Exploratory Data Analysis: INTRODUCTION TO

DATA SCIENCE

Presenter’s Name
Dr. Shital Bhatt
Associate Professor
School of Computational and Data Sciences

[Link] [Link]
Need to Split Data, Data
Splitting Methods
An overview of data splitting importance and methods
Introduction to Data Splitting

 Data splitting involves dividing a dataset into two or more subsets. These subsets are used
for training, validation, and testing purposes in machine learning models.
Importance of Data Splitting

 1. Prevents overfitting: Ensures that the model generalizes well to unseen data.
 2. Model evaluation: Provides a reliable way to evaluate the model's performance.
 3. Hyperparameter tuning: Allows for tuning model parameters using validation data.
Types of Data Splits

 1. Training Set: Used to train the model.

 2. Validation Set: Used to tune hyperparameters and validate the model during training.
 3. Test Set: Used to evaluate the final model performance on unseen data.
Data Splitting Methods

 1. Random Split
 2. Stratified Split
 3. Time-based Split
 4. K-Fold Cross-Validation
 5. Leave-One-Out Cross-Validation
Random Split

 Randomly splits the data into training and test sets.

 Pros: Simple and quick.
 Cons: May lead to imbalanced splits if not done properly.
Stratified Split

 Splits the data so that each subset has the same distribution of target variable.
 Pros: Ensures balanced representation of target classes.
 Cons: More complex to implement.
Time-based Split

 Used for time series data. Splits data based on time order.
 Pros: Reflects real-world scenarios.
 Cons: May not work well with non-sequential data.
K-Fold Cross-Validation

 Splits the data into k subsets (folds) and trains the model k times, each time using a
different fold as the test set.
 Pros: Provides a robust estimate of model performance.
 Cons: Computationally expensive.
Leave-One-Out Cross-Validation

 Special case of k-fold cross-validation where k is equal to the number of data points.
 Pros: Uses maximum amount of data for training each iteration.
 Cons: Extremely computationally expensive.
Best Practices in Data Splitting

 1. Ensure randomization (when applicable).

 2. Use stratified splits for classification tasks.
 3. Maintain time order for time series data.
 4. Use cross-validation for more reliable performance estimates.
Examples and Case Studies

 Example 1: Splitting a dataset for a binary classification problem.

 Example 2: Using time-based split for a stock price prediction model.
 Case Study: Applying k-fold cross-validation in a machine learning competition.
Conclusion

 Data splitting is a crucial step in building reliable machine learning models.

 Choosing the right data splitting method ensures better model performance and
generalization.
Need for Data Transformation and
Scaling, Data Transformations,
Scaling
An overview of the importance and methods of data transformation and scaling
Introduction to Data Transformation and
Scaling
 Data transformation involves converting data into a suitable format or structure for
analysis.
 Scaling adjusts the range of features to ensure they are comparable and improve model
performance.
Need for Data Transformation and Scaling

 1. Improves model performance by ensuring features are on a similar scale.

 2. Reduces bias in models that are sensitive to the magnitude of data.
 3. Enhances data visualization and interpretability.
Types of Data Transformations

 1. Log Transformation
 2. Power Transformation
 3. Box-Cox Transformation
 4. Z-score Normalization
Log Transformation

 Applies the natural logarithm to data to reduce skewness.

 Pros: Reduces the impact of outliers.
 Cons: Cannot be applied to zero or negative values.
Power Transformation

 Transforms data using a power function (e.g., square root, cube root).
 Pros: Reduces skewness and variance.
 Cons: Choice of power can be subjective.
Box-Cox Transformation

 Applies a power transformation to stabilize variance and make data more normal
distribution-like.
 Pros: Effective for positive data.
 Cons: Requires data to be positive and strictly greater than zero.
Z-score Normalization

 Transforms data to have a mean of zero and a standard deviation of one.

 Pros: Useful for algorithms sensitive to data scale.
 Cons: Affected by outliers.
Types of Scaling

 1. Min-Max Scaling
 2. Standardization
 3. Robust Scaling
 4. Max-Abs Scaling
Min-Max Scaling

 Scales data to a fixed range, usually [0, 1].

 Pros: Preserves relationships in data.
 Cons: Sensitive to outliers.
Standardization

 Scales data to have a mean of zero and a standard deviation of one.

 Pros: Useful for data with varying scales.
 Cons: Sensitive to outliers.
Robust Scaling

 Scales data using statistics that are robust to outliers (e.g., median, interquartile range).
 Pros: Less sensitive to outliers.
 Cons: May distort small datasets.
Max-Abs Scaling

 Scales data to the range [-1, 1] by dividing by the maximum absolute value.
 Pros: Preserves zero entries.
 Cons: Sensitive to outliers.
Best Practices in Data Transformation and
Scaling
 1. Understand the data distribution before applying transformations.
 2. Choose scaling methods appropriate for the algorithm.
 3. Handle outliers carefully to avoid distortion.
 4. Apply consistent transformations across training and test data.
Examples and Case Studies

 Example 1: Applying log transformation to reduce skewness in sales data.

 Example 2: Using standardization for a dataset with varying feature scales.
 Case Study: Impact of scaling methods on the performance of a machine learning model.
Conclusion

 Data transformation and scaling are essential preprocessing steps for building effective
machine learning models.
 Properly transformed and scaled data lead to improved model performance and
generalization.
Feature Engineering and
Feature Selection
An overview of the importance and methods of feature engineering and selection
Introduction to Feature Engineering and
Feature Selection
 Feature engineering involves creating new features or modifying existing ones to improve
model performance.
 Feature selection involves selecting the most relevant features for model training.
Importance of Feature Engineering

 1. Enhances model performance by creating more informative features.

 2. Reduces overfitting by simplifying the model.
 3. Helps in better understanding and interpretation of the data.
Techniques of Feature Engineering

 1. Handling Missing Values

 2. Encoding Categorical Variables
 3. Creating Interaction Features
 4. Normalization and Scaling
 5. Feature Transformation
Handling Missing Values

 1. Imputation: Fill missing values using mean, median, or mode.

 2. Deletion: Remove rows or columns with missing values.
 3. Predictive Modeling: Use algorithms to predict missing values.
Encoding Categorical Variables

 1. One-Hot Encoding: Converts categorical values into binary vectors.

 2. Label Encoding: Assigns unique integers to each category.
 3. Target Encoding: Uses target variable to encode categories.
Creating Interaction Features

 1. Polynomial Features: Create new features by combining existing ones using polynomial
functions.
 2. Cross Features: Create new features by combining categorical variables.
 3. Domain-Specific Features: Create features based on domain knowledge.
Normalization and Scaling

 1. Min-Max Scaling: Scales features to a fixed range, usually [0, 1].

 2. Standardization: Scales features to have a mean of zero and a standard deviation of one.
 3. Robust Scaling: Scales features using statistics that are robust to outliers.
Feature Transformation

 1. Log Transformation: Applies the natural logarithm to data to reduce skewness.

 2. Box-Cox Transformation: Applies a power transformation to stabilize variance.
 3. Feature Binning: Converts continuous features into categorical bins.
Importance of Feature Selection

 1. Improves model performance by removing irrelevant features.

 2. Reduces overfitting by simplifying the model.
 3. Enhances interpretability by focusing on the most important features.
Techniques of Feature Selection

 1. Filter Methods
 2. Wrapper Methods
 3. Embedded Methods
Filter Methods

 1. Correlation Coefficient: Selects features based on their correlation with the target
variable.
 2. Chi-Square Test: Selects features based on their association with the target variable.
 3. ANOVA: Selects features based on their variance with the target variable.
Wrapper Methods

 1. Forward Selection: Starts with no features and adds one feature at a time.
 2. Backward Elimination: Starts with all features and removes one feature at a time.
 3. Recursive Feature Elimination: Recursively removes the least important features.
Embedded Methods

 1. Lasso Regression: Uses L1 regularization to select features.

 2. Ridge Regression: Uses L2 regularization to select features.
 3. Decision Trees: Selects features based on their importance in tree models.
Best Practices in Feature Engineering and
Selection
 1. Understand the data and domain knowledge.
 2. Use feature engineering to create meaningful features.
 3. Apply feature selection to remove irrelevant features.
 4. Validate the model using cross-validation to avoid overfitting.
Examples and Case Studies

 Example 1: Creating new features from timestamps in a time series dataset.

 Example 2: Using Lasso regression for feature selection in a regression problem.
 Case Study: Impact of feature engineering and selection on a Kaggle competition dataset.
Conclusion

 Feature engineering and selection are crucial steps in building effective machine learning
models.
 Properly engineered and selected features lead to improved model performance and
generalization.
Curse of Dimensionality &
Dimension Reduction Techniques
Understanding Challenges and Solutions in High-Dimensional Data
Introduction

 • Definition of high-dimensional data

 • Importance in various domains such as machine learning, data
science, and bioinformatics
What is the Curse of Dimensionality?

 • Explanation of the curse

 • Challenges associated with high-dimensional data:
 - Data sparsity
 - Increased computational complexity
 - Issues in statistical analysis and machine learning
Effects of High Dimensionality

 • Data Sparsity: Most data points are far apart in high dimensions
 • Computational Complexity: Exponential increase in computation
 • Overfitting: Models become too complex
 • Visualization Challenges: Difficulty in visualizing data beyond
three dimensions
Mathematical Perspective

 • Distance Metrics: Changes in distance measures in high

dimensions
 • Volume and Space: Most of the volume in a high-dimensional
sphere is near its surface
 • Implications: Impact on algorithms like k-nearest neighbors
Frequent Pattern Matching &
Data Mining: Association
Exploring Techniques and Applications

[Your Name]
[Current Date]
Introduction to Data Mining

 • Definition of data mining

 • Importance in extracting valuable information from data
 • Common tasks in data mining (e.g., classification, clustering,
association)
Frequent Pattern Mining Overview

 • Definition of frequent pattern mining

 • Aim: Discover patterns that occur frequently in datasets
 • Types of frequent patterns:
 - Itemsets
 - Subsequences
 - Subgraphs
Importance of Frequent Patterns

 • Helps in understanding data structure

 • Useful in market basket analysis, bioinformatics, etc.
 • Basis for association rule mining
Apriori Algorithm

 • Introduction to the Apriori algorithm

 • Key concepts:
 - Frequent itemsets
 - Apriori property (downward closure)
 • Steps:
 1. Generate candidate itemsets
 2. Prune non-frequent itemsets
 3. Repeat until no more itemsets
FP-Growth Algorithm

 • Introduction to FP-Growth algorithm

 • Key concepts:
 - Frequent Pattern (FP) tree
 - Conditional pattern bases
 • Steps:
 1. Construct FP-Tree
 2. Extract frequent itemsets from FP-Tree
 • Comparison with Apriori: Efficient without candidate generation
Association Rule Mining

 • Definition of association rule mining

 • Goal: Discover interesting relationships (rules) among data
 • Structure of rules: IF (antecedent) THEN (consequent)
Generating Association Rules

 • Steps:
 1. Find all frequent itemsets
 2. Generate strong association rules from frequent itemsets
 • Criteria: Support and confidence thresholds
Support, Confidence, and Lift

 • Support: Frequency of itemsets in the dataset

 • Confidence: Likelihood of consequent given antecedent
 • Lift: Measure of rule's performance compared to random chance
 • Example calculations for better understanding
Apriori vs. FP-Growth Comparison

 • Apriori:
 - Uses candidate generation
 - Can be inefficient with large datasets
 • FP-Growth:
 - No candidate generation
 - More efficient with large datasets
 • Pros and cons of each method
Advanced Techniques

 • Eclat algorithm: Uses vertical data format

 • Association rule mining in streaming data
 • Using neural networks for pattern discovery
Applications of Association Rule Mining

 • Market Basket Analysis: Finding products frequently bought

together
 • Bioinformatics: Discovering patterns in genetic data
 • Fraud Detection: Identifying suspicious transactions
 • Recommendation Systems: Suggesting products based on user
behavior
Challenges and Considerations

 • Handling large and complex datasets

 • Dealing with noisy and incomplete data
 • Balancing rule interestingness and comprehensibility
 • Ensuring privacy and ethical considerations
Conclusion

 • Recap of frequent pattern matching and association rule mining

 • Importance in data mining and practical applications
 • Future directions: Integration with advanced AI techniques
Q&A

 • Invite questions and discussion from the audience

References

 • List of references and further reading:

 - Book: Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques by Han, Kamber,
and Pei
 - Research Papers: Various relevant papers on frequent pattern
mining and association
Dimension Reduction Overview

 • Purpose and benefits:

 - Reducing computational load
 - Mitigating overfitting
 - Facilitating visualization and interpretation
 • Categories of dimension reduction techniques:
 - Feature Extraction
 - Feature Selection
Principal Component Analysis (PCA)

 • Explanation: Orthogonal transformation to convert correlated features into

linearly uncorrelated components
 • Mathematics: Eigenvalues and eigenvectors
 • Steps:
 1. Standardize data
 2. Compute covariance matrix
 3. Compute eigenvalues and eigenvectors
 4. Select principal components
 • Visualization: Example with 2D and 3D projections
Linear Discriminant Analysis (LDA)

 • Explanation: Finds the linear combinations of features that best separate classes
 • Difference from PCA: Focuses on maximizing class separability
 • Steps:
 1. Compute mean vectors for each class
 2. Compute within-class and between-class scatter matrices
 3. Compute eigenvalues and eigenvectors for the scatter matrices
 4. Select discriminant vectors
 • Visualization: Example with class separation
t-Distributed Stochastic Neighbor Embedding
(t-SNE)

 • Explanation: Non-linear technique for reducing dimensions while

preserving local structure
 • Steps:
 1. Compute pairwise similarities
 2. Minimize Kullback-Leibler divergence
 • Applications: Visualizing high-dimensional data like images
 • Visualization: Example with high-dimensional clustering
Uniform Manifold Approximation and
Projection (UMAP)

 • Explanation: Non-linear dimensionality reduction for preserving

local and global data structure
 • Comparison with t-SNE: Faster and more scalable
 • Steps:
 1. Construct a high-dimensional graph
 2. Optimize low-dimensional representation
 • Visualization: Example with manifold learning
Autoencoders

 • Explanation: Neural networks for unsupervised learning that

compress data into a lower-dimensional space
 • Types: Standard, Denoising, Variational Autoencoders
 • Application: Image and text data reduction
 • Visualization: Example with encoded and decoded data
Feature Selection Techniques

 • Explanation: Selects a subset of relevant features

 • Methods:
 - Filter Methods: Correlation, Chi-Square
 - Wrapper Methods: Recursive Feature Elimination
 - Embedded Methods: LASSO, Tree-based methods
 • Examples: Feature importance ranking
Comparison of Techniques

 • Comparison Table: PCA, LDA, t-SNE, UMAP, Autoencoders,

Feature Selection
 • Pros and Cons: Strengths and weaknesses
 • Use Cases: Scenarios where each technique excels
Practical Considerations

 • Choosing the Right Technique: Based on data type and problem

requirements
 • Scalability: Handling large datasets
 • Interpretability: Ease of understanding results
Conclusion

 • Summary of key points

 • Importance of dimensionality reduction in dealing with high-
dimensional data
 • Future trends in dimensionality reduction techniques
Q&A

 • Invite questions and discussion from the audience

References

 • List of references and further reading

Hypothesis Creation and Data
Interpretability: Making Sense of
Data
Your Name
Date
Introduction

 Brief overview of the importance of hypothesis creation and data interpretability

 Objectives of the presentation
Understanding Hypotheses

 Definition: A hypothesis is a tentative statement about the relationship between two or

more variables.
 Importance: Hypotheses drive the research process, providing direction and focus for data
collection and analysis.
 Characteristics: A good hypothesis should be testable, falsifiable, specific, and based on
existing knowledge.
Types of Hypotheses

 Null Hypothesis (H0): Assumes no relationship between variables or no difference between

groups.
 Alternative Hypothesis (H1): States that there is a relationship between variables or a
difference between groups.
 Examples: Examples of each type of hypothesis.
Steps in Hypothesis Creation

 Identify the Research Question: Define what you want to investigate.

 Conduct a Literature Review: Understand existing research and gaps.
 Define Variables: Determine the independent and dependent variables.
 Formulate the Hypothesis: Create a clear, testable statement.
Data Collection Methods

 Qualitative Data: Non-numerical data such as interviews, focus groups, and observations.
 Quantitative Data: Numerical data such as surveys, experiments, and secondary data.
 Primary vs. Secondary Data: Primary data is collected firsthand, while secondary data is
collected by someone else.
Data Preparation and Cleaning

 Importance: Ensures data quality and accuracy, reducing errors and biases.
 Common Issues: Missing values, outliers, duplicates.
 Techniques: Data cleaning techniques include imputation, outlier detection, and data
normalization.
Data Interpretability

 Definition: The extent to which data and the results derived from data can be understood
and used effectively.
 Importance: Helps stakeholders make informed decisions and understand insights.
 Trade-off: Balance between model complexity and interpretability.
Methods for Enhancing Data Interpretability

 Data Visualization: Graphical representation of data to uncover patterns and insights.

 Feature Importance: Identifying which features contribute most to the model's predictions.
 Model Simplification: Techniques like pruning decision trees or using simpler models for
greater interpretability.
Tools and Techniques for Data Analysis

 Statistical Tests: t-tests, chi-square tests for hypothesis testing.

 Data Visualization Tools: Tableau, Power BI for visualizing data.
 Machine Learning Tools: scikit-learn, TensorFlow for building and interpreting models.
Case Study 1: Hypothesis Testing

 Example: Real-world hypothesis test.

 Steps taken: Data collection, analysis, and results.
Case Study 2: Data Interpretability in Machine
Learning
 Example: Machine learning project focusing on interpretability.
 Techniques used: Simplification, feature importance, and outcomes.
Challenges and Solutions

 Common Challenges: Issues in hypothesis creation, data quality, model complexity.

 Strategies: Best practices for overcoming these challenges.
Conclusion

 Recap of Key Points: Summarize the main takeaways.

 Importance: Highlight the significance of combining hypothesis creation with data
interpretability.
 Future Trends: Discuss emerging trends in data analysis and interpretability.
Q&A

 Open the floor for questions and discussions.

References

 List of sources and references used in the presentation.