WEEK TOPIC

1 Periodic Table
2-3 Periodic Table Continued
4-5 Oxidation and Reduction Reactions
(Redox)
6 Electrolysis
7 Mid – term break
8-9 Electrolysis continued
10-11 Electrochemical cells
12 Revision
13 Examination
Learning outcomes are:
 History of the periodic table
 Periodic law
 Blocks of elements(s,p,d,f)
• Lavoisier was the first to classify elements into metals
and non-metals.
• This was followed by Dobereiner’s triads.
• Newland then proposed the octaves, where elements
were arranged in eights.
• The current periodic table was introduced by
Mendeleev, a Russian Scientist. He arranged elements
according to their relative atomic masses.
• Today, the modern periodic table is based on the
periodic law as re-stated by Moseley in 1914
States that the properties of the elements are a periodic
function of their atomic numbers.
- The periodic table may also be said to classify
elements by electronic configuration.
The Periodic table
 The Groups

 Elements in the same vertical column form a group.

 There are eight main groups.
 Each group forms a family of elements represented by

Roman numerals: I,II III, IV,V,VI,VII,0 or VIII.

 Elements in the same group:
i. - have the same number of valence electrons (same
outermost shell configuration);
ii. - form a family of elements: for example; Group I-
Alkali metals, Group II- Alkaline earth metals, Group
VII- Halogens, Group 0 (VIII)- noble, inert or rare
gases.
 The elements can be divided into 3 categories
 metals
 Non-metals
 Metalloids
Metals Metals
Extra electrons Extra electrons
Conductive Conductive
Malleable Malleable
Non-Metals
missing electrons
Non-Conductive
NOT Malleable
Dull
Metalloids
Partly conductive
There are four blocks of elements in the periodic table
based on the type of orbital housing their valence
electrons.
(i) S-block Elements:
They are those in which the valence electrons are in s-
orbital.
Groups 1 and 2 elements are s-block elements. E.g Na,

K, Ca, Mg
These are elements in which their valence
electrons are in p-orbital.
They have outermost shell structure of ns2np1
to ns2 np5.
Elements in groups 3 to O (VIII), are p-block
elements e.g. B, C,N, O, Cl etc.

s-block and p-block elements are called

representative elements.
These are elements whose valence electrons
are in d-orbital.
They are characterized by outer electronic
structure; ns1or2(n-1)d1to10.
They form the first transition series of
elements.
They are transition metals. Examples are Sc,
Zn, V, Fe etc.
These have their outer shell electrons in f-
orbital.
They are called rare earth elements.
They are actinides and lanthanides.
1. The atomic number of an element X is 14
and its relative atomic mass is 28.
a. How many neutrons does an atom of X
contains ?
b. Write the electronic configuration of atom
X.
c. Which group , period and block in the
periodic table does X belong?
d. state the position of the following element
in the periodic table : (a) C (b) Na (c) Cl (d)
Ca
Write the orbital electron configuration of
I. 20
Ca,
II. 9
F.
a. In which group does each of the elements
belong?
b. How many unpaired electrons are present
in 9F?
c. How many electrons are present in 20Ca2+?
 Element in the same group may be said to belong
to the same family.
 Group I (Alkali Metals).

Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs , Fr.

These elements are:
 Univalent (one electron in their outermost shell).
 Reducing agents

 they form univalent positive ion by loss of their

valence electron.
 Na Na+ + e-
They react vigorously with cold water to form
strong alkali and liberate hydrogen gas.
- their oxides dissolve in water to form strong alkaline
solution.
K O +H O 2 KOH(aq)
2 (s) 2 (l)
 Theirtrioxonitrates(V), decompose slightly to give the
dioxonitrates(III) of the metal and oxygen gas.
 2NaNO 2NaNO2(s) +O2(g)
3(s)
 These elements include: Be, Mg, Ca, St, Ba & Ra.
These elements:
- are divalent (two electrons in valence shell).
- are reducing agents
 React with cold water or steam ( magnesium reacts only with steam),
while calcium reacts slowly with cold water to liberate hydrogen gas.
 Mg(s) + H2O(g) MgO(s) + H2(g)
 Ca(s) +2 H2O(l) Ca(OH)2(aq) + H2(g)
 -oxides are insoluble in water (calcium oxide dissolves slightly in water).

 Trioxonitrates(V) decompose on heating to give the
oxide of metals, nitrogen(IV) oxide and oxygen.
 2Mg(NO ) 2MgO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
3 2(s)
 Trioxocarbonates (IV) are not soluble in water, but
decompose when heated to give the metal oxide and
carbon (IV) oxide.
 CaCO
heat
3(s) CO2(s) + CaO(s)
 B, Al, Ga, In & Ti belong to this group.
 They are trivalent and reducing agents.
 Al reacts with steam to liberate hydrogen
 Aluminium oxide is insoluble in water
 Both the oxides and hydroxides of Al are

amphoteric
 Aluminium trioxonitrate(iv) decomposes on

heating to the oxides, oxygen and

nitrogen(iv)oxide
 4Al(NO ) 2Al2O3(s) +3O2(g) + 12NO2(g)
3 3(s)
 These elements include: C, Si ,Ge , Sn & Pb.
 They are tetravalent and form covalent

compounds
 Exhibit two oxidation states +2 and +4
 Show group trend in changing from non-

metal to metal moving down the group.

 C is a non-metal , Si & Ge are metalloids

while Sn & Pb are metals.

 N, P, As, Sb & Bi belong to this group.
 They are:
 Non-metals and show two valencies of 3 & 5
 Electron acceptors .
 Their oxides are acidic.
 Elements include; O, S , Se , Te & Po
 - are non-metals
 - electron acceptors
 - are oxidising agents.
 These elements include: F, Cl, Br, I and At.
They are the most reactive non-metals. These elements:
 - ionize to form univalent negative ions.
 Cl +2e- 2Cl-
2
 - are strong oxidizing agents with strong electron affinity.
 - form salts with metals (salt formers)
 are highly electronegative

 - have gradation in their physical properties; fluorine and

chlorine are gases, bromine is a liquid and iodine is solid at

room temperature.
 Are coloured ; F is yellow , Cl is greenish yellow, Br is

reddish brown and I is black

 He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe and Rn.
These elements:
 - are relatively not reactive (inert gases);

 - are also called noble gases or rare gases.

 - have complete outermost shell of octet

electrons (except Helium with doublet).

 - are all monoatomic gases.
Are found between group II and III e.g. Sc, Ti,
V, Cu etc
Properties of transition element
1. partial filling of d-atomic orbital;
2. variable oxidation states;
3. ability to form complex ions;
4. colored ion formation;
5. Paramagnetism.
 Lanthanides (or rare – earth elements) are
found in the sixth period,e.g
lanthanium(La), Cerium(Ce), lutetium(Lu).
 Actinides are set of elements in period

seven. Examples are actinium(Ac) and

uranium(U) which is used in nuclear
reactions.
 All inner-transition elements are metals with

typical metallic properties.

1. State the periodic law of elements.
2. The electronic configuration of five elements represented by letters,
A,B,C,D and E respectively are indicated below:
A – 1s22s22p1
B - 1s22s22p4
C - 1s22s22p6
D – 1s22s22p63s2
E - 1s22s22p63s23p5
Without identifying the elements, state which of them:
(a). Belongs to group VI in the periodic table.
(b). is strongly metallic in character.
(c). Readily ionizes by gaining one electron.
(d). Readily loses two electrons during chemical reaction.
(e). Does not participate readily in chemical reactions.
(f). Is an s-block element.
(g) Name the type of chemical bond that can exist between D and E and write the
formula of the compound formed between D and E.
Periodicity is the variation of the
properties
of elements in a regular pattern both down
the groups and across the periods.
The periodic properties of elements include:

a)Melting and boiling points;

b)Ionization energy;

c)Atomic radii

d)Ionic radii;

e)Electronegativity & electropositivity

f)Electron affinity.

g)Diagonal relationships

h) Electrical and thermal conductivities.

 Within a group; the melting and boiling points of
metallic elements decrease down the group while
those of non-metallic elements increase.

 Within a period; the melting and boiling points of

metallic elements increase from left to right, while
melting and boiling points of non-metallic elements
decrease.
 Reasons: Elements in groups 1,2 and 3 have strong
metallic bond which increases from left to right,
elements in group 4, have very strong covalent bond
linking the atoms to form giant molecules e.g.
diamond.

 Elements in groups 5,6,7 and O, have weak covalent

bonds
This is defined as half the inter
nuclear distance between two
identical atoms joined by a covalent
bond.

There are no covalent radii

measurements for the noble gases
so the van der Waal’s radii are used.
Atomic radii increase down a group because as
you go down a group another shell of electrons is
added and therefore the atom gets larger.

Atomic radii decrease across a period because as

you go across a period the effective nuclear
charge gets larger so the outer electrons are
more strongly attracted and so the radii(size)
contracts. for example in period 3, the size of
Na>Mg>Al>Si>P>S>Cl>Ar
 Consider the following ions arranged in
order of decreasing atomic size: Cl- > K+ >
Ca2+


These species are isoelectronic i.e. have

same electron configuration.


For isoelectronic species the greater the

nuclear charge/proton number the smaller
the size.
Ionic radii vary same way as atomic radii.

NOTE:

Cation radii are smaller than corresponding atomic

radii . E.g the size of Na+ < Na
anion radii are larger than corresponding atomic radii.
E.g the size of Cl- > Cl
First Ionisation Energy is the energy needed to
remove 1 mole of electron from the outermost
shell of an element in the gaseous phase. E.g.
A(g)  A+(g) + e-
The lower the I.E , the easier it is for an atom to
lose an electron and the higher the tendency to act
as a reducing agent.
On the hand, the higher the I.E, the more difficult
for the atom to lose an electron and the higher the
tendency to act as an oxidising agent.
 The ionisation energies decrease down a group
because as each shell of electrons is added the outer
electrons are further from the nucleus and the nuclear
attraction is less.

The ionisation energies increase as you go across a

period due to the increasing nuclear charge, which
leads to enhanced attraction of the nucleus for the
valence electron and so difficult to remove. Noble
gases have the maximum ionisation energy
because they have filled electron configuration.
 The first ionisation energy of
nitrogen is higher than that of
oxygen because N has 3 unpaired
electrons which is a more stable
arrangement than one pair and two
unpaired as in oxygen.
      
 nitrogen oxygen

Similarly P and S in period 3.

Factors that determine the ionisation energy
of an atom are:
i. Atomic radius
ii. Nuclear charge
iii. Shielding/screening effect
iv. Penetration effect
v. Electronic configuration.
Electron affinity is the energy
change for the process of adding an
electron to a neutral atom in the
gaseous state to form a negative
ion.
A(g) + e- → A-(g)
The higher the value, the greater
the tendency of the atom to accept
an electron.
 Across the period: E.A increases from left
to right because of increasing nuclear
charge and the decreasing atomic radii.
 Down the group: E.A decreases from top

to bottom due to increasing atomic size and

there is less attraction of the positive
nucleus for the incoming electron.
The electron affinity of nitrogen is
less than that of carbon because
nitrogen has a stable electron
arrangement so is not willing to
accept another electron whilst
carbon can accept another electron.

N: 2px12py12pz1
C: 2px12py1
 Electronegativity is defined as the ability of
an atom in a molecule to attract electrons
to itself.
 Metals lose electron(s) are thus less

electronegative.
 Non-metals which have the tendency to

gain electron(s) are more electronegative.

 The most electronegative element is

fluorine.
 Across the period: Electronegativity increases from
left to right of the table.
 Reason: steady decrease in atomic size (radius) due
to increase in nuclear charge

 Down the group: Electronegativity decreases down

the group.
 Reason: increase in atomic size (radius) due to

increase in number of electronic shells.

 Electropositivity is the measure of the
tendency of atoms of an element to lose
electrons
. Across the period : electropositivity
decreases from left to light.
. Down the group : electropositivity increases from top
to bottom
. The most electropositive metal (most reactive metal) in
the periodic table is Francium
 A diagonal relationship exist between
certain pairs of diagonal adjacent elements
in the second and third periods of the
periodic table.
 These pairs Li & Mg, Be & Al, B & Si have

similar properties.
 For example, boron & silicon are both semi-

conductors, forming halides that are

hydrolysed in water and have acidic
properties.
Li Be B C

Na Mg Al Si

.
Electrical and thermal conductivities:
These properties of elements increase down the group
and decrease across the period. Hence, metals are good
electrical and thermal conductors and non – metals are
poor electrical and thermal conductors
[Link] the Periodic law of elements.
2. Consider the electronic configuration of the following elements:
Q – 1s2 2s2 2p1
R – 1s22s22p63s2
S – 1s22s22p63s2 3p1
T - 1s2 2s2 2p6
U - 1s22s22p63s2 3p5
Which element(s)
a. Belong(s) to the same group?

b. Belong (s) to the period?

c. Ionize(s) by readily :

i. Losing electrons

ii. Gaining electrons

d. is/are noble gas(es)?

e. Would react to form electrovalent compound?
1 (a) List three properties of an element which increases
across the period in the periodic table.
(b) Consider the following list of elements : Nitrogen , Fluorine
, Aluminium , and Potassium which of the elements:
(i) Forms a diatomic molecule with a triple bond.

(ii) Is the most reactive electropositive element?

(iii)Forms amphoteric oxide?

(iv)Is the most reactive non – metal .

(c) Arrange the elements in order of decreasing

electronegativity 16S, 13Al, 11Na, 15P

2. (a) define oxidation and reduction in terms of electron

transfer
(b) Determine the oxidation number of Cl in NaCIO 3.
1(a) List three properties of an element which decreases
across the period in the periodic table.
(b) Consider the following list of elements : Nitrogen ,
Fluorine , Aluminium , and Potassium which of the
elements:
(i) Forms a diatomic molecule with a triple bond.

(ii) Is the most reactive electropositive element?

(iii)Forms amphoteric oxide?

(iv)Is the most reactive non – metal .

2. Consider the redox reaction equation:

Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) MgCl2(aq) +H2(g)
a. State the change in oxidation number of
I. Magnesium

II. Hydrogen

b. Identify the oxidizing agent

1. Addition of Oxygen
Oxidation is a process which involves the addition of OXYGEN while
Reduction is a process which involves the removal of OXYGEN
CuO(S) + H2(g) Cu(S) + H2O(l)
O.A R.A
The Oxidizing agent is the oxygen donor while the reducing agent is
the oxygen acceptor. CuO is reduced and H2 is oxidized
NB: Oxidizing agent is reduced while reducing agent is Oxidized
2. Removal of Hydrogen
Oxidation is a process which involves the removal of Hydrogen
while Reduction is the addition of hydrogen
H2S(g) + Cl2 2HCl(g) + S(S)
R.A O.A
Reducing agent is hydrogen donor and Oxidizing agent is hydrogen
acceptor
3. Addition of electronegative element
Oxidation is the addition of electronegative element and removal of
electropositive element while REDUCTION is the removal of electronegative
elements and addition of electropositive element
Ca(s) + Cl2 CaCl2(S)
R.A O.A
Ca is oxidized and Cl2 is reduced.
In reactions where two electronegative elements are present, the more
electronegative element is regarded as the oxidizing agent.
4. REMOVAL OF ELECTRONS
Oxidation is the process involving loss of electron while Reduction is the
process involving gain of electron
Mg(s) Mg2+ + 2e- {oxidation}
Cl2 + 2e- 2Cl- {reduction}
5. Increase in oxidation number:
Oxidation is an increase in oxidation number of a substance .
Reduction is a decrease in oxidation number of a substance.
2FeCl2 + Cl2 2FeCl3
R.A O.A
In the reaction, the oxidation number of Fe changes from +2
to +3 while that of Cl changes from 0 to -1
REDUCING AGENT AND OXIDIZING AGENT
A reducing agent(reductant) is defined as:

[Link] electron donor.

[Link] substance (specie) which is oxidized.
[Link] substance in which the oxidation number increases.
An oxidizing agent(oxidant) is defined as:

a)An electron acceptor.

b)The substance which is reduced.
c)The substance in which the number decreases .
 Redox : a redox reaction is one that involves both
oxidation and reduction of species, one being oxidized
by losing electron(s) and the other reduced by gaining
the electron(s).
 Examples of redox reactions in nature are:

I. Respiration
II. Photosynthesis
[Link](corrosion)
[Link] etc.
Oxidation number of an element is the electrical charge it appears to have both
in free and combined states, as determined by a set of rules
Rules for determining oxidation number
[Link] elements in the uncombined state have an oxidation number of zero e.g.
Cl2, Na, P4 all have oxidation number of zero.
[Link] oxidation number of a simple ion has the same size and sign as the
charge of the ion e.g. Zn2+ = +2, Ag+ = +1
[Link] an ion consists of more than one element, its oxidation number is the
sum of the oxidation states of all the elements in the ion e.g. NH 4+ i.e.
oxidation no. of N + 4[oxidation no of H] = +1
(-3) + 4(+1) = +1
4. The sum of oxidation numbers of the elements in a compound is zero e.g.
NaCl = 0 [Na =+1: Cl = -1] therefore NaCl= Na+Cl = 0
5. The oxidation number of H is +1 except in hydrides where it is -1 and
that of oxygen is -2 except in peroxides where it is -1
 What is the change in oxidation number (O.N) of (i) lead (ii)
hydrogen in the equation :
PbO(s) + H2(g) Pb(s) + H2O(l)
Solution
(i) PbO Pb
Pb + (-2) = 0 0 ; Pb – 2 = 0 0;
Pb = 2 0.
(ii) H2 H2O
0 2H + (-2)=0 ; 0 2H -2 =0 ; 0 2H =
2;0 H = 1,
Therefore, (i) the change in O.N of lead is from +2 to 0. PbO is
reduced and is the oxidizing agent.
(ii) The change in the O.N of hydrogen is from 0 to +1. H2 is
oxidized and is the reducing agent.
 H+ Hydrogen ion  PO43− tetraoxophosphate (V)
 Na+ Sodium ion  S2− sulphide
 Mg+2 Magnesium ion
 P3− phosphide
 Ca+2
Calcium ion
 NH4+ ammonium

 Ag+ Silver ion  H3 O+ hydroxonium

 Cu+ Copper (I) ion  OH- hydroxide
 Al+3 Aluminium ion  O2- oxide
 Zn+2 Zinc ion  SO42− tetraoxosulphate (VI)
 Cu+2 Copper (II) ion
 ClO− oxochlorate (1)
 NO3− trioxonitrate (V)
 Fe+2 Iron (II) ion
 Fe+3 Iron (III) ion  ClO3− trioxochlorate (V)
 Cr2O72− heptaoxodichromate(Vi)
What is oxidized and reduced?
What are the oxidizing and reducing agents?

Mg + CuSO4 MgSO4 + Cu

2K + Br2 2KBr

Cu + 2AgNO3 Cu(NO3)2 + 2Ag

Consider the redox reaction equation:
Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) MgCl2(aq) +H2(g)
a. State the change in oxidation number of
I. Magnesium
II. Hydrogen
b. Which of the species is being (i) oxidized
(ii) reduced ?
c. Identify the oxidizing agent.
Consider the redox reaction equation:
Ca(s) + 2HCl(aq) CaCl2(aq) +H2(g)
a. State the change in oxidation number of
I. Calcium
II. Hydrogen
b. Which of the species is being (i) oxidized
(ii) reduced ?
c. Identify the oxidizing agent.
0 +2 +2 0
Mg + CuSO4 MgSO4 + Cu
Mg oxidized (reducing agent)
Cu+2 reduced (oxidizing agent)

0 0 +1 -1
2K + Br2 2KBr
K oxidized (reducing agent)
Br2 reduced (oxidizing agent)

0 +1 +2 0
Cu + 2AgNO3 Cu(NO3)2 + 2Ag
Cu oxidized (reducing agent)
Ag+1 reduced (oxidizing agent)
Redox Reactions: must have atoms changing in
charge. That is calculate the oxidation number of
each atom.

Not all reactions are redox.

Look for Changes in Charge!

Synthesis:

Ex: 2H2 + O2 2H2O

Decomposition:

Ex: 2KClO3 2KCl + 3O2

Synthesis: YES
0 0 +1 -2
Ex: 2H2 + O2 2H2O

Decomposition: YES
+1 +5 -2 +1 -1 0
Ex: 2KClO3 2KCl + 3O2
This is a disproportionation reaction, one in
which a compound acts both as the reducing
agent as the same time as an oxidizing
agent.
Combustion:

CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H20

Single Replacement:

Zn + CuCl2 ZnCl2 + Cu
Combustion: YES
-4 +1 0 +4 -2 +1 -2

CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H20

Single Replacement: YES

0 +2 -1 +2 -1 0

Zn + CuCl2 ZnCl2 + Cu
Double Replacement:

AgNO3 + LiCl AgCl + LiNO3

Double Replacement: NO!!!!

Ions switch partners, but don’t change in charge

+1 +5 -2 +1 -1 +1 -1 +1 +5 -2

AgNO3 + LiCl AgCl + LiNO3

 1. Action on potassium iodide: most Oxidizing agents liberate
Iodine when warmed with a solution of KI . This results to
formation of a brown solution which turns blue-black on
addition of starch.
2I- I2 + 2e-
2. Action on H2S: A yellow deposit of Sulphur is formed when
oxidizing agents are bubbled through a solution of H2S
S-2 S + 2e-
3. Action on FeCl2: oxidizing agents turns the green colour of
Fe2+ salts(e.g FeCl2)to brown (formation of Fe3+ salts)
Fe2+ Fe3+ + e-
1. Action on Iron (III) salts. Reducing agents turn brown Iron
(III) salts to green Iron (II)
Fe3+ + e- Fe2+
2. Action on acidified potassium tetraoxomanganate (VII)
[KMnO4]
Reducing agents turn the purple colour of acidified KMNO4 to
colourless
MnO4-(aq) + 8H+(aq) +5e- Mn2+(aq) + 4H2O(l)
3. Action on acidified potassium heptaoxodichromate (VI)
K2Cr2O7: reducing agents change the orange colour of
K2Cr2O7 to green
+6e-
Cr2O72-(aq) + 14H+(aq) 2Cr3+ + 7H2O(l)
Redox Reactions are composed of two parts
or half reactions.

Half Reactions Show:

i) Element being oxidized or reduced.
ii) Change in charge
iii) of electrons being lost or gained
 steps involved in balancing redox equation are
[Link] the oxidizing and reducing agent and deduce what the product
should be
[Link] the half equation for each of oxidation and reduction. Then balance the
atoms and charges by
(a)Adding the correct number of H2O, H+ or OH- to the appropriate side of the

equation if necessary
(b)Adding the correct number of electrons on the right-hand for oxidation half
equation and on the left hand for reduction half equation
(c)Adding appropriate numerical coefficients

(iii) Ensure that the electron loss in the oxidation half equation is balanced
with electron gain in the reduction half equation
(iv) Add the two half equations to eliminate the electrons and get the overall
REDOX equation
 0 0 +1 -1

2Na + F2 2NaF

Oxidation: Na Na+ + e-
or 2Na 2Na+ + 2e-
Note: e- are “lost” (on the right of arrow)

Reduction: F + e- F-
or F2 + 2e- 2F-
Note: e- are “gained” (on the left of arrow)
0 +2 -1 +2 -1 0

Zn + CuCl2 ZnCl2 + Cu

Ox: Zn Zn2+ + 2e-

Red: Cu2+ + 2e- Cu

 Fe2 (SO4) 3(aq) + 2KI(aq) 2FeSO4 (aq) +
K2SO4(aq) + I2(g)
Ionically,
 2Fe3+ + 2I 2Fe (aq) + I2(g)
- 2+
(aq) (aq)
REDOX EQUATION
 2Fe3+ + 2e 2Fe (aq) Reduction
- 2+
(aq)
half equation
 2I- I + 2e-
Oxidation half
(aq) 2 (g)
equation
 Split the redox equation into half
equations
(I)S2- (g) + Cl2 S (g) + 2Cl-
(II)Cu(s) + 2Ag+ (aq) Cu 2+ (aq) + 2Ag (s)
Must be:

Balanced for Mass

ATOMS balance

Balanced for Charge

Total e- Lost = Total e- Gained
1. balance the following reaction :

Cu+ (aq) + Fe(s) Fe 3+ + Cu(s)

Step 1: separate into half reactions

Fe(s) Fe 3+ (oxidation)

Cu+(aq) Cu(s) (reduction)

Step 2: balance atoms and charges

Fe(s) Fe 3+ + 3e- …… (i)

Cu+ + e- Cu(s) ……. (ii)

Step 3: balance the electrons in the two half equations ie multiply eqn (ii) by 3;
Fe Fe3+ + 3e-
3Cu+ + 3e 3Cu
Step 4: add the half equations and cancel the electrons;

3Cu+ + Fe 3Cu + Fe 3+
2. Balance the following redox reaction :
MnO4- + Fe2+ Mn2+ + Fe3+ (in acidic medium)
OR Written as :
MnO4- + Fe2+ +H+ Mn2+ + Fe3+ + H2O
Solution
Step 1 : separate into two half equations;
Fe2+ Fe3+ (oxidation)
MnO4- Mn2+ ( reduction)
Step 2: balance atoms and charges;
Fe2+ Fe3+ + e- (oxidation)
MnO4- + 8H + + 5e- Mn2+ + 4H2O
Step 3 : balance the electrons in the half equations ie
multiply the oxidation half reaction by 5
 Fe2+ Fe3+ + e- x5
5 Fe2+ 5Fe3+ + 5e- (oxidation)
MnO4- + 8H + + 5e- Mn2+ + 4H2O (reduction)
Step 4 : add the two half equations and cancel the
electrons;
5 Fe2+ 5Fe3+ + 5e- (oxidation)
MnO4- + 8H + + 5e- Mn2+ + 4H2O

5 Fe2+ + MnO4- + 8H + + 5Fe3+ + Mn2+ + 4H2O

Consider the reactions below
1. MnO4- + I- + H+ Mn2+ + I2 + H2O
Write a balanced half equation for the
(A)Oxidation reaction
(B) reduction reaction
(C)Write the overall redox equation
2. Balance the following redox reaction :
Al(s) + Pb2+(aq) Al3+(aq) + Pb(s)
1. Define the following in terms of electron transfer (i)
oxidizing agent (ii) reducing agent
2. Determine the oxidation number of
(i) Al in [Al(H2O)6]3+: (ii) H in NaH
3. Give the IUPAC name of the following substances
(I) CuSO4.5H2O; (II) CaCO3: (III) NaClO3
4. What is meant by periodic property of elements
5. Write the chemical equation for the thermal
decomposition of (i) Cu(NO3)2 (ii) NH4NO3
 Exercise
1. (a) identify which of the following reactions
are redox:
I. 2K + Cl2 2KCl
II. HCl + NaOH NaCl + H2O
[Link] + CuSO4 MgCuSO4 + Cu
IV.2FeCl3 + 2Kl 2FeCl2 + 2KCl + I2
(b) Give a reason for each of the answer in (a)
(c) Write a balanced equations for the half
reactions for the redox reactions in (a).
2. Balance this reaction in acidic medium:
Cr2O72- + I- Cr3+ + I2
 Electrolysis is the chemical decomposition
of a compound brought about by direct
current passing either through a solution of
the compound or the molten compound.

 Electrolysis converts electrical energy into

chemical energy.
1. Electrolytes : An electrolyte is a compound in molten or aqueous
form which conducts electricity and is decomposed in the process.
Electrolytes must be in liquid form, molten or in aqueous solution of the
compound.
Types of electrolytes
(i)Strong electrolytes;these ionize completely in solutions and conduct large
currents of electricity, since they are composed of free moving ions e.g
NaCl(aq),soluble salts, mineral acids and strong alkalis
(ii)Weak electrolytes: These ionize slightly and do not readily conduct
electricity e.g NH4OH (aq), ethanoic acid, water
(iii)Non-electrolytes: These do not conduct electricity since they do not ionize.
They are mainly covalent and organic compounds e.g. sugar, ethanol,
benzene, etc.
NB: Electrolytes will not conduct electricity in the solid state because the ions
are in a fixed position, it must be melted or dissolved for it to conduct.
2. Electrodes: these are wires, rods or plates through which an
electric current enters or leaves the electrolyte. They can be
active or passive (inert)
Examples of inert electrodes are platinum (Pt), Carbon (in form
of graphite).
Examples of active electrodes are Copper and Mercury
electrodes.

Anode: this is the positive electrode through which current enters

into an electrolyte or by which electrons leave the electrolyte and
where oxidation occurs.

Cathode: this is the negative electrode through which current

leaves an electrolyte or by which electrons enters the electrolyte
and where reduction occurs.
3. Electrolytic cell: also known as a voltameter.
This consists of a container of electrolyte with
two electrodes connected to a battery or a
suitable direct current.
v
The ionic theory as postulated by Arrhenius, states
that:
An electrolyte exists in the form of ions, in molten

state, and as hydrated ions, when dissolved in water.

The process of dissociation into ions is known as

IONIZATION.
An ion is an atom or group of atoms, which carries

either a positive or a negative charge.

 Comparing the electrical conductivity of 1.0 moldm-3
solutions of the following electrolytes:
 H SO , HNO and CH COOH
2 4 3 3
 The result shows that the increasing order of
conductivity is:
 CH COOH< HNO < H SO
3 3 2 4
Explanation:
The ionization processes of the acids can be
represented by the following equations:
H SO 2H +
+ SO 2-
2 4(aq) (aq) 4 (aq)
HNO H+
+ NO -
3 (aq) 3
CH COOH H +
+ CH COO -
3 (aq) (aq) 3 (aq)
CH COOH is a weak electrolyte, it is not
3
completely ionized in water, so, its
conductivity is the least.
 Both HNO3 and H2SO4 are strong electrolytes, hence,
they are completely ionized in water. However,
H2SO4 conducts higher because , one mole of it
produces three moles of ions instead of two produced
by one mole of HNO3

 NB; Ionic substances conduct electricity only when

they are in aqueous or molten state because of the
presence of mobile ions .
 Metallic conductors ,like metal wires, conducts

electricity by movement of electrons.

In the above electrolytic cell, Label each part

A ………………………………..

B ………………………………………..

C ………………………………………

D ………………………………………………
Glucose, Dilute H2SO4, Ethanoic acid, Sodium
Hydroxide, ammonia solution and benzene
Using the above list

(a)Identify weak, strong and non-electrolytes

(b)State
the difference between conductors
and electrolytes
 The electrolyte contains positive and negative ions.
 What happens to these ions during electrolysis

Negative ions move Positive ions move

to the positive to the negative electrode
electrode and lose and gain electrons.
electrons. heat
This is reduction.
This is oxidation.
 Metals or hydrogen gas is discharged at the cathode
while ,
 Non – metals (except hydrogen) are discharged at the

anode.
 During electrolysis of an aqueous solution,
two or more ions of similar charge maybe
present in the solution;
e.g. H + and Na+ or OH- and SO42-.

 Three factors that determine the type of ion

to be discharged, preferentially, when
similar ions (ions of same charge) migrate
to the same electrode are:
1. Position of ion in the electrochemical series (e.c.s).
Cations to the cathode Anions to the anode
K+ ( most stable, hardest to discharge) F - ( most stable, hardest
Na+ to discharge)
Ca2+ SO42-
Mg2+ NO3 -
Al3+ Cl-
Zn2+ Br-
Fe2+ I-
Sn2+ OH- (least stable, most ea
Pb2+ -sily discharged)
H+
Cu2+
Hg2+
Ag+
Au+
 An ion lower in the activity series is selected for
preferential discharge over the one above it .

2. Concentration of ions in the electrolyte: this is effective

only when the two competing ions are closely positioned in
the e.c.s while it is minimal if the ions are widely separated in
their positions
3. Nature of electrodes:
 Active electrodes affect the product discharge at an electrode. e.g. In the
electrolysis of NaCl using Mercury cathode, Sodium is discharge instead
of Hydrogen due to the affinity of mercury to sodium.

 Similarly, In the electrolysis of CuSO4 using copper electrodes (copper

anode). Copper anode dissolves which occurs at a lower energy than the
discharge of expected anions.
1. Electrolysis of acidified water (dilute tetraoxosulphate (VI) acid) using
platinum electrode:
The ions present are : 2H+ & SO42- from H2SO4 ; H+ & OH- from H2O.
o At the cathode: hydrogen ion, H + is discharged hence hydrogen gas is
liberated. That is, H+ + e- H :H+H H2 OR
2H+ + 2e-  H2 (reduction)
o At the anode : both SO42- & OH- migrate to the anode, where OH - is
preferentially discharged because it is lower than SO 42- in the e.c.s .
Oxygen gas is produced. That is,
4OH-  2H2O + O2 + 4e- (oxidation)
o Changes in the electrolytes : the acid in the solution becomes more
concentrated due to the removal of water molecules.
o Overall reaction : 2H2O (l)  2H2 (g) + O2 (g)
o Twice as much hydrogen forms as oxygen
[Link] of Aqueous CuSO4 using copper electrodes:

 Ions present : Cu2+ , H+ , SO42- & OH-

At the cathode : copper is deposited that is,

Cu2+ + 2e- Cu(s) ( reduction)

 At the anode : the copper anode itself dissolves and gives it own
ions (Cu2+) in solution . This is due to the fact that less energy is
required to do this than to discharge any of the SO42- or OH- .
Cu(s) Cu2+ + 2e- (oxidation)
 Overall net result :

the net result is that copper is transferred from the

anode to the cathode. The copper cathode increases in
size while the anode decreases in size. The colour and
concentration of the electrolyte (CuSO4(aq)) remain
unchanged since copper is merely transferred from
the anode to the cathode. This process is applied in
the purification of impure copper and in
electroplating
Electroplating is coating (a metal object) by
electrolytic deposition with chromium, silver, or
another metal.
The set up in silver plating a spoon is show below:
 Copper – plating a spoon:
What redox processes occur at the electrodes during the
electrolysis of molten lead (II) bromide (PbBr2)?
 At the negative electrode, Cathode: Pb2+ is discharged
hence lead is deposited.
 Pb2+ + 2e-  Pb (reduction)
 At the positive electrode, anode: bromide ion,
Br- is discharged and bromine is produced
 2Br-  Br2 + 2e- (oxidation)
 The overall equation for the electrolysis of molten lead bromide is
lead bromide  lead + bromine
PbBr2 (l)  Pb (l) + Br2 (g)
 Write the (i) anodic reaction (ii) cathodic reaction and
(iii) changes in the electrolyte of the electrolysis of
Brine [concentrated NaCl ].
 Write the anodic , cathodic reactions and
the changes in the electrolyte of the
electrolysis of copper (II) tetraoxosulphate
(VI) using inert electrodes
 Extraction of metals e.g. Na, Mg, Ca, Al, Zn
and non-metals e.g. Cl2, F2, O2 either by the
electrolysis of their ores, fused or aqueous
solutions
 Purification of metals e.g. Cu, Hg, Ag and Au
 Electroplating of one metal by another
 Industrial preparation of certain chemicals

e.g. NaOH, Cl2 etc.

 The quantity of the products formed at the electrodes during
electrolysis according to Michael Faraday is dependent on:

1. the magnitude of the steady current

2. the time of flow of the steady current

3. the charge on the ion of the element liberated

The law states that the mass (m) of a substance liberated at an
electrode during electrolysis is directly proportional to the
quantity of electricity (Q) passing through the electrolyte.
Mathematically,
M∞Q
Quantity of electricity = current (I) X time (s)
Q = It
M ∞ It
M = Eit
Mass in grams, current in amperes, time in seconds and Q in
coulombs.
[E = electrochemical equivalent of a substance.]
NOTE; [ I Faraday = 96,500 Coulombs ]
The law states that when the same quantity of electricity is passed
through different electrolytes, the relative number of moles,n, of the
elements deposited are inversely proportional to the charges,e, on
the ions of the elements. That is, n α 1/e (Q is constant)

NB: The minimum quantity of electricity required to liberate one

mole of singly-charged ions {H+, Cl- , Ag+} is 96,500 C

I F = one mole of electron

I mole of a electron contains 6.02x1023 ions
I mole of atom = R.A.M of an element
Molar volume of a gas = 22.4 dm3
1. Calculate the mass of copper deposited at the cathode when a
current of 0.2 A is passed through a solution of
copper(II)tetraoxosulphate (VI) for 35 minutes using copper
electrodes. [ Cu = 64; H=1, O=16; S=32; IF= 96500 C]
Cu2+ +2e- Cu
I= 0.2A, t= 35 minutes =35x60= 2100seconds
Q= It: Q= 0.2x2100 = 420 C

2moles of electron is required to deposit 1 mole of Cu

2 moles of electron = 2F= 2x96500 C
2x96500 C is required to produce 64 g of Cu
420 C will produce x g of Cu.
X = (64x 420)/ 2x96500 = 0.139g OR using
mass of substance(g) = quantity of
electricity(It )
Molar mass(g/mol) charge x Faraday

m = 420
64 2x96500
m = 64 x420
2 x 96500
= 26880
193000
=0.139g
 What mass of sodium metal would be
formed when a current of 2.25A is passed
through molten sodium chloride for
64mins & 20secs? [ Na = 23; I F = 96500
C]
 How many Aluminium ions will be

discharged by 0.33F? [ Avogadro’s

constant = 6.023x1023 mol-1 ].
A current of 0.75 amperes was passed through an electrolysis
containing chromium ions for one hour and four minutes. If the
mass of chromium deposited was 0.52 g, calculate the:
(i) quantity of electricity passed;
(ii) moles of chromium deposited;
(iii) quantity of electricity required to deposit one mole of
chromium;
(iv) charge on the chromium ion.
[Cr = 52.0, 1 F = 96500 C] [8 marks]
A given electricity was passed through three electrolytic cells
connected in series containing solutions of AgNO3, CuSO4 and
NaCl. If 10.5 g of copper are deposited in the second electrolytic
cell, calculate
(a)The mass of silver deposited in the first cell

(b)The volume of chlorine liberated in the third cell at 18 0C and

740 mmHg pressure
[ Ag= 108, Cu = 63.5; IF=96500, molar volume of gas at s.t.p=
22.4 dm3

Cu2+ + 2e- Cu
Ag+ + e- Ag
2Cl- Cl2 +2e-
A solution of CuSO4 was electrolyzed between pure copper electrodes and the
following results were obtained;
Mass of copper anode before experiment = 7.20 g
Mass of copper anode after experiment = 4.00 g
Mass of copper cathode before experiment = 5.75 g

From the information provided,

(i)calculate the mass of the cathode, after the experiment.

(ii)write an equation for the reaction at the (a) anode (b) cathode

(iii)state whether the colour of the solution would change during the
electrolysis. Give reason for your answer
(iv)if the electrolysis was carried out for 1 hour 20 minutes with a current of 2.0
amperes, determine the value of the Faraday
A solution of CuSO4 was electrolyzed between pure copper
electrodes and the following results were obtained;
Mass of copper anode before experiment = 7.20 g
Mass of copper anode after experiment = 4.00 g
Mass of copper cathode before experiment = 5.75 g

From the information provided,

(i)calculate the mass of the cathode, after the experiment.

Mass of cathode after experiment= mass before + difference in

mass of anode( 7.2-4.0)
Mass of cathode after experiment = 5.75 + 3.20 = 8.95g
ii. write an equation for the reaction at the (a) anode (b) cathode
 Anode: Cu Cu2+ +2e-
 Cathode Cu2+ +2e- Cu

iii. state whether the colour of the solution would change during
the electrolysis. Give reason for your answer
A: The colour does not change because copper ions discharged
at the cathode are replaced by copper ions produced at the
anode .
iv. if the electrolysis was carried out for 1 hour 20 minutes with a
current of 2.0 amperes, determine the value of the Faraday.
Cu2+ +2e- Cu
Amount of Copper deposited = 3.20g = 3.2/64 = 0.05mole
2F of electricity will deposit 1 mole of Cu
Number of faraday used =0.05x2 = 0.1 F
Quantity of electricity used = (80x60 x2) = 9600C
:. 0.1 F was used when 9600C of electricity was passed
F= 9600/0.1 = 96000C
1. How many Aluminium ions will be discharged by 0.33F?
[ Avogadro’s constant = 6.023x1023 mol-1 ].
2. In the electrolysis of aqueous copper (II) tetraoxosulphate (VI)
using copper electrodes, calculate the electrochemical equivalent
of copper if the cathode gained mass of 3.2 g when 50 amperes
of current was passed for 3 mins 13seconds.
3. When Titanium chloride was electrolyzed by passing 0.12A
current through the solution for 500 seconds , 0.015g of titanium
was deposited. What is the charge on the titanium ion? [ 1F =
96500C , Ti = 48.0].
4. What current in amperes will deposit 5.4g of aluminium in 2
hours? [ Al = 27, 1F = 96500C]
 An electrochemical cell is a device which converts
chemical energy to electrical energy. It is also called
voltaic cell or galvanic cell.
 It consists of two half cells – an oxidation half cell

reaction and a reduction half cell reaction.

 The overall redox reaction results in a flow of electrons

i.e an electric current.

 In both electrochemical cell and electrolytic cell,
oxidation occurs at the anode while reduction occurs at
the cathode. The electrons always flow from the anode
to the cathode.
 Is the potential difference between an
element and a solution of its ions. It is the
tendency of an element to form ions.
When a strip of metal such as zinc or copper is dipped into a
solution of its salt, an electrical potential difference is set up
between the metal M(s) and its ions Mn+(aq) at equilibrium.

This is represented as M(s)/ Mn+(aq), the slanting line represents

a boundary between the solid and the liquid.

Half cell reaction of zinc

Zn (s) Zn2+(aq) + 2e-
Electrode potentials vary from one metal ion/metal system to
another and the value depends on;
(i)Concentration of ions in the solution

(ii)The temperature at which the measurement is made

(iii)The overall energy change

 Standard electrode potential is a measure of the
tendency of an element to form ions in solution relative
to the tendency of hydrogen atoms to form ions in
solution at standard conditions ( at 298K and 1 atm,
pressure and 1 molar concentration).
 uses
 To predict the direction or feasibility of a chemical
reaction.
 To calculate the e. m. f. of a cell.

 To predict the standard potential of unknown elements

 The electrode potential of
hydrogen is taken as zero(0)
volt.
 The electrode potential

value is ;
i. Positive, if electrons flows
from the hydrogen electrode
to the metal electrode . This
means it does not form ions
easily. -It gains electrons
and is easily reduced and
hence is a good oxidizing
agent.
ii. negative, if electrons flow
from the metal electrode to
the hydrogen electrode. This
means it forms ions easily.
 The more negative the

value, the easier it is for the

element to form ions, be
oxidized and be a reducing
agent.
The e.m.f (electromotive force) is the potential
difference between two electrodes in an
electrochemical cell. This is calculated thus:
E.m.f = Eϴ (R.H.E) - Eϴ (L.H.E)
E.m.f = Eϴ (cathode) - Eϴ (anode)

Note :
The half cell with higher negative
electrode potential (more reactive metal)
acts as the anode while the other half cell
with lower negative electrode
(less reactive metal) potential acts as the cathode.
The e.m.f. of the cell (Eϴ total)
formed by the system
[Zn(S)/Zn2+(aq)//Cu2+/Cu(s)]
is defined as the standard
electrode potential of right-
hand electrode [i.e. Cu2+/Cu(s)]
minus the standard electrode
potential of the left-hand
electrode [i.e. Zn(S)/Zn2+(aq)]
The double line indicates the
salt bridge or porous partition
separating the two half cells.
The functions of the salt bridge is to :
I. complete the electric circuit
II. enable the movement of ions from one half cell to the
other,
III. maintain electrical neutrality in the solutions when current
flows in the set-up.
Worked example:
Consider the following cell reaction :
Mg(s)+ Pb2+(aq) Mg2+ (aq) + Pb(s)
i. Write its schematic representation in an electrochemical cell
and ii. calculate the e.m.f of the cell
Pb2+(aq) + 2e Pb(s) Eϴ = -0.13V
Mg2+ (aq) + 2e Mg(s) Eϴ = -2.37V
 Solution
(i.) anodic reaction // cathodic reaction
 Mg /Mg2+ // Pb (aq)/Pb(s)
2+
(s) (aq)

(ii) e.m.f of the cell, Eϴ cell = Eϴ (cathode) - Eϴ (anode)

-0.13V – (-2.37V) = -0.13 + 2.37 = + 2.24V
* A positive e.m.f value means that the system is spontaneous,
the left hand electrode (anode) is capable of reducing the right
hand electrode(cathode).
Use the half cell reactions below to answer the following
questions
2[Al Al3+ + 3e-] Eϴ = -1.66V
3[Cu2+ + 2e- Cu ] Eϴ = +0.34V
[Link] is the voltage of the cell?

[Link] the overall equation for the reaction

1. Primary cell (2) secondary cell

Primary cells: These cannot be

recharged as they produce
currents by using up the chemical
of which they are composed.
Electrochemical reactions in the
cell are not reversible.

These include; Daniel cell and

Leclanche cells.
Daniel cell is made up of copper vessel filled with CuSO4
and a porous pot filled with ZnSO4 immersed with a zinc
rod.
At the anode:
Zn(s) Zn2+(aq) + 2e- (oxidation)
At the cathode:
Cu2+ + 2e- Cu(s) (reduction)

Leclanche cell consist of Zn metal anode and graphite rod

as cathode surrounded by MnO2. The electrolyte is NH4Cl
solution (in the wet cell) or paste (in the dry cell).
At the anode: zinc is oxidized, releasing electrons.
Zn(s) Zn2+(aq) + 2e- (oxidation)
At the cathode : the ammonium ions accept the electrons to
become reduced to ammonia and hydrogen gas.
The hydrogen gas is removed by the MnO4 to prevent it from
adhering to the cathode.
2NH4+ + 2e- 2NH3(g) + H2(g) (reduction)
 Leclanche cell are found in torches, radios,
bicycle lamps, toys etc.
 Secondary cells (also known as rechargeable
batteries) are electrochemical cells in which the
cell has a reversible reaction.

 These cells can be recharged by passing

direct current through them.
 Another common example of secondary cell is
the lead acid accummulator used in motor
cars. It produces electricity by discharging.

Lead acid accumulator.

The anode is metallic lead
while the cathode is lead (IV)
oxide. Its electrolyte is
dilute H2SO4
 At the anode : Pb(s) Pb2+ + 2e-
The Pb2+ ions the combine with the SO42- in the electrolyte to
become deposited on the anode as PbSO4.
 at the cathode : PbO2 and H+ from the electrolyte undergo
reduction to produce Pb2+ and water.
PbO2(s) + 4H+ + 2e- Pb2+ + 2H2O
The Pb2+ ions the combine with the SO42- in the electrolyte to
become deposited on the cathode as PbSO4.
 the overall reaction is :
Pb(s) + PbO2(s) + 2 H2SO4 PbSO4(s) + 2H2O
 FUEL CELLS : a fuel cell is a primary cell where electrical
energy can be provided continously by constantly supplying
the reactants. An example is the hydrogen – oxygen fuel. Fuel
cells are used in spacecraft.
 Differences between primary and secondary
cells

Primary cell Secondary cell

Not rechargeable and Can be Recharged and
cannot be re-used again re-used again
Chemical reactions are Chemical reactions are
not reversible reversible
Have high internal Have low internal
resistance reistance
Supply current for a Can provide current for
short period of time a long time.