Prokaryote Chapter 6 (ARCHAEA, BACTERIA AND CYNOBACTERIA)

Taxonomy of prokaryotes
In past all living organisms were classified into 5 Kingdoms
but now all living organisms are classify into 3 Domains
Phylogeny of Prokaryotes (origin of Prokaryotes/
Evolutionary history of Prokaryotes) :
Prokaryotes are the most Primitive and first inhabitant on
earth (3.5 BYA). Earth at that time was highly exposed to
radiations and had a very less molecular oxygen. there fore
only Prokaryotes adapted to those Conditions. It is believed
that origin of Prokaryote, (Archae) may have begun deep in
the ocean, in under water hot springs called Hydrothermal
Vents to supply energy and raw material for the origin and
survival of early life forms. The Ancestors of Prokaryotes
are Called Protobionts / Proto Cells ( RNA surrounded by a
membrane and is self replicating). Microbial mats (layers of
Microorganisms) served as habitat for prokaryotes.
Fossilized microbial mats are known as Stromatolite that
provide evidence for prokaryotic formation.
Domain Archaea
Domain Bacteria and Archaea have Prokaryotic organization.
Both are differ from each other in their Cell Wall /Cell
membrane /Genetic meterial Composition.
Bacterial Cell Wall Consist of Murein (Mixture of
Peptidoglycan and lipoglycan). Archaea Cell wall consist of
Lipopolysaccharide.
In Archaeal Cell membrane hydrocarbons attach to glycerol by
ether linkage rather than by ester linkage as in Bacteria and
Eukaryotes . The Combination of hydrocarbons to glycerol by
ether is called Archarol.
Bacteria do not have Histone Protein in their genetic material,
Archaea have Histone. Archaea
Can tolerate Temp : up to 120°C. Archaea
also found in human intestine like methonogen archae that
The endosymbiotic theory
states that mitochondria and chloroplasts were once
free-living prokaryotic cells that were absorbed by a
proto-eukaryotic cell, and became organelles in
eukaryotic cells.(Mitochondria and Chloroplast are
similar to prokaryotes on the bases of DNA ,
Ribosomes and mode of replication).
Bacterial habitat
Found ever where. Their range extending up to 30
miles up in the atmosphere and 10,000 meters deep in
water. A gram soil typically contains about of 40
million bacterial cells. A milliliter of fresh water usually
holds about one million bacterial cells. The earth is
estimated to hold at least 5 nonillion bacteria.
On the bases of RNA nucleotide sequences there are 5 major groups of bacteria
Structure of Bacteria
Bacteria are unicellular prokaryotic organism. Structurally bacterial cell has
three main regions.
1.Appendages 2. cell coverings 3. cytoplasm
1.Appendages includes flagella (that help in locomotion) and Pilli
( shorter than flagella help bacteria in floating, attachment and conjugation.
2. cell coverings usually two coverings present . Cell
membrane (phospholipid bilayer) and cell wall. some bacteria may have
additional covering called glycocalyx.
Cell wall : consist of murein ( peptidoglycan). Cell wall acts as receptor for
viruses and antibiotics.
On the basis of cell wall there are two groups of bacteria.
Gram + and Gram – (Gram-negative bacteria have two membranes — one
internal called cytoplasmic membrane / cell membrane and one external . In
b/w these layers thin layer of peptidoglycon / cell wall is also present ) b/c of
two membranes internal and external, Gram – is more resistant to antibiotics.
cell membrane consist of phospholipid bilayer with out cholesterol .
Inholdings of cell membrane are called Mesosomes that involved in
DNA replication, cell division, respiration and export of enzymes and
inclusions( non living substances such as glycogen, lipid droplets ,
pigments )
Glycocalyx It is additional covering that lies outside of bacterial Cell
wall. It exist in Two forms .
1.Capsule : Tightly bounded to Cell Wall. It is thicker and Consist of
Polysaccharide. It protects the bacteria from Phagocytosis and increase
pathogenicity.
2.Slime : loosely attached to Call wall. Thinner .
Consist of lipopolysaccharide , glycoprotein, glycolipid. it gives slippery
nature to bacteria.
3.Cytoplasm
Jelly like substance that have genetic material of bacteria in the form
chromatin network ( single circular double stranded DNA molecule .
Some bacteria have extra circular double stranded DNA molecule called
plasmid.
Shapes of Bacteria
Cocci : These are spherical and non-flagellated. Cocci exists in different arrangements
Bacilli are rod shaped maybe flagellated
Palisades resembles picket fence
Spirilla are flagellated, deeply curved from the
middle.
Vibrio flagellated, slightly curved like comma
Spirochetes are flagellated (periplasmic flagella) ,
long , flexible , cork screw like bacteria.
Methods of survival used by bacteria
Endospores, exospores, and cysts are structures formed by bacteria
under adverse conditions to ensure survival.
Endospores
Definition: Dormant, highly resistant structures formed within the
bacterial cell.
Formation: Produced through a process called sporulation, typically
by Gram-positive bacteria like Bacillus and Clostridium.
Purpose: To withstand extreme environmental conditions such as
heat, UV radiation, desiccation, and chemicals.
Location: Formed inside the cell and later released upon cell lysis.
Structure: Multilayered with a spore coat, cortex, and core containing
dipicolinic acid for heat resistance.
Examples: Bacillus anthracis (anthrax), Clostridium botulinum
(botulism).
Exospores: Dormant structures formed outside the
bacterial cell and then bud off from the cell.
Produced by some bacteria like actinomycetes (e.g.,
Streptomyces ) . less resistant than endospore and
lacks the specialized protective layers.
Cysts :
Dormant, protective structures formed by some
bacteria. The entire bacterial cell transforms into a
cyst (A thick wall surrounds the cell ) .Cysts are
generally less resistant than endospores and lacks
the specialized protective layers.
Motility in bacteria Three types
Flagellar movement Clockwise (CW) Rotation: Causes the
flagella to bunch together, leading to a tumble (random
movement). This is typically a non-directional movement.
Counterclockwise (CCW) Rotation: Causes the flagella to
spread out and work together, leading to a run (straight-line
movement). This is a more directed, forward movement.

.
Spirochetal movement
observed in spirochetes, a group of spiral-shaped bacteria.
These bacteria are helical and flexible that’s why show
flexing movement (bending) , spinning ,swimming and
creeping.
These movements are enabled by their specialized
flagella, called axial filaments / periplasmic flagella/ endo
flagella which are located within the periplasmic space
between the inner membrane and the outer membrane .
Gliding movement is a type of motility observed in
certain bacteria where cells move smoothly and
continuously along a surface without the use of
flagella or cilia.
Flagellar Structure:
The bacterial flagellum consists of three main parts:
Filament: The long, whip-like part that extends from the surface of the
cell. It's made of protein subunits called flagellin.
Hook: A curved structure that connects the filament to the basal body.
Basal Body: Anchors the flagellum to the bacterial cell membrane and
includes the motor
complex /rotating motor that
Allows the flagellum to rotate.
( motor complex / rotating motor
powered by ATP and C ring.
(The C-ring is protenaceous
structure situated at the base
of the flagellar motor).
In C -ring C stands for its shape
(circular ) and location (cytoplasm)
Modes of nutrition in bacteria
1.Autotrophic bacteria
Can synthesize own food by using simple in organic substances like
C02.
A. Photoautotrophic Bacteria
These bacteria have bacteriochlorophyll or chlorobium chlorophyll as
photosynthetic pigments which is present in special cell membrane
derived structures called chromatophores .
These bacteri use sun light as source of energy and Hydrogen sulphide
and other H+ donor as reducing agent instead of water to make sugar.

B.Chemoautotrophic bacteria They lack pigments and dnt

use sun light. They obtained chemical energy from oxidation of
In organic substances such as Iron,ammonia,nitrate,H2s and
Chemoautotrophic bacteria are further divided on the basis of Inorganic molecule they
oxidize
2.Heterotrophic Bacteria
Unable to do photosynthesis and oxidation of Inorganic substances.
1.Saprotrophic Bacteria
They secrete enzymes that break down dead complex organic
compounds (humus) into simpler products which are then absorbed
nutrients, for example Bacillus mycides, Azotobacter.
2. Parasitic Bacteria
Pathogenic bacteria obtained food from their hosts and cause disease
in them. e.g., Vibrio cholerae, Diplococcus pneumoniae etc
3.Mutualistic Bacteria
Mutualistic bacteria exemplify symbiosis like parasitism ( symbiosis is
relation b/w two organism ), where both the bacteria and the host
benefit.
Some bacteria fix free atmospheric nitrogen into nitrogenous
compounds in the roots of plants which are utilized by plants, in
return plant gives nutrients and protection to the bacteria.For
example Rhizobium ,Bacillus spp and Clostridium.
Growth in bacteria ( means increase in number of
bacterial cells)
 Reproduction in Bacteria
being unicellular they lack sexual reproduction. Can reproduce by
Asexual and genetic recombination methods.
Methods of Asexual reproduction
1.Binary fission Most common and fastest method of Asexual
reproduction in which one bacterial cell divides into two daughter cells
with out forming spindle fibers under favorable conditions.
If a bacterium cell divides it every 20 minutes by binary fission, how many bacteria will
be formed in two hours?
A.16 B.8 C.64 D.4

2. By conidia conidia are a sexual rep cells produced in chain like manner on a branch
called conidiophore.
3. By Budding bud is small out growth on bacterial cell . Such as in Hyphomicrobium
vulgare, Rhodomicrobium, cyano bacteria
Genetic Recombination
is the process by which genetic material is rearranged /combined to form new genetic combinations.(Different
processes used by bacteria to tranfer its genetic material to another bacteria)

1.Conjugation

Conjugation in bacteria is called

unidirectional because the
transfer of genetic material occurs
in one direction only, from the
donor cell (typically containing a
conjugative plasmid like the F-
plasmid) to the recipient cell. The
recipient does not reciprocate by
transferring genetic material back
to the donor.
2.Transformation
Transformation involves the uptake of free bacterial DNA (linear
fragments or circular plasmids) from the surrounding environment by
a bacterial cell. (Usually bacterial DNA is circular but fragments are
linear)
Linear DNA Incorporated into the bacterial chromosome
Plasmids Circular DNA molecules can replicate independently within
the bacterial cell and passed to descendants.
3.Trnasduction
when genetic material is transferred from one bacterium to another by a
bacteriophage (a virus that infects bacteria).
Bacterial diseases
CONTROL OF HARMFUL BACTERIA
Chemical methods to control harmful bacteria (3 main
methods)
1.Sterilization is the process of destroying all living organisms
and viruses including spores. ( it includes both chemical and
physical methods)
2.Disinfection is the elimination of all microorganisms except
spores.
Chemical that are used as disinfectant / antiseptics includes .
A.Phenol one of the first chemical used as disinfectants
B.Halogens includes chlorine and iodine
C.Heavy metals like silver nitrate used against eye infection in
new born caused by Neisseria gonorrhea.
D.Soap and detergents decrease the
surface tension between microorganisms and surfaces, and
E.Aldehyde formaldehyde and glutaraldehyde, inactivate
microbial proteins by crosslinking the functional groups in
the proteins.
F. Ethylene oxide
This chemical denatures proteins and destroys all
microorganisms, including bacterial spores.
G.Oxidizing agents such as hydrogen peroxide kill
microorganisms by releasing large amounts of oxygen, which
contributes to the alteration of microbial enzymes.
H.Food preservatives organic acids like Benzoic acid, Sorbic
acid can decrease microbial population to preserve food.
3. The use of antibiotics
Antibiotics are compounds that are mostly derived from
microorganisms like Streptomyces organisms and Penicillium.
Antibiotics generally inhibit cell wall synthesis in bacteria .
Physical methods to control harmful bacteria
Boiling : 100 °C denatures proteins and alters membranes and destroy
bacteria ex. Cooking,
Dry-heat oven : 170 °C for 2 hours, denature proteins and alters
membranes,
Incineration : Exposure to flame or destroy bacteria by burning.
Autoclave : Heating at very high temperature like 121 °C for 15-40
minutes at 15 psi (pounds per square inch), denature proteins and
alters membranes.
Pasteurization : 72 °C for 15 seconds ,138 °C for 2 seconds (Ultra-High
Temperature / UHT), Denatures proteins and alters membranes it
prevents spoilage of milk, apple juice, honey, and other ingestible
liquids
Refrigeration : Temperature 0 °C to 7 °C, Inhibits metabolism,
Preservation of food or laboratory materials.
Freezing : Below -2 °C, stops metabolism, may kill microbes, Long-
term storage of food, laboratory cultures, or medical specimens.
High-pressure processing : Exposure to pressures of 100-800 MPa,
denatures proteins and can cause cell lysis, Preservation of food
Hyperbaric oxygen therapy : Inhalation of pure oxygen at a pressure
of 1-3 atm, Inhibits metabolism and growth of anaerobic microbes,
Treatment of certain infections (e.g., gas gangrenea ,severe and
potentially life-threatening condition caused Anaerobic bacteria
Clostridium perfringens, C. septicum, infect deep wounds or tissues
with low oxygen levels.).
Simple desiccation : refers to the process of removing water from a
substance or material, typically to inhibit microbial growth and
preserve it. This is one of the oldest methods of food preservation
Lyophilization : also known as freeze-drying, is a sophisticated
preservation process that removes water from a substance by freezing
it and then applying a vacuum to sublimate the ice (convert it directly
from a solid to a vapor) under controlled conditions. It is widely used
in food, pharmaceuticals, biotechnology, and laboratory research.
Ionizing radiation : Ionizing radiation damages microbial DNA (Single
and double-strand DNA breaks are lethal for microbial cells).
Membrane filtration : use of membrane filter with 0.2-um or smaller
pore size, physically removes microbes from liquid solutions. It is used
in removal of bacteria from heat-sensitive solutions like vitamins,
antibiotics, and media with heat-sensitive
Nonionizing components dimers radiation : UV radiation causes
covalent bonds to form between adjacent thymine bases (or cytosine
bases) on the same DNA strand.This dimerization distorts the DNA
structure.