What is a dam?
A dam is a barrier built across a stream, river or estuary to hold and control the flow of water for such uses as drinking water supplies, irrigation, flood control and hydropower generation etc.
What is a dam?
Benefits of Dams
The benefits of dams are usually to the advantage of humans. They may include:
Irrigation
Hydroelectric Flood
production
control Recreational opportunities Navigation Industrial and Domestic water supply Aeration of water
For animals the benefits may include:
Larger numbers of fish and birds in the reservoir Greater habitat diversity
Purpose Distribution of Dams
0.60% 5.30% 5.40%
Irrigation Hydropower
10.00% 48.60% 12.70%
Water Supply Flood Control Recreation Navigation and Fishing Others
17.40%
Source: International Commission on Large Dams (ICOL)
Classification of dams:
Dams are classified on several aspects, some of the important aspects are as follow: 1) Based on Hydraulic Design: Over flow dams (e.g. concrete dams) Non over flow dams (e.g. embankment dams) 2) Based on Structural Design: Gravity dams Arch dams Buttress dams 3) Based on Usage of Dam: Storage dams Diversion dams Detention dams
Classification of dams:
4) 5)
Based on Construction Material: Concrete / Masonary dams Earthfill dams Rockfill dams Earthfill rockfill dams Concrete faced rockfill dams (CFRD) Based on Capacity: Small dams Medium dams Large dams
Selection of dam Type:
The choice of dam is decided upon by examining foundation conditions, load strains, temperature and pressure changes, chemical characteristics of ground water and possible seismic activity. Followings are the important factors considered for the selection of type of dams:
1)
2)
3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8)
Topography Geology and nature of foundation Bearing capacity of the underlying soil Foundation settlements Permeability of the foundation soil Availability of construction materials Spillway location Safety considerations Earthquake zones Purpose of dam and economics Aesthetic considerations
Types of Storage Dams
Reservoirs are readily classified in accordance with their primary purpose, e.g. irrigation, water supply, hydroelectric power generation, flood control etc. Dams are of numerous types and type classification is sometimes less clearly defined. An initial broad classification into generic groups can be made in terms of the principal of construction material employed: Embankment Dams: Constructed of earth-fill and/or rock-fill. Upstream and downstream face slopes are similar and of moderate angle, giving a wide selection and high construction volume relative to height. Gravity Dams: Constructed of mass concrete. Face slopes are dissimilar, generally steep downstream and near vertical upstream and dams have relatively slender profiles depending upon type
Note: Embankment dams are numerically dominant for technical and economical reasons, and account for over 85-90% of all dams build
Types of Storage Dams
Embankment Dams Earth-fill Dam
Earth-fill dams, also called earthen, rolled-earth or simply earth dams, are constructed as a simple embankment of well compacted earth.
Concrete Dams
Gravity
Dam
Gravity dams are dams which resist the horizontal thrust of the water entirely by their own weight. These are typically used to block streams through narrow gorges.
Buttress
Dam
Rock-fill
Dam
Rock-fill dams are embankments of compacted free-draining granular earth with an impervious zone. The earth utilized often contains a large percentage of large particles hence the term rockfill is used.
Buttress dams are dams in which the face is held up by a series of supports. It can take many forms - the face may be flat or curved.
Arch Dam Cupola or Double Arch
An arch dam is a curved dam which is dependent upon arch action for its strength. Its ??? are thinner and therefore require less material than any other type of dam.
Types of Storage Dams
Embankment dam
Gravity dam
Buttress dam
Arch dam
Panoramic Views of Dams
Tarbela Dam: Earth and Rockfill Dam
Warsak Dam: Gravity dam
Mangla Dam: Earthfill
Panoramic Views of Dams
Gordon Dam: Arch Dam
Hoover Dam: Arch Dam
Panoramic Views of Dams
Hume Dam: Buttress dam
Coolidge Dam: Buttress dam
Le Prele Dam: Buttress dam
Itaipu Dam: Buttress dam
Spillway Outlets and Ancillary Works
Dams require certain ancillary structures and facilities to enable them to discharge their function safely and effectively. In particular, adequate provision must be made for the safe passage of extreme floods and for controlled drawoff and discharge of water in fulfillment of the purpose of the reservoir.
Spillways, outlets and ancillary facilities are incorporated as necessary for the purpose of the dam and appropriate to its type.
Spillway Outlets and Ancillary Works
Spillways:
The purpose of spillway is to pass flood water safely downstream when the reservoir is full. It has two principle components
Spillway weir Spillway Channel (It purpose is to conduct flood flow safely downstream of dam)
The Spillways can be
Uncontrolled (Normally) Controlled
The Spillway capacity must accommodate the maximum design flood.
Note: Concrete dams normally incorporate an overfall or crest spillway, but embankments generally require a separate sidechannel or shaft spillway structure located adjacent to the dam.
OVER FLOW SPILLWAYS
SIDE CHANNEL SPILLWAYS
CHUTE SPILLWAYS
Auxiliary Spillway of Tarbela Dam
Service Spillway of Tarbela Dam
Forces on Dams
Primary Loads: are identified as those of major importance to all
dams irrespective of type, e.g. water and related seepage loads and self weight load.
Secondary Loads: are universally applicable although of lesser
magnitude or alternatively are of major importance only to certain type of dams (e.g. thermal effects within concrete dams)
Exceptional Load: are so designated on the basis of limited
general applicability or having a low probability of occurrence. (e.g. tectonic effects, or the inertial loads associated with seismic activity)
Forces on Dams
Primary Loads: are identified as those of major importance to all
dams irrespective of type, e.g. water and related seepage loads and self weight load.
(a): Water Load: Hydrostatic distribution of pressure with
horizontal resultant force.
(b): Self Weight load: Determined w.r.t. an appropriate unit
weight for the material. For simple elastic analysis the resultant is considered to operate through the center of the section.
(c): Seepage Loads: Equilibrium seepage pattern will establish
within and under the dam, e.g. in pores and discontinuities, with resultant vertically loads identified as internal and external uplift respectively.
Forces on Dams
Secondary Loads: are universally applicable although of lesser
magnitude or alternatively are of major importance only to certain type of dams (e.g. thermal effects within concrete dams)
(a): Sediment load: Accumulated silt etc. generate a horizontal thrust,
considered as an equivalent additional hydrostatic load with horizontal resultant, P5.
(b): Hydrodynamic wave load: Transient load generated by wave
action against the dam. (not normally significant)
(c): Ice Load: Ice thrust may be significant in more extreme climatic
conditions.
(d): Thermal Load: (concrete dams), Internal, generate by difference
associated with change in ambient temperatures and with cement hydration and cooling.
(e): Interactive effect: Internal, arising from relative stiffness and
differential deformation of dam and foundation.
(f): Abutment hydrostatic load: internal seepage load in abutment
rock mass( This is of particular concern to arch and cupola dams)
Forces on Dams
Exceptional Load: are so designated on the basis of limited
general applicability or having a low probability of occurrence. (e.g. tectonic effects, or the inertial loads associated with seismic activity)
(a): Seismic Load: Horizontal and vertical inertia load are
generated with respect to dam and the retained water by seismic disturbance.
(b): Tectonic Loads: Saturation, or disturbance following deep
excavation in rock, may generate loading as result of slow tectonic movements
Combination of Loads
A dam is designed for the most adverse combinations of loads as have reasonable probability of simultaneous occurrence.
For construction conditions dam is completed, reservoir is empty, no tail water i. With earthquake forces ii. Without earthquake forces For normal operating conditions, reservoir full, normal weather tail water conditions, normal uplifts and silt load i. With earthquake forces ii. Without earthquake forces For flood discharge conditions, reservoir at max flood level, all spillway gates open, tail water at flood levels normal uplifts and silt load
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