CHAPTER 2

SOLID SURFACE
CHARACTERIZATION

1
 Contents
2.1 Introduction

2.2 Physico-chemical characteristics of surface layers

2.3 Surface texture

2.4 Analysis of surface roughness

2.5 Measurement of surface roughness

2.6 Influence of surface texture on surface temperature

in rolling-sliding contact (experimental) 2
2.1 Introduction
• There are mainly three phases of matter:
 solids
 liquids
 gases.
The word fluid is used to describe both gas and
liquid phase.
• Surface is the physical boundary of only one of these
phases, such as solid surface, liquid surface etc.
• An interface is the physical boundary between two
adjacent bulk phases.

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 A solid surface, (a solid-gas or solid-liquid
interface ) has a complex structure and complex
properties dependent upon:
 the nature of solids,
 the method of surface preparation,
 the interaction between the surface and the
environment.
Properties of solid surfaces affect :
 real area of contact,
friction
wear
lubrication 4
• Many of the surfaces (all metals except nobel metals
alloys and many nonmetals) are chemically reactive
 chemical corrosion film ( surface oxide layers or other layers
nitrides, sulfides and chlorides) in the air.
 adsorbed films that are produced either by physisorption or
chemisorptions of oxygen, water vapor, and hydrocarbons from
the environment
• The presence of surface films (greasy or oily film)
affect friction and wear.
• Sometimes, the films are worn out in the initial
period of running and subsequently have no effect.

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 Solid surfaces (irrespective of the method of
formation) contain deviations or irregularities from
the prescribed geometrical form (Surface texture)
The surfaces contain irregularities of various
orders ranging from shape deviations to
irregularities of the order of interatomic distances
( Macro- and micro/nanotopography).
In addition to surface deviations, the solid surface
itself consists of several zones having physico-
chemical properties peculiar to the bulk material
itself. fig-chp2\[Link]

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 2.2 Physico-chemical characteristics of surface layers
A) Deformed layer
As a result of the forming process ( grinding, lapping,
machining or polishing)
 the surface layers are plastically deformed with or without a
temperature gradient
 become highly strained.
The strained layer is called the deformed layer (work-
hardened layer)
The amount of the deformed material present and the
degree of deformation are functions of two factors:
(1) the amount of work or energy that was put into the deformation
process,
(2) the nature of the material. 7
 The thickness of the lightly and heavily deformed
layers typically ranged from 1 to 10 and 10 to 100
micrometers, respectively.
B) Beilby layer
It is a phenomenon that brings about a polished
surface.
The layer has an amorphous or microcrystalline
structure.
The thickness typically ranges from 1 to 100nm.

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C) Chemically reacted layer
All metals (except noble metals) and alloys react
with oxygen and form
 oxide layers in air
 other layers (for example, nitrides, sulfides, and chlorides) in
other environment
Typical thickness of these layers range from 10 to
100nm.
The thickness of the chemically reacted layers
depend on:
 the reactivity of the materials to the environment,
reaction temperature
reaction time 9
D) Chemisorbed layer
fig-chp2\[Link]
there is an actual sharing of electrons or electron interchange
between the chemisorbed species and the solid surface.
 the solid surface has very strong bonds to the adsorption species
through covalent bonds
while chemically bonding to the surface, the chemisorbing
species, retain their own individual identity. so that we can, by
proper treatment of the surfaces
E) Physisorbed layers
 adsorbed layers formed from the environment both on metallic or
nonmetallic surfaces.
no exchange of electrons takes place between the molecules of
the adsorbate and those of the adsorbent.
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
 2.3 Surface texture
The surfaces contain irregularities of various orders
ranging from shape deviations to irregularities of
the order of interatomic distances
fig-chp2\[Link]
Surface texture is the repetitive or random
deviation from the normal surface
Components of surface texture (three dimensional
topography of the surface) : roughness, waviness
and error of form fig-chp2\[Link]
fig-chp2\[Link]

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a) Surface roughness (Nano-and micro-roughness)
 Formed by fluctuations in the surface of short wavelengths
 characterized by hills (asperities)and valleys of varying
amplitudes
b) Waviness (macro roughness)
 Formed by fluctuations in the surface of longer wavelengths
 may result from such factors as machine or work piece
deflections, vibration, heat treatment etc.
c) Error of form
 a gross deviations from nominal shape of very long wavelength.

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2.4 Analysis of surface roughness
(Average roughness parameter)
• Surface roughness most commonly refers to the
variations in the height of the surface relative to a
reference plane. fig-chp2\[Link]
• It is usually characterized by one of the two statistical
height descriptors :
[Link], CLA (center-line average), or AA (arithmetic
average)
[Link] or root mean square (RMS).

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 Another measure of surface roughness is an
extreme-value height descriptor Rt (or Ry, Rmax
( maximum peak-to-valley height or simply P-V
distance)).
Four other extreme-value height descriptors in
limited use are:
• Rp (maximum peak height, maximum peak-to-mean
height or simply P-M distance)
• Rv (maximum valley depth or mean-to-lowest valley
height)
• Rz ( average peak-to-valley height),
• Rpm (average peak-to-mean height)
fig-chp2\[Link] 14
 For the complete characterization of a profile or a
surface, none of the parameters discussed earlier are
sufficient.
These parameters are seen to be primarily
concerned with the relative departure of the profile in
the vertical direction only; they do not provide any
information about the slopes, shapes and sizes of the
asperities or about the frequency and regularity of
their occurrence.
It is possible, for surfaces of widely differing
profiles with different frequencies and different
shapes, to give the same Ra or s (Rq) values
fig-chp2\[Link] 15
 The effect of roughness in many tribological
applications;
a. height of the highest asperities above the mean line
is an important parameter because damage may be
done to the interface by the few high asperities
present on one of the two surfaces;
b. valleys may affect lubrication retention and flow.

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 2.5 Measurement of surface roughness
The measurement technique can be divided into two
broad catagories:
(1) a contact type in which during measurement a
component of the measurement instrument actually
contacts the surface to be measured; and
(2) a non contact type (optical etc).
• A contact-type instrument may damage surfaces
when used with a sharp sylus tip, particularly soft
surfaces fig-chp2\[Link] .
• For contact-type measurements, the normal loads
have to be low enough so that the contact stresses do
not exceed the hardness of the surface to be measured.
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• There are a number of techniques (six categories)
that have been used in laboratories:
1. Mechanical stylus method
2. Optical methods
3. Scanning probe microscopy (SPM)
4. Fluid methods
5. Electrical methods
6. Electron microscopy methods
Mechanical stylus method
This method uses an instrument that amplifies and
records the vertical motions of a stylus displaced at
constant speed by the surface to be measured. 18
 Components:
1. Test piece
2. Measurement head (stylus, stylus arm, sensor and loading
system)
3. Proximity sensor
Operation:
• The stylus arm is loaded against the sample and either the
stylus is scanned across the stationary sample surface using
a traverse unit at a constant speed or the sample is
transported across an optical flat reference.
• As the stylus or sample moves, the stylus rides over the
sample surface detecting surface deviation by the transducer.
It produces an analog signal corresponding to the vertical
stylus movement. This signal is then amplified, conditioned
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 It produces an analog signal corresponding to the
vertical stylus movement. This signal is then
amplified, conditioned and digitalized.
• The stylus arm is coupled to the core of an LVDT to
monitor vertical motions. The core of a force
solenoid is coupled to the stylus arm and its coil is
energized to load the stylus tip against the sample.
• A proximity probe (photo optical sensor) is used to
provide a soft limit to the vertical location of the
stylus with respect to the sample. The sample is
scanned under the stylus at a constant speed.

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 2.6 Influence of surface texture on surface
temperature in rolling-sliding contact
(experimental)
a. Experimental conditions (test pieces, load
lubrication)
b. Experimental method (test method, measurement
methods)
c. Results
d. Conclusions

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Fig. Dimensions of test rollers

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 Roller

Stylus arm

Fig. Measurement method of surface roughness

Fig. Surface roughness and surface profile of surface texture A test roller 24
Fig. Surface roughness and surface profile of surface texture B test roller 25
Fig. Surface roughness and surface profile of surface texture C test roller 26
2- Roller-Type Contact Fatigue Tester

Oil temperature
control unit

Contact fatigue
tester
 High-speed Low-speed
roller roller
(H) (L)
15 mm Speed of rotation rev min -1 3190 2630
Peripheral speed m sec -1 12.28 10.12
Specific sliding % 17.6 -21.3
Sliding velocity m sec -1 2.05

Low-speed roller High-speed roller

Back-up roller

Fig. Two- roller contact fatigue tester

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Thermocouple Thermocouple
Oil inlet

Low-speed roller High-speed roller

Fig. Measurement method of the surface temperature

 Surface texture A test roller
B test roller
C test roller

Fig. Influence of initial surface roughness on surface temperature of low-speed roller

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Surface texture A test roller Surface texture B test roller Surface texture C test roller
F n = 3.98 ～ 15.92 (σ H = 1.05 ～ 2.10 GPa )
N t = 0.77× 107 N t = 1.05× 107 N t = 0.84× 107
T s = 335 ～ 510 K T s = 330 ～ 470 K T s = 330 ～ 435 K

Small-pit

100 μm

Fig. Appearances of surface failure of low-speed roller (small-pitting)

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 Conclusions
From these experiments, the following results are
obtained on smoother initial surface roughness:
1. The surface temperature does not rise under the
high load
2. The amount of wear decreases
Therefore, it is found that high performance rolling-
sliding components can be developed by smooth
finished surfaces.

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