Hydraulic Structures (WRE-4101)

CHAPTER-1

Fundamental Theories of Hydraulic structures

• Introduction
• Classification of Hydraulic Structures
• Dams
• Storage Components
 Classification of Dams
 Types of Dams
 General Characteristics of Dams
 Site Investigation and Selection of appropriate type
of Dam
ASTU Water Resources Engineering
Introduction
 The main aim of all water resource development is to improve
the economic and environmental conditions for human living.
 A water resource project may serve one or more of the
following purposes: Irrigation, Power development, Flood
control, Industrial water supply, Domestic and municipal water
supply, Recreation, Fish and wild life preservation and
promotion, and Navigation.
 A hydraulic structure is a structure submerged or partially
submerged in any body of water, which disrupts the natural
flow of water.
 They can be used to divert, disrupt or completely stop the flow.
Example: Dam, Spillway, Diversion structure (Weir or
Barrage), Bridges and culverts (crossing of water courses and
roads)
 A hydraulic structure can be built in rivers, a sea, or any body
of water where there is a need for a change in the natural flow
of water.
Classification of Hydraulic Structures
1) Classification of hydraulic structures on the basis of
material
 Earth fill
 Rock fill
 Concrete
 Stone masonry
 Timber
 Steel coffer
2) Classification of hydraulic structures on the basis of
function
a) Flow control structures: they are used to regulate the
flow and pass excess flow. They might be gates, spillways,
valves, or outlets.
b) Flow measurement structures: they are used to measure
discharge. They are weirs, orifices, flumes etc.
Classification of Hydraulic Structures
c) Division structures: they are used to divert the main course
of water flow. They are coffer dams, weirs, canal headwork’s,
intake works.
d) Conveyance structures: they are used to guide the flow from
one place to another. They are open channels, pressure conduit,
pipes, canals and sewers.
e) Collection structures: they are used to collect water for
disposal. They are Drain inlets, infiltration galleries, wells.
f) Energy dissipation structures: they are used to prevent
erosion and structural damage. They are stilling basins, surge
dams, check dams.
g) River training and water stabilizing structures: they are
used to maintain river channel and water transportation. Levees,
cutoffs, locks, piers, culverts
h) Sediment and quality control structures: they are used to
control or remove sediments and other pollutants. They are
racks, screens, traps, sedimentation tanks, filters, sluiceways.
Classification of Hydraulic Structures
i) Hydraulic machines: they are used to convert energy from
one form to another. They are turbines, pumps, ramps,
j) Storage structures: they are used for the purpose of
storage of water. These may be dams or tanks etc.
k) Shore protection structures: they are used to protect
banks. Dikes, groins, Spurs, revetments
Dams
Dam is an obstruction or barrier constructed across a river
or a natural stream to create a reservoir for impounding
water (or to store excess water which will meet the demand
in dry periods).
Uses: Domestic & Industrial, water supply, irrigation, Hydro-
electric generation, flood protection, retain debris, Low water
regulation for navigation recreation, Preservation and
breading of useful aquatic life, etc.
Introduction
In general dams:
impound water, divert water from a stream, raise the water level,
contribute immensely in reducing poverty and impacts of floods and
droughts and enable recharge of ground water and growth of more
biomass.
 Therefore, dams and their components must be planned,
designed, and constructed to operate efficiently and harmoniously
to achieve maximum benefits at minimum cost.
 The economic, environmental and social feasibilities, and
justification of dam must be examined in combination with those of
other project components, and the total project must be evaluated
and judged for its feasibility.
 If the evaluation of a project proposal does not show justification
for its construction, it may be dropped or, alternatively, revised and
updated with possible justification at a later time.
 A water resource project should be planned bearing in mind
probable physical, economic, and environmental effects.
Availability of Water
 Before any dam is built, certain hydrological information is
necessary regarding river discharge, rate and character of
siltation, and the location and duration of flooding.
Cases (hydrological information of river discharge)
If Qs = flow in the river (stream), Qd = demand (draft)
Case-I: If Qs > Qd throughout a year, no need of reservoir.

Case-II: If Qs < Qd during dry periods and if Q s becomes greater

than the Qd during rainy season, the impounding reservoir should
be required. This is to reserve water during high runoff time to
meet the demand during dry period

Case-III: If Qs < Qd throughout the year, the river is not feasible

to provide enough quantity of water
Storage Components of Reservoir
Storage Components of Reservoir
Full Reservoir Level (FRL): It is the level corresponding
to the storage which includes both inactive and active
storages.
 it is the highest reservoir level that can be maintained
without spillway discharge or without passing water
downstream through sluice ways.

Minimum Drawdown Level (MDDL): It is the level

below which the reservoir will not be drawn down so as
to maintain a minimum head required in power projects.
Dead Storage Level (DSL): Below this level, there are
no outlets to drain the water in the reservoir by gravity.
Storage Components of Reservoir
Maximum Water Level (MWL): This is the water level
that is ever likely to be attained during the passage of
the design flood. It depends upon the specified initial
reservoir level and the spillway gate operation rule.
Live storage: This is the storage available for the
intended purpose between Full Supply Level and the
Invert Level of the lowest discharge outlet.
Dead storage: It is the total storage below the invert
level of the lowest discharge outlet from the reservoir.
It may be available to contain sedimentation, provided
the sediment does not adversely affect the lowest
discharge.
Storage Components of Reservoir
Outlet Surcharge or Flood storage: this is required as
a reserve between Full Reservoir Level and the
Maximum Water level to contain the peaks of floods that
might occur when there is insufficient storage capacity
for them below Full Reservoir Level.
Storage Capacity of Reservoir
The next step in reservoir planning is to fix the
reservoir capacity.
 The reservoir has to provide sufficient storage for
various purposes, namely
a) Dead storage to contain silt deposition,
b) Storage to account for evaporation loss
c) Live storage to meet the downstream demands
d) Storage to act as flood protection.
Storage capacity for dead storage and evaporation
loss depends upon the amount of incoming
sediment and the annual evaporation loss
respectively.
Requirement for flood protection depends on the
intensity and volume of flood flow.
Fixing Capacity of Live Storage
Data for fixing the live storage capacity
a) Stream flow data for a sufficiently long period
b) Evaporation losses from the reservoir, seepage
losses and recharge into reservoir (when depleting)
c) Amount of demand
d) The storage capacity curve at the site.
Methods of Fixing Live Storage Capacity
1) Mass Curve (Graphical) method
2) Analytical method
3) Sequent Peak Algorithm
1) Mass curve: is a graphical representation of
cumulative inflow into the reservoir versus time
which may be monthly or yearly
1) Mass Curve (Graphical) method
1) Analytical method: this is based on the
assumption that the reservoir is full at the
beginning of the dry period and it is suitable
when demand varies with time
Procedures
 Calculate the net inflow from hydrological data (I)
 Determine monthly demand or outflow (O)
 Determine surplus (S = I - O)
 Determine the cumulative surplus
 Determine deficiency (D = O - I)
 Calculate the cumulative deficiency, which is the
required storage capacity of the impounded reservoir
Note: If cumulative deficiency, D is greater than
cumulative surplus S, the project is not feasible
because of low inflow
 Reservoir Capacity Determination

Example #1
The following table gives the mean monthly flows in a river
during a given year. Calculate the minimum storage required
to maintain a demand rate of 40m3/s. Take 30days for each
month

Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sep Oct Nev Dec
Mean
flow 60 45 35 25 15 22 50 80 105 90 80 70
(m3/s)
 Reservoir Capacity Determination
Solution
Mass-Curve Method
Com.
Mean Mean Cum. Cum. Mean Com.
Flow flow Demand Demand surpless Difficienc surpless Difficien ifnlow Demand
Time m3/s) (Mm3) (m3/s) (Mm3) (Mm3) y(Mm3) (Mm3) cy(Mm3) (m3/s) (Mm3)
Jan 60 155.5 40 103.68 51.84 - 51.84 - 155.52 103.68
Feb 45 116.6 40 103.68 12.96 - 64.8 - 272.16 207.36
Mar 35 90.72 40 103.68 - 12.96 - 12.96 362.88 311.04
Apr 25 64.8 40 103.68 - 38.88 - 51.84 427.68 414.72
May 15 38.88 40 103.68 - 64.8 - 116.64 466.56 518.4
Jun 22 57.02 40 103.68 - 46.656 - 163.3 523.58 622.08
Jul 50 129.6 40 103.68 25.92 0 25.92 - 653.18 725.76
Aug 80 207.4 40 103.68 103.7 0 129.6 - 860.54 829.44
Sep 105 272.2 40 103.68 168.5 0 298.1 - 1132.7 933.12
Oct 90 233.3 40 103.68 129.6 0 427.7 - 1366 1036.8
Nov 80 207.4 40 103.68 103.7 0 531.4 - 1573.3 1140.5
Dec 70 181.4 40 103.68 77.76 0 609.1 - 1754.8 1244.2
Reservoir Capacity Determination
Solution: Mass-Curve Method
 Reservoir Capacity Determination
Solution: Analytical Method
Mean Mean Cum. Cum.
Flow flow Demand Demand surpless Difficienc surpless Difficienc
Time m3/s) (Mm3) (m3/s) (Mm3) (Mm3) y(Mm3) (Mm3) y(Mm3)
Jan 60 155.5 40 103.68 51.84 - 51.84 -
Feb 45 116.6 40 103.68 12.96 - 64.8 -
Mar 35 90.72 40 103.68 - 12.96 - 12.96
Apr 25 64.8 40 103.68 - 38.88 - 51.84
May 15 38.88 40 103.68 - 64.8 - 116.64
Jun 22 57.02 40 103.68 - 46.656 - 163.296
Jul 50 129.6 40 103.68 25.92 - 25.92 -
Aug 80 207.4 40 103.68 103.7 - 129.6 -
Sep 105 272.2 40 103.68 168.5 - 298.1 -
Oct 90 233.3 40 103.68 129.6 - 427.7 -
Nov 80 207.4 40 103.68 103.7 - 531.4 -
Dec 70 181.4 40 103.68 77.76 - 609.1 -

• Reservoir capacity is the maximum of the cumulative deficiency of the consecutive

demands = 163.296Mm3
• The cumulative excess inflow volume will reach 163.296Mm3 in the beginning of
September. The reservoir will be full again and will start spilling after that time
Solution: Sequent Algorithm Method
Mean Mean Inflow -
Flow flow Demand Demand Deman
Time m3 /s) (Mm ) (m3 /s)
3
(Mm3 ) d(Mm3 )
Jan 60 155.52 40 103.68 51.84
Feb 45 116.64 40 103.68 12.96
Mar 35 90.72 40 103.68 -12.96
Apr 25 64.8 40 103.68 -38.88
May 15 38.88 40 103.68 -64.8
Jun 22 57.024 40 103.68 -46.656
Jul 50 129.6 40 103.68 25.92
Aug 80 207.36 40 103.68 103.68
Sep 105 272.16 40 103.68 168.48
Oct 90 233.28 40 103.68 129.6
Nov 80 207.36 40 103.68 103.68
Dec 70 181.44 40 103.68 77.76
Assignment
#1 The average monthly inflow into a reservoir in a dry year is given
below. If a uniform discharge at 90m3/s is desired from this reservoir,
Determine the storage capacity a reservoir using the three methods?.
All the months are assumed to be of average duration of 30.4days
(assume the next year to have similar flows as the present year).
Month Jun July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May
Mean
flow 20 60 200 300 200 150 100 80 60 40 30 25
(m3/s)

#2 The following is a record of the mean monthly discharges of a river in a

dry year. Estimate the reservoir capacity assuming uniform draw off
throughout the year with no spill over spillway.

Month Jan Feb March April May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec
Mean
flow 29.7 75.3 66.8 57.2 23.2 26.3 68.0 50.2 74.5 66.8 40.5 26.3
(m3/s)
 Classification Of Dams
1. Classification According to Purpose
a) Storage Dams: Constructed to create a reservoir to
store water during the periods when the flow in the
river is in excess of the demand, for utilization
later on during the period when the demand
exceeds the flow in the river.
b) Detention Dam: Constructed to temporarily detain
all or part of the flood water of a river and to
gradually release the stored water at controlled
rates so that, the entire region on the d/s side of the
dam may be safeguarded against the possible
damage due to floods.
• Detention dams are also constructed to trap
sediment. These often are called Debris dams.
 Classification Of Dams
c) Stage Control Dams
Diversion:- to raise the water level (no storage) at
entrance to diversion canal intakes to permit gravity
flow in the canal
Navigation:- to maintain minimum navigable depth in a
stream reach
d) Barrier Dams
Levees and dykes:- to protect banks from overflow
Cofferdams:- for temporary dewatering with diversion
around construction sites.
 Classification Of Dams
2. Classification According to Hydraulic Design
a) Over flow dams:- permit water to flow over their crest.
They are thus constructed of concrete or masonry (For
very small dams)
b) Non-overflow dams:- water is not permitted to flow over
their crest. Earth and rock fill dams are non-over flow dams.
c) Composite dams:- the crest is divided into overflow and
non-overflow sections.
 Classification Of Dams
3) Classification based on material of construction
a) Rigid dam: It is a dam constructed from rigid material such
as masonry, concrete etc.
• Concrete dams include gravity dams, arch dams and
buttress dam.
 Classification Of Dams
Concrete Gravity Dam
 Resists the forces exerted upon it by its own weight.
 It is adapted to sites where there is a reasonably sound
rock foundation.
 Its cross-section is approximately triangular in shape.
 Characteristics of Concrete Gravity Dams
Gravity dams are solid concrete structures that maintain
their stability against design loads from the:
geometric shape and
mass and strength of the concrete
Gravity dams typically consist of a non-
overflow section(s) and an overflow
section or spillway.

The dam will not overturn provided the

resultant force falls within the base.

To prevent tension at the upstream face

and excessive compression at the
downstream face, the dam cross section
is usually designed so that the resultant
falls within the middle third.
 CLASSIFICATION OF DAMS
Arch dam
 is a curved concrete dam, convex u/s, which resists
the forces exerted upon it, mainly by arch action.
 It is structurally more efficient than the gravity or
buttress dams, greatly reducing the volume of
concrete required.
Buttress dam
 It consists of water retaining sloping membrane or deck on
the u/s which is supported by a series of buttresses or
counter forts.
 Buttress dams are more save than gravity dam in resisting
overturning and sliding
 The sloping membrane is usually R.C. slab. They require
about 60% less concrete than solid gravity dams, but the
increased form work and reinforcement steel required
usually offset the saving in concrete.
 Classification Of Dams
b) Non-rigid dams
• A dam which is constructed from non-rigid material such as
earth, rock fills etc.
Ex. Embankment dams
• Embankment dams include Earth-fills dams and rock-fill
dams
• Earth dams are the most common types of dams,
principally because their construction involves utilization of
materials in the natural state requiring a minimum of
processing.
• They need supplementary structures to serve as
spillways.
 Classification Of Dams
• An embankment may be categorized as:
Earth fill: dams made predominantly of earth or soil.
 compacted soils accounts for over 50% of the placed
volume of material.
Rock fill dams: made predominantly of quarried rock.
 However a composite earth and rock fill type of
embankment dams are also being widely used.
 The designation rock fill embankment is appropriate where
over 50% of fill material may be classified as rock fill.
 It uses rocks of all sizes to provide stability and an
impervious membrane for water tightness.
 Spillway requirement is considerable as in the case of
earth fill dam.
Embankment Dam
Characteristics of Embankment Dams
Embankment dam: is a dam constructed from natural
materials excavated or obtained close to the dam site

It is a non rigid dam which resists the forces exerted up

on it mainly by its shear strength.

Adaptability to a broad range of foundation condition such

as rock and pervious soil formation

Advantageous when foundation is weak or soft bedrock

which would not be able to resist high stresses from a
concrete dam

Necessity of separate spillway structure

Selection of Dams
Factors governing the selection of dams are:
Topography,
Geology and foundation conditions of dam site,
Availability of suitable materials for the dam,
Size and location of spillway,
Conditions of extreme flood or earthquake.
1) Based on Topography
Topography: dictates the first choice of the type of dam and
the most important factor in this respect is the shape of the
valley
a) A narrow V-shaped valley with sound rock in abutments
has an arch dam as the first choice. It is also suitable for
rock fill dam.
 For economic arch dam it is preferable to have the top
width of the valley less than 4-times its height.
Selection of Dams
b) A moderately wide U-shaped valley with sound rock
foundation is best suited for gravity or buttress & rock
fill dams.
c) Wide valley with foundation of soil material to a
considerable depth (deep over burden) favor earth fill
embankment dam.
A concrete dam would be the obvious choice for narrow stream
flowing between high and rocky abutments (i.e., deep gorges).
Broad valleys in plains would suggest an embankment dam with a
separate spillway.
2) Based on type of Foundation
The common types of foundations are:-
 Solid rock foundations
 Gravel and coarse sand foundation
Silt and fine sand foundation
Clay foundation
Non-uniform foundation
Selection of Dams
2) Based on type of Foundation
• Any type of dam can be constructed on solid rock foundations.
• Well-compacted gravel foundations are suitable for concrete
gravity dams of small height, earth-fill, and rock-fill dams.
However, effective cutoffs are required to check the foundation
seepage.
• Silt or fine sand foundations can support concrete dams of small
height and earth-fill dams. Problems of settlement, piping, and
the foundation seepage are associated with this type of
foundation.
• Non-uniform foundations containing different types of strata will
usually require special treatment before any type of dam is
constructed on such foundations.
 Selection of Dams
Type of
No Characteristics Suitable type of Dam(s)
Foundation
Solid rock High bearing capacity Any type of dam (the most
1 foundations economic)
Gravel and Subject to water percolation at high If well compacted suitable for
coarse sand rates earth fill, rock fill and low
2 foundation concrete gravity dams (<15m)

Silt and fine Low bearing capacity Very low earth dams (up to 8m
sand Main problems: high),but are not suitable for
foundation Settlement, Piping, Excessive rock fill dams
3 percolation losses, Erosion of d/s
toe

Clay foundation Considerable settlement if the clay Used for earth fill dams after
is unconsolidated and the moisture special treatment to consolidate
4 content is high the c lay

Non-uniform A uniform foundation of rock and soft material may have to be used if
foundation the dams are to be built.
5 Such unsatisfactory conditions have to be dealt with by special
designs or appropriate foundation treatments.
Type Notes and Characteristics
Embankment
Earth fill Suited to either rock or soil foundation and can accept limited
differential settlement given relatively wide and plastic core. Cut-off
to sound, i.e. less permeable, horizon required. Low contact stress
Rock fill Rock foundation preferable; can accept variable quality and limited
weathering. Cut-off to sound horizons required. Rock fills suitable
for all weather placing. Requires materials for core, filter, etc.
Concrete
Gravity Suited to wide valleys, provided that excavation depth is less than c.
5m. Limited weathering of rock acceptable. Check discontinuities in
rock with regard top sliding. Moderate contact stress. Requires
imported cement.
Buttress As gravity dam, but higher contact stress require sound rock.
Concrete save relative to gravity dam 30-60%.
Arch/Cupola Suited to narrow gorges, subject to uniform sound rock of high
strength and limited deformability in foundation and most practically
in abutments.
High abutment loading. Concrete saving relative to gravity dam is
50-85%
 Selection of Dams
3) Based Availability of construction material
 The most economical type of dam will be the one for which
materials are to be found in sufficient quantity with in a
reasonable distance from the site (saving on construction
cost).
 Advantage should be taken of every local resource to
reduce the cost of the project without sacrificing the
efficiency and quality of the final structure.
• If suitable soils for the construction of an earth-fill dam are
locally available in nearby borrow pits, choice of an earth fill
dam would be the most economical.
• The availability of sand and gravel (for concrete) near the
dam site would reduce the cost of a concrete dam.
 Selection of Dams
4) Based on Spillway size and location
• Spillway is a major part of any dam and its size, type, and the
natural restrictions in its location will affect the selection of the
type of dam.
• For streams with large flood potential, the spill way become
the dominant structure, and the selection of the type of dam
could become a secondary selection.
• In this case combining the dam and the spillway is desirable
• Small spillway requirements often favor the selection of earth
fill or rock fill dams, even in narrow dam sites.
• For large spillways, it may be desirable to combine the
spillway and dam into one structure.
• This is possible only in concrete dams. Embankment dams
are based on more conservative design assumptions and,
hence, spillway is generally not constructed as part of the
embankment.
 Selection of Dams
5) Based on seismicity of the area (Earth Quake)
• If the dam is to lie in an area that is subject to earth quake
shocks, the design must include provisions for the added
loading and increased stresses.
• The types of structures best suited to resist earth quake
shocks without damage are earth fill and concrete gravity
dams. Arch dams are better avoided.
 Selection of Dams
6) Environmental Consideration
The selection of the type of dam, its dimensions and
location of spillway and other appurtenances should be
such that there are no adverse effects on the
environment and as far as possible maximum protection
should be provided for the environment.

Social factors: costs of compensation of inhabitant’s u/s

of the proposed dam area upon resettlement to safer
places should be estimated as part of the project cost.

Gravity dams offer greatest safety against sudden

destruction by earth quake or by bombardment and
therefore are suitable for densely populated areas.
 Investigation of Dam Site
• Dam site investigation requires careful
planning and considerable investment of
time and resources.

1) Topographic Investigation (survey)

• Detailed survey for the dam site covering
sufficient area on the u/s and d/s as well as
above the likely height of the dam on both the
banks,
• Detailed survey for areas proposed for
constructing spillway, diversion tunnels,
outlets, power houses etc
• Preparation of detailed maps to various scales
based on the data collected.
Investigation of Dam Site
 Investigation of Dam Site
2) Hydrologic Investigation
• Collection and analysis of stream flow and
precipitation records,
• Assessment of available yield, estimation of
flood peaks,
• Determination of spillway capacity and
• Ground water studies.

3) Surface Geologic Investigation

• Identification of boundary and nature of
deposits and overburden;
• the characteristic, structure, strike of rock
beds;
• Shape and magnitude of folds and fault zon
 Investigation of Dam Site
4) Subsurface Investigation
• Subsurface or foundation exploration:
• sinking open pits,
• drilling holes,
• driving shafts and drifts,
• Geophysical prospecting using latest
techniques.
5) Seismic Survey
6) Construction Material Survey
• location and estimate of quantities of
available construction material,
• estimates need to be supported by
laboratory tests to determine suitability of
• various materials for construction of dam and
other structures.
 Environmental Impact Assessment
The selection of the type of dam, its dimensions
and location of spillway and other appurtenances
should be such that there are no adverse
effects on the environment and as far as
possible maximum protection should be
provided for the environment.

Social factors :- costs of compensation of

inhabitant’s u/s of the proposed dam area upon
resettlement to safer places should be estimated
as part of the project cost.

Gravity dams offer greatest safety against

sudden destruction by earth quake or by
bombardment and therefore are suitable for