Chapter Three: Ethical Decision
Making and Moral Judgments
3.1. Chapter Introduction
One has to make decisions about which desire to satisfy? and
which to give up or postpone?.
functions of morality:-
to maintain order and to prevent or solve the conflicts among
people reasonably.
to provide principles and rules that are acceptable to everyone
and encourage people to live together peacefully and
cooperatively.
3.3. How Can We Make Ethical Decisions And Actions?
What things are good or bad?
There are things which we consider good or desirable for their result-
for what they lead to. They are called instrumental good.
There are also things which we consider good not because of what they
lead to but because of what they are in themselves: these are called
intrinsic good.
there are things which are instrumentally bad and intrinsically bad. E.g.
Female Genital Mutilation, early marriage, kidnapping, abduction,
Ignorance, poverty, corruption, murder.
tasks of ethical reasoning is
1. to analyze and critically consider the values we hold and the claims
we make in relation to the perceived obligations that we might have
towards one another.
Continued …
2. is to evaluate the adequacy of reasons that we give for our actions.
(sound evidence and/or logical argument)
Ethical values are usually not as easy to understand as other kinds of
values.
Ethical problems are often not as clear as other kinds of problems and
resolving ethical problems as definitively is not always possible.
The aim of ethics is to offer tools for thinking about difficult
problems.
3.3.1. Ethical Principles and Values of Moral Judgments
‘rules of thumb’ needs to be examined in Ethics. we need theoretical
frameworks that can help us to analyze complex problems and to
find rational, coherent solutions to those problems.
3.3.2. Moral intuitions and Critical Reasoning
The study of ethics involves reasoning about our feeling.
Example Empathy (moral sentiments) →Ethical reasoning → Moral
Principle →conscience → supported by reason.
All societies are characterised by their own ethical ideas.
3.3.2.1. Rationalization
Ethics involves attempting to find valid reasons for the moral
arguments that we make.
Most people have general ideas (‘intuitions’ ) or ‘presumptions’ –
about what they think is ‘right’ or ‘wrong’
Continued …
One common fault with many moral arguments is A rationalization
occurs when we use what at first glance seem to be rational or credible
motives to cover up our true motive.
3.3.2.2. Types of reasoning
Three forms of critical reasoning that individuals can use to justify
their arguments are:-
1. ‘Reasoning by analogy’ explains one thing by comparing it to
something else that is similar, although also different. E.g. animals
are like and unlike humans, as humans are also animals.
2. Deductive reasoning applies a principle to a situation. E.g. if every
person has human rights, and you are a person, then you have human
rights like every person.’
3. ‘Inductive reasoning involves providing evidence to support a
hypothesis. E.g. there is mounting evidence that the burning of fossil
fuels is having a detrimental effect on global climate, we have a moral
duty to reduce carbon emissions.
3.3.2.3. Ethics and Religious Faith
There is another important argument that people use when making
ethical arguments: religious faith.
Religion doesn’t rely on reason. But faith-based arguments are
relevant to moral philosophy:-
1. people do not always agree on what is right or wrong.
2. we should not underestimate the ability of ‘the moral teachings of a
religious tradition.
3.3.2.4. Testing moral arguments
When people are using a principle to support their argument it is
(deductive reasoning),
When people are providing evidence to support their argument it is
called inductive reasoning.
We have an idea of what we think is right based on our experience
(our ethical presumptions), and we explain those ideas to other
people based on our feelings (intuitions) and reasons.
Continued…
Three ways to test a moral argument:
1. Factual accuracy. we cannot say that something is wrong or right
simply based on how things are.
2. Consistency.
3. Good will.
3.3.3. Thinking Ethically: A framework for Moral
Decision Making
The first step in analyzing moral issues is Get the facts.
The second step is how to appeal to value.
The five different approaches to values to deal with moral issues are:
1. Fairness and Justice,
2. the common Good,
3. the Utilitarian
4. the Rights, and
5. the Virtues
Continued…
3.3.3.1. Fairness and Justice Approach
“equals should be treated equally and unequal’s unequally”.
basic moral question in this approach is:
How fair is an action?
Does it treat everyone in the same way, or does it show favoritism and
discrimination?
3.3.3.2. The Common Good Approach
common good "certain general conditions that are equally to
everyone's advantage."
Examples of goods common to all include affordable health care,
effective public safety, peace among nations, a just legal system, and
an unpolluted environment.
3.3.3.3. The Rights Approach
Continued …..
focused on the individual’s right to choose for her or himself.
Basic rights of human beings are:-
1. The Right to the Truth
2. The Right of Privacy
3. The Right not to be injured
4. The Right to what is agreed
In deciding whether an action is moral or immoral using this approach, we must ask,
does the action respect the moral rights of everyone?
Generally, in Ethical Problem Solving;
Once facts have been ascertained, consider five questions when trying to resolve a moral
issue:
1) What benefits and what harms will each course of action produce, and which
alternative will lead to the best overall consequences?
2) What moral rights do the affected parties have, and which course of action best
respects those rights?
3) Which course of action treats everyone the same, except where there is a morally
justifiable reason not to, and does not show favoritism or discrimination?
4) Which course of action advances the common good?
5) Which course of action develops moral virtues?
3.4. To Whom or What Does Morality Apply?
four aspects may be considered: religious morality, morality and nature,
individual morality, and social morality.
3.4.1. Religious Morality
Religious morality refers to a human being in relationship to a
supernatural being or beings.
3.4.2. Morality and Nature
refers to a human being in relationship to nature.
3.4.3. Individual Morality
refers to individuals in relation to themselves and to an individual
code of morality that may or may not be sanctioned by any society
or religion.
3.4.4. Social Morality
concerns a human being in relation to other human beings
3.5. Who is Morally/Ethically Responsible?
Morality pertains to human beings and only to human beings.
3.5.1. Moral Judgments
Moral judgments refer to deciding what is right and what is wrong
in human relations.
Moral judgments deals with voluntary actions those actions freely
chosen.
a person usually is not held responsible for an action that she or he
did not initiate.
in judging conduct or action we have to consider motives, means,
and consequences and sometimes the situation.
3.5.2. What Makes an Action Moral?
Some actions are morally neutral or non-moral.
features that make an action moral
Continued…
1. A moral act involves an agent (Humans)
2. A moral act involves intention. If an action is done accidentally, it
may be counted as a morally neutral action. However, some
unintentional acts, such as those done through negligence, can be
moral.
3. A moral act affects others (moral patients):
3.6. Why Should Human Beings Be Moral?
A. Argument from Enlightened Self-Interest
better to be good rather than bad and to create a world and society that
is good rather than one that is bad.
B. Argument from Tradition and Law
C. Common Human Needs
all human beings have many needs, desires, goals, and objectives in
common.
