Isotopes

Here is where your presentation begins

After going through this lesson, you are expected to:
1. Recognize common isotopes and their uses
(STEM_GC11AMlc-e-19);

2. Represent compounds using chemical formulas,

structural formulas and models (STEM_GC11AMlc-e-
21);

3. Name compounds given their formula and write

formula given the name of the compound
(STEM_GC11AMlc-e-23).

4. Calculate the empirical formula from the percent

composition of a compound (STEM_GC11PCIf-32)
Dalton’s Atomic Theory
● Elements are made up of very small
particles known as atoms.

● All the atoms of an element are

identical in mass and size, and are
different from the atoms of another
elements.
Dalton’s Atomic Theory
● Compounds are composed of atoms
of more than one element, combined
in definite ratios with whole number
values.
● During a chemical reaction, atoms
combine, separate or rearrange. No
atoms are created and no atoms
disappear.
 Composition of
Matter ATOMS
The basic unit of matter and the defining structure of
elements.

Combine to form Gain or Lose

Electron to form
Molecules Ions
Cation (+) Anion (-)
Loss electron Gain electron
Sub-atomic
Locatio Charg
Particles n e
Relativ
e Mass
Prot Nucleu
+1
s 1
on
Neutr Nucleu
s 0 1
on
Outsid
Electro -1 0.0006
e
n
 Mass

He
Number 4
Element
Atomic
Number 2 symbol
Atomic Number of Number of Electrons
Number = Protons = in a Neutral Atom

Mass Number of Number of

Number = Protons + Neutrons
Isotopes

Atoms of an element that

have the same number of
protons and the same number
of electrons but different
Different
numbers ofisotopes always
neutrons.
have the same atomic number
and different mass numbers.
 Mass

He
Number 4
Element
Atomic
Number 2 symbol
Atomic Number of Number of Electrons
Number = Protons = in a Neutral Atom

Mass Number of Number of

Number = Protons + Neutrons
Isotopes
Isotopes

Deuterium
(Heavy Water) is
used in the
operation of
Nuclear Power
Plants (to slow
down free
Isotopes
Tritium, the
heaviest
hydrogen
isotope, is used
in nuclear
weapon. Because
of the minute
amount of
 Average Atomic
Mass
The sum of the masses of its
isotopes, each multiplied by its
natural abundance.
Isotopes of elements occur in
different12
abundances.
13 Some are
C C
more abundant than others.
For Carbon, the natural abundance
of C-12 is 98.93% while that of C-13
is 1.07%. The atomic mass of C-13
has been determined to be
13.003355 amu while that of C-12 is
exactly 12.00000 amu.
amu =(atomic
12 mass of13
C-12) (% of
C C
abundance of C-12) +(atomic mass
Activity I
Direction: Compute the average
atomic mass of Chlorine, which has
2 isotopes. The natural abundance
of Cl-35 is 75.78% while that of Cl-
37 is 24.22%. This means that if you
have 100 atoms of chlorine, 75 of
them will be Cl-35 and 25 of them
To calculate:
amu = (atomic mass of Cl-35) (% of
abundance of Cl-35) +(atomic mass
of C-37) (% of abundance of C-37)

amu= (35 amu) (.7578) + (37 amu)

(0.2422)
amu= 26.523 amu + 8.961 amu
 Some common
uses of Isotopes
 Food
Irradiation
Some radioactive substances emit radiation that can be used to kill microorganisms on a variety of
foodstuffs, thereby extending their shelf life. Tomatoes, mushrooms, sprouts, and berries are all
irradiated with cobalt-60 or caesium-137 emissions. This exposure kills many of the bacteria that
cause spoilage, allowing the produce to last longer. Eggs, as well as some meats such as beef, pork,
and poultry, can be irradiated. Irradiating food does not render the food radioactive.
Applications in
Medicine
Radioactive isotopes have a wide range of medical applications, including the diagnosis and treatment of illness
and disease.
 One diagnostic application is the use of radioactive iodine-131 to test for thyroid activity. A measured dose
of 131I is given to a patient to evaluate thyroid activity, and the next day a scanner is used to measure the
amount of radioactivity in the thyroid gland. The amount of radioactive iodine that accumulates is
proportional to thyroid activity, allowing trained physicians to diagnose both hyperthyroidism and
hypothyroidism. Because iodine-131 has a half-life of only 8 days, the risk of damage from exposure is
low.
Americum-241
Many smoke detectors for
homes and businesses use
this material to assess toxic
lead levels in dried paint
samples to ensure uniform
thickness in rolling
processes such as steel
and paper manufacturing
as well as to assist in
determining where oil wells
should be drilled.
Calcium-47
Biomedical
researchers studying
cellular functions
and bone formation
in mammals will
benefit greatly from
this discovery.
Chromium-51
Used in studies of red
blood cell survival.
Cobalt-60
Sterilizes surgical
instruments as well as
improves the safety
and reliability of
industrial fuel oil
burners. Cancer
treatment, food
irradiation, gauges,
and radiography all
use it.
Copper-67
When monoclonal
antibodies are
injected into a
cancer patient, it
aids the
antibodies in
binding to and
destroying the
tumor.
Sodium-24
Leak detection
in industrial
pipe lines and
oil well
studies.
Nickel-63
Used in explosive
detection, voltage
regulators and current
surge protectors in
electronic devices,
and electron capture
detectors in gas
chromatographs.
Carbon - 14
longest-lived
radioactive
isotope of
carbon, whose
decay allows the
accurate dating
of archaeological
artifacts.
Radium-226
Increases the
effectiveness
of lighting
rods.
Strontium-85
It is used to
research bone
formation and
metabolism.
Chemica
l
The name of the element can be written in
symbols. The symbol of any element is an
abbreviation for it. Chemical symbols
represent the shorthand method of writing
names of elements.

Compound is a distinct substance that is

composed of the atoms of two or more
elements and always contains exactly the
same relative masses of those elements.
In light of Dalton’s atomic theory, this simply
means that a compound always contains the
same relative numbers of atoms of each
element.
In a chemical formula the atoms are indicated
by the element symbols, and the number of
each type of atom is indicated by a subscript, a
number that appears to the right of and below
the symbol for the element.
The formula for water is written H2O, indicating
that each molecule of water contains two atoms
Compounds are classified as either a
molecular (covalent) compound or an
ionic compound.
Molecular compounds are formed from
two or more nonmetals. The basic units of
molecular compounds are molecules
composed of the constituent atoms.
Ionic compounds contain ions formed
when a metal combines with a
Types of Chemical Formula
Substances composed of molecules are best
represented by the chemical formulas which
give the number of atoms of each type of
molecule.
Though, this formula does not express the order
in which the atoms in the molecules are bonded
together. Nevertheless, there are three
different types of chemical formulas:
empirical, molecular, and structural.
A molecular formula gives the actual
number of atoms of each element in a
molecule of the compound.
For example, the molecular formula for
hydrogen peroxide is H2O2, and its
empirical formula is HO. The molecular
formula is always a whole number multiple
of the empirical formula. It can be used to
represent only molecules not compound
consisting of ions.
A structural formula uses lines to represent
chemical bonds and shows how the atoms in a
molecule are connected to each other. The bonds are
actually forces that tend to hold atoms at certain
distances and angles from one another.

For instance, the structural

formula for hydrogen
peroxide is H—O—O—H
which shows two H atoms
are linked in a chain, with
another two O atoms
bonded to each of
In addition to formulas,
we also use molecular
models—three-
dimensional
representations of
molecules—to represent
compounds. We use two
types of molecular
models: ball-and stick
and space-filling.
These help us to see the
shapes and relative
sizes of molecules.

They show the bonding

sequence that is the
The molecular formula of
methane indicates that
methane has one carbon atom
and four hydrogen atoms.

The structural formula shows

how the atoms are connected.
Each Hydrogen Atom is
bonded to the central carbon
atom. The ball-and-stick
model and the space filling
model illustrate the geometry
of the molecule: how the
atoms are arranged in three
dimensions.
Ions and Ionic Compounds
The nucleus of an atom is unchanged by chemical processes, but some atoms can readily gain
or lose electrons. If electrons are removed from or added to a neutral atom, a charged particle
called ion is formed. An ion with a positive charge is called a cation (pronounced CAT-ion); a
negatively charge ion is called anion (AN-ion).
Predicting Ionic Charges
Many atoms gain or lose electrons to end up with the
same number of electrons as the noble gas closest to
them in the periodic table.

The members of the noble-gas family are chemically

very nonreactive and form very few compounds. We
might deduce that this is because their electron
arrangements are very stable. Nearby elements can
obtain these same stable arrangements by losing or
gaining electrons.

For example, the loss of one electron from an atom of

We can readily write the chemical formula for an ionic
compound if we know the charges of the ions of
which the compound is composed. Chemical
compounds are always electrically neutral.

Consequently, the ions in an ionic compound always

occur in such a ratio that the total positive charge equals
the total negative charge.

Thus, there is one Na+ to one Cl- (giving NaCl), one Ba2+
to two Cl- (giving BaCl2), and so forth.

As you consider these and other examples, you will see

If the charges are not equal, the charge on one ion
(without its sign) will become the subscript on the
other ion. For example, the ionic compound formed
from Mg (which forms Mg2+ ions) and N (which forms
N3- ions) is Mg3N2:
Sample Exercise:
What are the empirical formulas of the
compounds formed by:
1. A13+ and O2- ions
2. Zn2+ and SO42- ions
3. Mg2+ and NO3- ions
Solution:
(a) Two A13+ ions are required to balance the charge of
three O2- ions (that is, the total positive charge is 6+,
and the total negative charge is 6- ). Thus, the
formula is Al2O3. (Aluminum Oxide)
(b) Two SO42- ions are needed to balance the charge
of two Zn2+ ions, which is the same as one SO42- ion is
for one Zn2+ ion. Thus, the formula is ZnPO4.
(c) Two NO3- ions are needed to balance the charge of
one Mg2+.Thus, the formula is Mg(NO3)2. In this case
the formula for the entire polyatomic ion NO3- must
Chemical
Nomenclatur
e
Since there are so many different
compounds, chemists have developed
systematic ways to name them. Many
compounds also have a common name.

For example, H2O has the common name,

water and the systematic name, dihydrogen
monoxide. A common name is like a nickname
for a compound, used by those who are
familiar with it.
Table 2.3 Common Simple Cations
and Anions
Different rules apply for naming various types of
binary compounds. These are compounds consisting
of only 2 kinds of elements. Consider an overall
strategy to use for these compounds. There are
three types of binary compounds, and naming each
of them requires different procedures.

Type I: Ionic compounds with metals that form only

one type of cation (same charge)
Type II: Ionic compounds with metals (usually
transition metals) that can form two or more cations
having different charges
Type I Binary Ionic Compounds

Rules for Naming Type I Ionic Compounds

1. The cation is always named first and the anion
second.

2. A simple cation (obtained from a single atom) takes

its name from the name of the element. For example,
Na+ is called sodium in the names of compounds
containing this ion.

3. A simple anion (obtained from a single atom) is

named by taking the first part of the element name
Type I Binary Ionic Compounds

Rules for Naming Type I Ionic Compounds

1. The cation is always named first and the anion
second.

2. A simple cation (obtained from a single atom) takes

its name from the name of the element. For example,
Na+ is called sodium in the names of compounds
containing this ion.

3. A simple anion (obtained from a single atom) is

named by taking the first part of the element name
Example: AlCl3
Step 1 Identify the cation and anion. Al is in Group 3, so we
know it will form the
Al3+ ion . Because Cl is in Group 7, it forms the Cl-ion.
Step 2 Name the cation. Al3+ is simply called Aluminum, the
same as the element’s name.
Step 3 Name the anion. Cl- is called chlorine: we use the root
name of the element, Chlor, plus -ide.
Step 4 Name the compound by combining the names of the
individual ions. The name for AlCl3 is aluminum chloride.
(Remember that the name of the
cation is always given first.)
The example reminds us of three things:
1. Compounds formed from metals and
nonmetals are ionic.
2. In an ionic compound the cation is always
named first.
3. The net charge on an ionic compound is
always zero. Thus, in NaCl, one of each type of
ion (Na+ and Cl-) is required: 1+ + 1- = 0
charge. In AlCl3, however, three Cl- ions are
needed to balance the charge of Al3+: 3+ + 3
(1-) = 0 charge.
Type II Binary Ionic Compounds

So far, we have considered binary ionic compounds (Type I)

containing metals that always give the same cation.
However, there are many metals that can form more than
one type of cation.

For example, sodium always forms the Na+ ion, calcium

always forms the Ca2+ ion, and aluminum always forms the
Al3+ ion. However, there are many metals that can form
more than one type of cation. For example, gold (Au) can
produce Au+ or Au3+.

This means that if we saw the name gold chloride, we would

not know whether it referred to the compound AuCl
Therefore, we need a way of specifying which cation is
present in compounds containing metals that can form
more than one type of cation. Chemists have decided to
deal with this situation by using a Roman numeral to
specify the charge on the cation. Consider the
compound FeCl2. Iron can form Fe2+ or Fe3+, so we
must first decide which of these cations is present.

We can determine the charge on the iron cation,

because we know it must just balance the charge on the
two 1- anions (the chloride ions). Thus, if we represent
the charges as
must represent 2 because (2+) + 2(1-) = 0.
Remember that the total charge of a neutral
substance like a compound is 0.
The compound FeCl2, then, contains one Fe2+
ion and two Cl- ions.
We call this compound iron(II) chloride, where
the II tells the charge of the iron cation.
That is, Fe2+ is called iron(II). Remember that
the Roman numeral tells the charge on the
ion, not the number of ions present in the
compound.
Thus, the charge on the lead ion must be 4+ to
balance the 4_ charge of the two oxide ions. The name
of PbO2 is therefore lead (IV) oxide, where the IV
indicates the presence of the Pb4+ cation. There is
another system for naming ionic compounds
containing metals that form two cations. The ion with
the higher charge has a name ending in -ic, and the
one with the lower charge has a name ending in -ous.
In this system, for example, Fe3+ is called the ferric
ion, and Fe2+ is called the ferrous ion. The names for
FeCl3 and FeCl2, in this system, are ferric chloride
and ferrous chloride, respectively. Table 2.4 gives both
To help distinguish between Type I and Type II cations,
remember that Group 1 and 2 metals are always
Type I. On the other hand, transition metals are
almost always Type II. Sometimes transition metals
form only one ion, such as silver, which forms Ag+,
zinc, which forms Zn2+; and cadmium, which forms
Cd2+. In these cases, chemists do not use a Roman
numeral, although it is not “wrong” to do so.

Rules for Naming Type II Ionic Compounds

1. The cation is always named first and the anion
second.
2. Because the cation can assume more than one
Type III Binary Compounds
(Molecular)
Binary compounds that contain only
nonmetals are named in accordance
with a system similar in some ways to
the rules for naming binary ionic
compounds, but there are important
differences. Type III binary compounds
contain only nonmetals. The following
Rules for Naming Type III Binary Compounds
1. The first element in the formula is named
first, and the full element name is used.
2. The second element is named as though it
were an anion.
3. Prefixes are used to denote the numbers
of atoms present. These prefixes are given
in Table 2.5.
4. The prefix mono- is never used for naming
the first element. For example, CO is called
Naming Compounds That Contain Polyatomic
Ions
A type of ionic compound that we have not yet
considered is exemplified by
ammonium nitrate, NH4NO3, which contains the
polyatomic ions NH4
+ and NO3
-. As
their name suggests, polyatomic ions are
charged entities composed of several atoms
bound together. Polyatomic ions are assigned
special names that you must memorize
to name the compounds containing them. See
Naming Compounds That Contain Polyatomic
Ions
A type of ionic compound that we have not yet
considered is exemplified by ammonium
nitrate, NH4NO3, which contains the
polyatomic ions NH4
+ and NO3
-. As
their name suggests, polyatomic ions are
charged entities composed of several atoms
bound together. Polyatomic ions are assigned
Naming Acids
When dissolved in water, certain molecules
produce H+ ions (protons). These substances,
which are called acids, were first recognized by
the sour taste of their solutions.

For example, citric acid is responsible for the

tartness of lemons and limes. An acid can be
viewed as a molecule with one or more H+ ions
attached to an anion. The rules for naming acids
depend on whether the anion contains oxygen.
Rules for Naming Acids
1. If the anion does not contain oxygen, the
acid is named with the prefix hydro- and the
suffix -ic attached to the root name for the
element. For example, when gaseous
HCl (hydrogen chloride) is dissolved in water,
it forms hydrochloric acid.

Similarly, hydrogen cyanide (HCN) and

dihydrogen sulfide (H2S) dissolved in water
2. When the anion contains oxygen, the acid
name is formed from the root name of the
central element of the anion or the anion name,
with a suffix of -ic or -ous. When the anion name
ends in -ate, the suffix -ic is used.