通用学术英语Unit4课文翻译

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P89 1.3

The Halo Effect is a cognitive bias in which an observer's overall impression of a person, company brand, or product influences the observer's feelings and thoughts about that entity's character or properties. The term "halo" is used in analogy with the religious concept: a glowing circle that can be seen floating about the heads of saints in countless medieval and Renaissance paintings. The saint's face seems bathed in heavenly light from his or her halo. Thus, by seeing that somebody is painted with a halo, the observer can tell that this must have been a good and worthy person. In other words, the observer is transferring their judgment from one easily observed characteristic of the person (painted with a halo) to a judgment of that person's character.                 

光环效应是一种认知偏差，指观察者对一个人、公司品牌或产品的整体印象会影响其对该实体特性或属性的感受和看法。"光环"（Halo）一词借用了宗教概念作类比：在无数中世纪和文艺复兴时期的绘画中，可以看到圣人头顶周围漂浮着一个发光的圆圈。圣人的脸庞仿佛沐浴在来自其光环的天堂圣光之中。因此，通过看到某人被画上了光环，观察者就能判断此人必定是善良而有价值的人。换言之，观察者将他们的判断，从该人物一个容易观察到的特征（画有光环），转移到了对其品格的判断上。

P90 2.1

• Imagine, then, for the sake of argument, that our minds contain a block of wax, which in this or that individual may be larger or smaller, and composed of wax that is comparatively pure or muddy, and harder in some, softer in others, and sometimes of just the right consistency... Let us call it the gift of the Muses' mother, Memory, and say that whenever we wish to remember something we hear or conceive in our own minds, we hold this wax under the perceptions or ideas and imprint them on it as we might stamp the impression of a seal ring. Whatever is so imprinted we remember and know so long as the image remains; whatever is rubbed out or has not succeeded in leaving an impression we have forgotten and do not know.

那么，为了便于讨论，不妨设想我们的头脑中有一块蜡，这块蜡在不同的人身上大小不一，有的质地纯净，有的则混杂不清；有的坚硬，有的柔软，有的则恰到好处……我们就称它为缪斯女神之母——记忆所赐予的礼物。每当我们要记住自己听到或想到的东西时，就把这块蜡置于感知或观念之下，像盖印戒指那样在上面留下印记。凡如此留下印记的东西，只要印记还在，我们就能记住并知晓；凡被擦掉或未能留下印记的东西，我们就会遗忘，不再知晓。

② We make search in our memory for a forgotten idea, just as we rummage our house for a lost object. In both cases, we visit what seems to us the probable neighborhood of that which we miss. We turn over things under which, or within which, or alongside of which, it may possibly be; and if it lies near them it soon comes to view.

我们在记忆中搜寻一个遗忘的想法，就如同在家里翻找一件丢失的物品。在这两种情况下，我们都会去那些在我们看来有可能找到所失之物的地方。我们会翻动那些可能藏有、包含或紧挨着所失之物的东西；如果它就在附近，很快就会被发现。

P91 2.2

Some basic facts about memory are clear. Your short- term memory is like the RAM on a computer: it records the information in front of you right now. Some of what you experience seems to evaporate-like words that go missing when you turn off your     computer without hitting SAVE. But other short-term memories go through a molecular process called consolidation: they're downloaded onto the hard drive. These long-term memories, filled with past loves and losses and fears, stay dormant until you call them up.

关于记忆的一些基本事实是显而易见的。你的短期记忆就像计算机的 RAM：它记录了你现在眼前的信息。你经历的一些事情似乎会像烟一样消散——就像你关掉计算机时没有点击“保存”而丢失的单词一样。但其他短期记忆会经历一个被称为巩固的分子过程：它们被下载到硬盘上。这些长期记忆，充满了过去的爱恨情仇和恐惧，在你唤起它们之前一直处于休眠状态。

P92 2.3

• The hand, joined to the arm, the foot to the leg and the eye to the forehead, obtaina greater recognisability when they are joined than when presented separately; like this,when no parts and species of the universe are separate and out of the order- -which in the first mind is the most simple and perfect order beyond any number-what could we not understand, remember and do, if we apprehended them by connecting the one with the other and by unifying them according to reason? 

手与手臂相连，脚与腿相连，眼睛与额头相连，当它们连接在一起时，比单独呈现时更具可识别性；就像这样，当宇宙的各个部分和种类没有分离且没有脱离秩序——这种秩序在第一心灵中是最简单、最完美的秩序，超越任何数字——如果我们通过将一个与另一个连接起来，并根据理性将它们统一起来来理解它们，我们能理解、记住和做到什么？

②We make search in our memory for a forgotten idea, just as we rummage our house for a lost object. In both cases, we visit what seems to us the probable neighborhood of that which we miss. We turn over things under which, or within which, or alongside of which, it may possibly be; and if it lies near them it soon comes to view.

学生更像是牡蛎，而不是香肠。教学的任务不是把它们填满然后封起来，而是帮助它们张开，揭示其中的珍宝。每个人内心都有珍珠，只是我们需要通过热情和坚持去培养它们。

③... mind is analogous to internal combustion.... Internal combustion cannot be set upon a scale, to be weighed.... no one has ever put a cubic centimeter of internal combustion out on a dissecting tray, held it in hand for scrutiny, or put it under a microscope. Internal combustion, like “mind”, is not a thing or an object: it is not tangible in the usual sense. Internal combustion cannot be plucked from the engine for scientific analysis. It is not a product, as is an engine or brain, and yet it is not metaphysical. Internal combustion, like mind, is a physical process.

SOURCE: Olsen, L. A. (1981). An introductory model of mind, Teaching of Psychology. (2): 107 - 108.

心智类似于内燃机……内燃机无法被放在秤上称重……没有人曾经把一立方厘米的内燃机放到解剖台上拿在手中或者放在显微镜下仔细检查。内燃机像‘心智’一样，并不是像通常意义上的物品那样可以触摸的物体。内燃机无法从引擎中取出进行科学分析，它不是一种像引擎或大脑的造物，它也不是形而上学的。内燃机，像心智一样，是一个物理过程。

来源：奥尔森（Olsen, L. A.）（1981）。《心智的介绍性模型》，《心理学教学》（2）：107-108。

④ There are seven windows given to animals in the domicile of the head: two nostrils, two eyes, two ears, and a mouth... From this and many other similarities in Nature, too tedious to enumerate, we gather that the number of planets must necessarily be seven.

SOURCE: Taylor, C. (1985). P. 141. Philosophical Papers: Philosophy and the Human Sciences, Volume 2. 1st edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

在动物头部的住所中有七个窗户：两个鼻孔，两个眼睛，两个耳朵，还有一个嘴巴……通过这些以及大自然中冗长到难以罗列的其他相似之处，我们推测：行星的数量必然是七个。

来源：泰勒（Taylor, C.）（1985）。《哲学论文：哲学与人文科学，第2卷》。第一版。第141页。剑桥：剑桥大学出版社。

P94 Text1

Memory

• Remember that great summer vacation you took last year? When you think back on it, you might see flashes of a day you spent swimming or a night spent watching fireworks explode high in the sky. However, how do you store those images, so that you can enjoy them later? It is your memory and part of your complex and multitalented brain. What is memory? Memory is critical to humans and all other living organisms. Practically all of our daily activities-talking, understanding, reading, and socialization— depend on our learned and stored information about our environments. Memory allows us to retrieve events from the distant past or from moments ago. It enables us to learn new skills and to form habits. Without the ability to access experiences or information, we would be unable to comprehend language, recognize our friends and family members, find our way home, or even tie a shoelace. Life would be a series of disconnected experiences, each one new and unfamiliar. Without any sort of memory, humans would quickly perish.

还记得你去年度过的那个很棒的暑假吗？当你回想起来的时候，你可能会想起你游泳的一天，或者看烟花在天空中爆炸的夜晚。问题是，你是如何存储这些图像，以便日后可以回味呢？这是你的记忆，是你复杂而多才多艺的大脑的一部分。什么是记忆？记忆对人类和所有其他生物都至关重要。实际上，我们所有的日常活动——交谈、理解、阅读和社交——都依赖于我们对所处环境信息的学习和储存。记忆使我们能够从遥远的过去或刚刚发生的事情中检索出来。它使我们能够学习新技能并形成习惯。如果没有获得经验或信息的能力，我们将无法理解语言、认不得我们的朋友和家人，找不到回家的路，甚至不会系鞋带。生活将是一系列互不关联的经历，每一次都是新的、不熟悉的。没有任何记忆，人类很快就会灭亡。

②In psychology, memory is an organism’s ability to store, retain, and subsequently retrieve information. Traditional studies of memory began in the realms of philosophy, including techniques of artificially enhancing the memory. The late nineteenth and early twentieth century put memory within the paradigms of cognitive psychology. In recent decades, It has become one of the principal pillars of a branch of science called cognitive neuroscience, an interdisciplinary link between cognitive psychology and neuroscience.

在心理学中，记忆是有机体存储、保持并随后检索信息的能力。传统的记忆研究起源于哲学领域，包括人为增强记忆的各种技巧。十九世纪末和二十世纪初，记忆研究被纳入认知心理学范式。近几十年来，记忆已经成为一门称为认知神经科学的学科的主要支柱之一，该学科是认知心理学与神经科学之间的跨学科纽带。

③From the information processing perspective there are three main stages in the formation and retrieval of memory: encoding, storage, retrieval or recall. All of these three processes determine whether something is remembered or forgotten. Processing information into memory is called encoding. People automatically encode some types of information without being aware of it. For example, most people probably can recall where they ate lunch yesterday even if they intended not to remember this information. However, other types of information become encoded only if people pay attention to it. College students will probably not remember all the material in their

textbooks unless they pay close attention while they are reading. Once information has been successfully encoded, it must be stored in memory for later use. Storage is a creation of a permanent record of the encoded information. Much of this stored memory lies outside of our awareness most of the time, except when we actually need to use it. The retrieval process allows us to bring stored memories into conscious awareness. Memory retrieval is a process that relies on the cues and stimuli from the environment. Usually it is helpful for the individual to be in the same context as he or she was when the memory was formed in order to retrieve it. The original mood that the individual was in may also help in retrieval of the memory. Sometimes memory retrieval may be inaccurate because the memories can be misconstrued in the mind."

从信息处理的角度来看，记忆的形成与检索主要经历三个阶段：编码、存储和提取（或回忆）。这三种过程共同决定了信息是被记住还是遗忘。将信息加工并存入记忆的过程称为“编码”。人们在无意识的情况下会自动对某些类型的信息进行编码。例如，大多数人即使不想记住，也能回忆起昨天在哪里吃的午饭。然而，其他类型的信息只有在人们有意注意时才会被编码。大学生如果在阅读教材时不认真专注，通常不会记住所有的内容。信息一旦被成功编码，就必须在记忆中存储以备后用。存储是对已编码信息创建永久记录的过程。大部分存储的记忆在平时都处于无意识状态，只有在我们真正需要使用时才会出现。提取过程则使我们能够将存储的记忆带入意识。记忆提取依赖于环境中的线索和刺激。通常，个体处于与形成记忆时相同的情境中，有助于记忆的提取；当时的情绪状态也可能促进记忆的回忆。然而，有时记忆提取并不完全准确，因为记忆可能在头脑中被曲解或误解。

④Classification of memory

A basic and generally accepted classification of memory is based on the duration of memory retention, and identifies three distinct types of memory: sensory memory, short-term memory and long-term memory.

基于记忆保持时间长短这一基础且广为接受的分类标准，记忆系统可被划分为三种明确的类型：感觉记忆、短期记忆与长期记忆。

⑤Sensory

Sensory memory refers to the initial, momentary recording of information in our sensory systems. When sensations strike our eyes, they linger briefly in the visual system. This kind of sensory memory is called iconic memory and refers to the usually brief visual persistence of information as it is being interpreted by the visual system. Echoic memory is the name applied to the same phenomenon in the auditory domain: the brief mental echo that persists after information has been heard. Similar systems are assumed to exist for other sensory systems (touch, taste, and smell), which are, however, less thoroughly studied by researchers. The first experiment exploring this form of sensory memory was conducted by George Sperling using the “partial report paradigm” in 1960. Sensory memory systems typically function outside of awareness and store information for only a very short time. Iconic memory seems to last less than a second. Echoic memory probably lasts a little bit longer; estimates range up to three or four seconds. Usually sensory information coming in next replaces the old information. For example, when we move our eyes, new visual input masks or erases the first image. The information in sensory memory vanishes unless it captures our attention and enters working memory.

感觉记忆是指外界信息在感觉系统中的初始瞬时记录。当外界刺激作用于视觉感官时，其相关信息会以视觉表征的形式在视觉系统中短暂存留。此类与视觉系统相关的瞬时感觉记忆特称为图像记忆，具体指视觉系统在信息处理过程中产生的视觉信息短暂存留现象。回声记忆是用于描述听觉领域同类现象的术语：指听觉信息被接收后短暂存留的心理余象（即听觉暂留）。研究推测其他感觉系统（触觉、味觉、嗅觉）中也存在类似机制，但这些领域的研究尚未充分展开。乔治·斯珀林（George Sperling）于1960年首次通过“部分报告范式”对这一感觉记忆形式进行了实验研究。感觉记忆系统通常在无意识层面运作，且仅以极短时间存储信息。图像记忆的持续时程通常不足1秒，回声记忆的保持时间略长，估计可达3-4秒。新输入的感觉信息通常会覆盖先前的信息（感觉掩蔽效应），例如眼动引发的视觉输入会掩蔽或消除前一个视觉图像（视觉掩蔽）。除非感觉记忆中的信息获得注意并进入工作记忆，否则这些信息将迅速消退。

⑥Short - term

Some of the information in sensory memory is then transferred to short - term memory. Short - term memory allows one to recall something from several seconds to as long as a minute without rehearsal. Its capacity is also very limited: George A. Miller, when working at Bell laboratories, conducted experiments showing that the store of short - term memory was 7±2 items (the title of his famous paper, “the magical number 7±2”). Modem estimates of the capacity of short - term memory are lower, typically on the order of 4 to 5 items, and we know that memory capacity can be increased through a process called chunking. For example, if presented with the string: FBI PH D TWA IBM, people are able to remember only a few items. However, if the same information is presented in following way FBI PHD TWA IBM, people can remember a great proportion of letters. This is because they are able to chunk the information into meaningful groups of letters. Beyond finding meaning in the abbreviations above, Herbert Simon showed that the ideal size for chunking letters and numbers, meaningful or not, was three. This may be reflected in some countries in the tendency to remember phone numbers as several chunks of three numbers with the final four - number groups generally broken down into two groups of two. Short - term memory is believed to rely mostly on an acoustic code for storing information, and to a lesser extent on a visual code.

感觉记忆中的部分信息会被转移到短时记忆中。短时记忆能让人在无需复述的情况下，在几秒到一分钟左右的时间内回忆起信息。它的容量也非常有限：乔治·A·米勒（George A. Miller）在贝尔实验室工作时，通过实验发现短时记忆的存储容量约为7±2个项目（他那篇著名论文的标题为《神奇的数字7±2》 ）。现代对短时记忆容量的估计更低，通常在4到5个项目左右，而且我们知道，通过一个名为“组块化”的过程可以增加记忆容量。例如，如果呈现字符串“FBIPH D TWA IBM”，人们只能记住少数几个项目。然而，如果以“FBI PHD TWA IBM”这样的方式呈现相同信息，人们就能记住很大一部分字母。这是因为他们能够将信息组块化为有意义的字母组。除了从上述缩写中找到意义之外，赫伯特·西蒙（Herbert Simon）还表明，对字母和数字进行组块化的理想长度是3个（无论是否有意义 ）。在一些国家，人们倾向于将电话号码以几个三位数字的组块来记忆，最后四位数字的组通常又会被拆分为两个两位数字的组，这可能就反映了这一点。一般认为，短时记忆主要依靠听觉编码来存储信息，在较小程度上也依靠视觉编码。

⑦Long - term

The storage in sensory memory and short - term memory generally have a strictly limited capacity and duration, which means that information is available for a certain period of time, but is not retained indefinitely. By contrast, long - term memory can store much larger quantities of information for potentially unlimited duration (sometimes a whole life span). For example, given a random seven - digit number, we may remember it for only a few seconds before forgetting, suggesting it was stored in our short - term memory. On the other hand, we can remember telephone numbers many years through repetition, the pieces of information that are said to be stored in long - term memory. While short - term memory encodes information acoustically, long - term memory encodes it semantically: Baddeley discovered that, after 20 minutes, test subjects had the most difficulty recalling a collection of words that had similar meanings (e.g. big, large, great, huge). Another part of long - term memory is episodic memory, “which attempts to capture information such as ‘what’, ‘when’ and ‘where’ ”. With episodic memory, individuals are able to recall specific events such as birthday parties and weddings.

感觉记忆和短时记忆的存储容量和持续时间通常都严格有限，这意味着信息在特定时间段内可用，但不会被无限期保留。相比之下，长时记忆能够存储大量信息，且持续时间可能是无限的（有时能持续一生 ）。例如，给定一个随机的七位数，我们可能只记得几秒钟就会忘记，这说明它存储在我们的短时记忆中。另一方面，通过重复，我们可以记住电话号码很多年，这些信息据说是存储在长时记忆中的。短时记忆以听觉方式对信息进行编码，而长时记忆则以语义方式进行编码：巴德利（Baddeley）发现，20分钟后，测试对象最难回忆起一组意思相近的单词（如“big（大的）、large（大的）、great（伟大的、大的 ）、huge（巨大的）” ）。长时记忆的另一部分是情景记忆，“它试图捕捉诸如‘什么事’、‘何时’以及‘何地’这类信息” 。借助情景记忆，人们能够回忆起生日派对、婚礼等特定事件 。

P98 study tip

Analogy is a very important method commonly used in academic English. Compared with comparison, analogy emphasizes the similarities, not the differences. It enables people to understand a novel concept or process more easily. However, an inappropriate analogy can also lead to misunderstanding. How to make an effective analogy depends on the target you have selected for the source and the similarities you have chosen. Reading formal, academic,  scientific articles, journals and books may help you develop this ability."

类比是学术英语中一种常用且重要的方法。相较于对比，类比强调相似性，而不是差异性。它使人们更容易理解一个新概念或过程。然而，一个不恰当的类比也可能导致误解。如何做出有效的取决于你为来源选择的目标和选择的相似之处。阅读正式、学术、科学文章、期刊和书籍可能有助于你发展这种能力。

P99 text2

What college teachers Should Know about

Memory: A perspective from Cognitive Psychology

大学教师应该了解的关于记忆的知识：认知心理学的视角

Arguably the first well-elaborated, empirically supported theory of human memory, the ""modal model"" was developed in the late 1960s by the researchers Atkinson and Shiffrin(1968). Based on how people remember lists of unrelated words, Atkinson and Shiffrin theorized that memory consisted of three distinct components, each with a separate function. These three components worked in concert to perform information processing-i.e., turning sensory experience into a ""code"" that can be stored and retrieved when needed. These components included the following:

可以说，第一个被充分阐述并得到实证支持的人类记忆理论，是由研究人员阿特金森和希夫林（1968）在20世纪60年代末提出的“模态模型”。基于人们对不相关单词列表的记忆方式，阿特金森和希夫林提出，记忆由三个不同的部分组成，每个部分具有独立的功能。这三个部分协同工作以执行信息加工——即将感官体验转化为一种可以存储并在需要时检索的“编码”。这些组成部分包括：

1. Sensory memory.

This component holds visual and auditory information for approximately 1-5 seconds prior to any kind of interpretation or analysis.

该部分在信息被进行任何形式的解读或分析之前，将视觉和听觉信息暂存大约1-5秒。

2. Short-term memory.

This component holds any information currently being used to accomplish a task, plus any information deemed important enough to be passed along from sensory memory. It is also brief in nature; typically, information stays only a few seconds before it is displaced by new, incoming material and is consequently lost forever. The exception to this immediate displacement principle occurs when an individual engages in rehearsal—that is, saying something over and over (silently or out loud). One frequently used example of rehearsal is repeating a phone number over and over until it has been successfully dialed.

2. 短时记忆

这个组成部分存储着任何当前用于完成任务的信息，以及任何被认为足够重要而能从感觉记忆传递过来的信息。它的本质也是短暂的；通常，信息只停留几秒钟，然后就被新的、传入的材料取代，并因此永远丢失。这种即时置换原则的例外情况发生在当一个人进行“复述”时——即，一遍又一遍地（无论是默念还是大声）说某事。一个常用的复述例子是反复重复一个电话号码，直到它被成功拨出。

3. Long-term memory.

As the name implies, this component retains information for long periods, even permanently. However, information in long-term memory cannot be directly used to perform a task but must first be retrieved and “reloaded” into short-term memory.

3. 长时记忆

顾名思义，这个组成部分能够将信息保留很长时间，甚至永久。然而，长时记忆中的信息不能直接用于执行任务，而必须首先被检索并“重新加载”到短时记忆中。

These three components—sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory—work together much like an assembly line, with information making stops at each “station” before being passed along. Of course, not every bit of information makes it all the way into long-term memory. On the point of how we decide what to pass from sensory to short-term memory, Atkinson and Shiffrin are less specific. By contrast, they expound considerably on how information makes it from short-term to long-term memory, reasoning from their data that rehearsal is one critical step that allows material to be transferred from short-term to long term memory. Among other things, rehearsal explains why people tend to remember the first few items in a list better than the subsequent ones; most people, when rehearsing a list, start over from the beginning each time they add a new item, so that the first items accrue a higher number of rehearsals by the time the memorization period is over.

这三个组成部分——感觉记忆、短期记忆和长期记忆——的协同工作方式非常像一条流水线，信息在被传递前会在每个“站点”停留。当然，并非所有信息都能最终进入长期记忆。关于我们如何决定将什么信息从感觉记忆传递到短期记忆这一点，阿特金森（Atkinson）和希夫林（Shiffrin）的阐述并不具体。相比之下，他们详细阐述了信息如何从短期记忆进入长期记忆，并根据他们的数据推断，“复述”是将材料从短期记忆转移到长期记忆的关键步骤之一。除此之外，复述还解释了为什么人们倾向于比列表后续的项目更好地记住开头的几个项目；这是因为大多数人在复述一个列表时，每增加一个新项目都会从头开始，因此当记忆过程结束时，最开始的几个项目便累积了更多的复述次数。                                       This model provides an elegant, empirically supported account of human memory. And yet, vanishingly few cognitive researchers—Atkinson and Shiffrin included—now believe the modal model to be the best theory of human memory. While it has been incredibly influential in shaping researchers’ evolving understanding of memory, the three box idea has been left behind by cognitive models.

这个模型为人类记忆提供了一个简洁且有实证支持的解释。然而，现在已经极少有认知研究人员——包括阿特金森和希夫林本人——相信该情态模型是关于人类记忆的最佳理论。尽管它在塑造研究人员对记忆不断发展的理解方面曾具有无与伦比的影响力，但这个“三箱”理论已经被后来的认知模型所取代了。

P101 study tip

When we are listening to a lecture in English, especially in academic English, it

is very desirable to understand and memorise as much information as possible.

What type of notes you take and how you take them will partially depend on

what the subject matter is. Different subjects direct your attention to different

types of information. A lecture, for example, can be fast paced and requires quick and efficient note - taking. Notes on science will be very different from those on humanities. You might be taking notes on history, which will take on more of a narrative outline than notes on chemistry, which probably centers around formulas and concepts. While taking notes of notion explanations, such as ideas, concepts, or processes, you are advised to map out the relationships of key points so that you can have a better understanding of the explained notion.

当我们在听一场英语讲座，尤其是学术英语讲座时，尽可能多地理解并记住信息是非常理想的。你记何种笔记以及如何记笔记，部分取决于主题内容是什么。不同学科会引导你关注不同类型的信息。例如，一场讲座节奏可能很快，需要快速且高效地记笔记。理科讲座的笔记会和人文学科的笔记大不相同。你可能在记录历史学科的笔记，相比化学学科以公式和概念为核心的笔记，历史笔记会更具叙述性大纲的特点。在记录概念解释（如观点、概念或过程）时，建议你梳理出关键点之间的关联，这样你就能更好地理解所讲解的概念 。