good place to begin research, and lead to other relevant studies. The works bearing the closest relation to the present research are usually stated last before the author's own hypothesis is proposed, functioning as the stepping stone towards this one-step-further study.

学术领域中的开创性著作是指对某一研究主题具有核心重要性的文献。这类著作通常报道重大突破、深刻见解或激发后续研究思路的创新思维。在许多情况下，开创性著作是开展研究的理想起点，并能引领至其他相关研究。与本研究关联最紧密的文献通常在作者提出自身假设之前最后阐述，其作用是为这一进一步研究奠定基础。

P154Text3

There are numerous economic models that study the interrelation between economic growth and the environment. We focus on a class of models in which economic activities lead to environmental degradation, and thus economic activities negatively affect the utility of households or the production activities of firms. This line of research goes back to Forster (1973) and was extended by Gruver (1976). Forster (1973), for example, studies a dynamic model of capital accumulation, the Ramsey growth model, with pollution as a byproduct of capital accumulation that can be reduced by abatement spending. In the long run, this model is characterised by a stationary state where all variables are constant unless exogenous shocks occur.

有许多经济模型研究经济增长与环境之间的相互关系。我们关注一类这样的模型：经济活动会导致环境退化，进而对家庭效用或企业生产活动产生负面影响。这一研究脉络可追溯至福斯特（Forster，1973），并由格鲁弗（Gruver，1976）进一步拓展。例如，福斯特（1973）研究了一个资本积累的动态模型（拉姆齐增长模型），将污染视为资本积累的副产品，而污染可通过减排支出加以降低。从长期来看，该模型的特征是存在一个稳态 —— 除非发生外生冲击，否则所有变量均保持恒定。

Another early contribution in environmental economics is the book by Mäler (1974), which can be considered as a classical contribution in this field. Mäler analyses several aspects associated with environmental degradation in different frameworks, such as a general equilibrium model of environmental quality and an economic growth model incorporating the environment. ②But Mäler assumes a finite time horizon and is less interested in the long-run evolution of economies, in contrast to Forster (1973).

环境经济学领域的另一项早期贡献是马勒（ 1974）的著作，这可以被视为该领域的经典之作。马勒在不同的框架下分析了与环境退化相关的若干方面，例如环境质量的一般均衡模型和纳入环境因素的经济增长模型。但是，与福斯特（1973）不同，马勒假设了一个有限的时间范围，并且对经济的长期演变不太感兴趣。

If one studies a growth model and intends to analyse the long-run evolution of economies,models with constant variables in the long run are rather unrealistic. With the publication of the papers by Romer (1986, 1990), the "new" or endogenous growth theory has become prominent. The major feature of models within this line of research is that the growth rate becomes an endogenous variable, the per capita income rises over time, and the government may affect growth through fiscal policy, for example. Concerning the forces that can generate ongoing growth, one can think of positive externalities associated with investment, the formation of human capital, or the creation of a stock of knowledge through R&D spending (for a survey, see Greiner et al. 2005).

如果研究一个增长模型并打算分析经济的长期演变，那么模型中变量在长期保持不变的设定是相当不切实际的。随着罗默（ 1986, 1990）论文的发表，“新”增长理论或称内生增长理论开始兴起。这类研究模型的主要特点是：增长率成为一个内生变量，人均收入随时间持续增长，并且政府（例如）可以通过财政政策影响增长。关于能够产生持续增长的动力，可以考虑与投资相关的正外部性、人力资本的形成，或者通过研发（研究与开发）支出创造的知识存量（相关综述，见格雷纳 等人，2005）。

Another type of model in endogenous growth theory assumes that the government can invest in productive public capital, which stimulates aggregate productivity. This approach goes back to Arrow and Kurz (1970), who presented exogenous growth models with that assumption in their book. The first model in which productive public spending leads to sustained per capita growth in the long run was presented by Barro (1990). In his model, productive public spending positively affects the (p.8) marginal product of private capital and makes the long-run growth rate an endogenous variable. ③However, the assumption that public spending as a flow variable affects aggregate production activities is less plausible from an empirical point of view, as pointed out in a study by Aschauer (1989).

内生增长理论中的另一种模型假设，政府可以通过投资生产性公共资本来刺激总生产率。这种方法可以追溯到阿罗和库尔茨（1970年），他们在书中提出了带有这一假设的外生增长模型。巴罗（1990年）首次提出了生产性公共支出推动人均经济长期持续增长的模型。在他的模型中，生产性公共支出对私人资本的边际产出产生积极影响，并使长期增长率成为内生变量。然而，正如阿肖尔（1989年）的一项研究所指出的那样，从实证角度来看，将公共支出作为流量变量影响总生产活动的假设不太合理。

 Futagami et al. (1993) have extended the Barro model by assuming that public capital as a stock variable shows positive productivity effects and then investigated whether the results derived by Barro are still valid given their modification of the model. ④ However, the assumption made by these researchers implies that the model has transition dynamics, which does not hold for the model when public spending as a flow variable shows productive effects. In the latter case, the economy immediately jumps on the balanced growth path. The model presented by Futagami and colleagues is characterised by a unique balanced growth path, which is a saddle point. ⑤ Although the questions of whether the long-run balanced growth path is unique and whether it is stable are important issues, they are not frequently studied in this type of research. Most of the contributions study growth and welfare effects of fiscal policy for a model on the balanced growth path.

二上等人（1993 年）对巴罗模型进行了扩展，假设作为存量变量的公共资本表现出积极的生产率效应，然后研究了在他们对模型进行修改后，巴罗得出的结果是否仍然有效。然而，这些研究者所做的假设意味着模型具有过渡动态，而当公共支出作为流量变量显示出生产效应时，模型就不成立了。在后一种情况下，经济会立即跃上平衡增长的轨道。二上及其同事提出的模型具有唯一的平衡增长路径，即一个鞍点。尽管长期均衡增长路径是否唯一、是否稳定等问题十分重要，但这类研究并不经常涉及。大多数研究成果都是针对平衡增长路径模型，研究财政政策对增长和福利的影响。

As to the question of whether public spending can affect aggregate production possibilities at all, the empirical studies do not obtain unambiguous results. ® However, this is not too surprising because these studies often consider different countries over different time periods and the effect of public investment in infrastructure, for example, is likely to differ over countries and over time. A survey of the empirical studies dealing with that subject can be found in Pfähler et al. (1996), Sturm et al. (1998), Romp and de Haan (2005), and Semmler et al. (2007). 

至于公共支出是否会影响总生产的可能性的问题，实证研究并没有获得明确的结果。然而，这并不太令人惊讶，因为这些研究经常考虑不同时期的不同国家，例如，公共投资对基础设施的影响可能因国家和时间而异。Pfähler等人可以在Pfähler等人中找到对该主题的实证研究的调查。（1996），Sturm等人。（1998），Romp和de Haan（2005），以及Semmler等人。（2007）。

P157Text4

Our study benefits from the availability of complete recording of death registrations in a large city. In time-series studies, statistical power is determined by the number of observations (days), as well as the mean numbers of events per day. Our study was limited with regard to the number of days (722 days), although this was compensated for to some degree by the large study population. However, analyses with more years of data would improve the precision of our model estimates and aid interpretation.

我们的研究受益于大城市死亡登记的完整记录。在时间序列研究中，统计能力由观测次数（天）以及每天的平均事件数决定。我们的研究在天数（722天）方面是有限的，尽管这在一定程度上得到了大量研究人群的补偿。然而，使用更多年数据进行分析将提高我们模型估计的精度，并有助于解释。

A further limitation of our study, one inherent in many time-series studies, was the potential misclassification of exposure due to the use of pollution data from a single background monitoring station in central London. Zeger et al. (2000) have shown that what matters is how well the exposure series matches the mean daily exposures over the city as a whole. In London, PM2.5 measured at monitoring stations in different geographical locations are strongly correlated(Puustinen et al., 2007), and, to some extent, for particle number concentrations also (Cyrus et al., 2008).In our data, daily concentrations of PM2.5 and NO2 measured at background monitoring stations across London were well correlated, median (IQR) correlations 0.9 (0.16) and 0.77 (0.19), respectively (Supplementary Table S1 online). Results of analyses using daily averages derived from all available data from background monitoring stations across London produced comparable results to those using only data from North Kensington (data not shown). Elemental or black carbon and metals were only measured at North Kensington and we were therefore unable to assess the spatial distribution and temporal correlations across London.

我们研究的一个更深的，也是许多时间序列研究固有的局限性是，由于使用伦敦中心的单一监测站提供的污染数据造成的潜在错误分类。Zeger等在2000年表明，暴露系列与城市整体平均每日暴露量匹配程度如何至关重要。在伦敦，不同地理位置的监测站的PM2.5测量结果高度关联（Puustinen等, 2007）同时在某种程度上，对粒子数浓度而言亦然。在本研究数据中，伦敦各背景监测站的PM2.5和NO₂日均浓度相关性显著，中位数（四分位距）相关系数分别为0.9（0.16）和0.77（0.19）（在线附表S1）。使用全伦敦背景监测站数据的日均平均值分析结果与仅使用北肯辛顿站数据的结果具有可比性（数据未展示）。元素碳/黑碳及金属仅在北肯辛顿站测量，因此我们无法评估其在全伦敦的空间分布与时间相关性。

P166 2.2

Genetic modification is a biological technique that effects alterations in the genetic machinery of all kinds of living organisms. GMO is defined as follows by WHO: “Organisms (i.e. plants, animals or micro-organisms) in which the genetic material (DNA) has been altered in a way that does not occur naturally by mating and/or natural recombination” (WHO 2016). The definition seeks to distinguish the direct manipulation of genetic material from the millennial-old practice of improvement in the genetic stock of plants and animals by selective breeding. With DNA recombinant technology, genes from one organism can be transferred into another, usually unrelated, organism.   

 基因改造是一种改变各类生物遗传机制的生物技术。世界卫生组织（WHO）将转基因生物（GMO）定义为：“生物体（即植物、动物或微生物），其遗传物质（DNA）通过自然交配和/或自然重组以外的方式发生了改变”（WHO 2016）。该定义旨在区分对遗传物质的直接操控与千年来通过选择性育种改良动植物基因库的传统实践。通过DNA重组技术，基因可以从一个生物体转移到另一个通常无亲缘关系的生物体中。

Similarly, the FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations) and the European Commission define a GMO as a product “not occurring naturally by mating and/or natural recombination” (FAO 2016). “GM foods” refer to foods produced from genetically modified plants or animals.

类似地，联合国粮农组织（FAO）和欧盟委员会将GMO定义为“非通过自然交配或重组产生的生物体”（FAO 2016）。“转基因食品”（GM foods）指由转基因植物或动物生产的食品。

However, Oliver (2014) pointed out the aforementioned definitions are somewhat imperfect, giving Triticale as an example. Triticale is a grain widely used in bread and pasta. It was developed in the 19th century by crossing wheat with rye (a conventional, selective breeding approach). However, the resulting hybrid is sterile, and in the 1930s, the chemical colchicine was used to generate polyploid embryo cells, which are fertile. Triticale would seem unambiguously to fit the definition of a GMO, even if the genetic modification is somewhat primitive by current molecularly biological standards. Thus, Oliver suggests "biotechnologically modified organism" as a closer definition for GMO.

然而，奥利弗（2014）指出上述定义存在一些不足之处，并以黑小麦为例。黑小麦是一种广泛用于面包和意大利面食的谷物。它是在19世纪通过将小麦与黑麦杂交培育而成（一种传统的选择性育种方法）。然而，这种杂交产生的后代是不能生育的。直到20世纪30年代，人们通过使用化学物质秋水仙素生成多倍体胚胎细胞，这些细胞是可育的。黑小麦似乎毫无疑问符合转基因生物的定义，即使其基因改造在当前分子生物学标准下显得较为原始。因此，奥利弗建议使用“生物技术改造生物”作为转基因生物更贴切的定义。