HARAMBEE UNIVERSITY

Postgraduate Program

Advanced Business Research Methods

 Objectives of the Course
Two primary objectives:
Students are expected to:
 Show their ability to effectively gather, manage,
analyze relevant data in support of their written
argument;

 Show that they have followed good academic

research practice and have achieved a good level of
competence in academic writing;
 Recommended books
C.R Kothari(1990).Research Methodology.
Methods and Techniques.2nd edition, New age
international publisher
Creswell, John (2003). Research Design:
Qualitative, Quantitative, and mixed methods
approaches, 2nd ed.
Ethridge,D.E.(2004). Research Methodology in
Applied Economics. Blackwell.
Walliman, Nicholas (2006). Social Research
Methods. SAGE Publications Ltd: London.
Gujarati(2008). Basic Econometrics, Fifth Edition
Wooldridge, J.M. (2010). Econometric Analysis of
Cross-Sectional and Panel Data. Cambridge: MIT
 Assessment Methods

Assessment Type Weight Submission date

Assignment 1(Proposal 30% TBA

Writing)
Assignment II-(Article 20% TBA
Review)
Final Exam 50% As per the
academic calendar
Total 100%
Course Content
Course content
Course content cont…
 Chapter One: Introduction
1.1 Definition of Research

We all possess the vital instinct of inquisitiveness.

When the unknown confronts us, we wonder and

probe to attain full understanding of the unknown.

This inquisitiveness is the mother of all knowledge.

The method, which we employ for obtaining the

knowledge of whatever the unknown is, therefore,
research.
Research is more than a reflection of our opinions
and prejudice.
 Scholars define research in different ways.
Research is defined as
a search for knowledge in a scientific manner

a careful investigation or inquiry specially through

search for new facts in any branch of knowledge.

a systematized effort to gain new knowledge.

 ‘Research’ refers to the systematic method
consisting of:
enunciating the problem
formulating a hypothesis
collecting data
analyzing the data and
reaching certain conclusions
 Social research should also fulfil the following
requirements:
1. systematic, i.e. follows precise methods that are
logically consistent, transparent and open to
scrutiny
2. open to criticism, i.e. research should be made
public through publications and be open to scrutiny
both for its procedures and its findings,
3. independent, i.e. be free from direct or indirect
censorship
 1.3 Objectives of Research
 The purpose of research is to discover answers to
questions through the application of scientific
procedures.
The main aim of research is to find out the truth
which is hidden and which has not been discovered
as yet.

 Though each research study has its own specific

purpose, we may think of research objectives as
falling into a number of the following broad
groupings:
 Objectives of Research
1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to
achieve new insights into it;
2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a
particular individual, situation or a group;
3. To determine the frequency with which something
occurs or it’s associated with something else;
4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship
between variables.
 Motivations in Research
 What makes people to undertake research?
1. Desire to get a research degree along with its
consequential benefits;
2. Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved
problems, i.e., concern over practical problems
initiates research;
5. Desire to serve the society;
6. Desire to get respect;
7. Curiosity about new things; and
8. Desire to understand causal relationships
 1.4. Characteristics of Research
[Link]:- Research is based on direct experience or
observation by the researcher.
[Link]: -Research is based on valid procedures and
principles.
[Link].:-Research is a cyclical process because it starts
with a problem and ends with a problem.
[Link]:-Research utilizes proven analytical procedures
in gathering the data, whether historical, descriptive, and
experimental and case study.
[Link].: -Research exhibits careful and precise judgment.
[Link]: Research is conducted in a methodical manner
without bias using systematic method and procedures.
[Link]: - The research design and procedures are
replicated or repeated to enable the researcher to arrive at
valid and conclusive results.
 Characteristics of the Researcher:
1) Intellectual Curiosity: A researcher undertakes a
deep thinking and inquiry of the things, and
situations around him.
2) Prudence: The researcher is careful to conduct his
research study at the right time and at the right
place wisely, efficiently, and economically.
3) Healthy Criticism: The researcher is always
doubtful as to the truthfulness of the results.
4) Intellectual Honesty: An intelligent researcher is
honest to collect or gather data or facts in order to
arrive at honest results.
5) Intellectual Creativity: A productive and
resourceful investigator always creates new
researches.
 1.5. Classification of Research
Research comes in many shapes and sizes. Before a researc
her begins to conduct a study, he or she must decide on
a specific type of research.

Good researchers understand the advantages and

disadvantages of each type, although most end
up specializing in one.
For classification of research we shall look from four dime
nsions
1. The purpose of doing research;
2. The intended uses of research;
3. How it treats time i.e. the time dimension in research; and
 1. Research
Classification by
The purpose of doing research;
A) Exploratory or Formulative
 You may be exploring new topic or issue in order to learn about it. If
the issue was new or the researcher has written little on it, you began at
the beginning. This is called exploratory research.

 Exploratory research may be the first stage in a sequence of studies.

 A researcher may need to know enough to design

and execute a second, more systematic as well as extensive study.

 When a researcher has a limited amount of experience with or

knowledge about a research issue, exploratory research is useful
preliminary step that helps ensure that a more rigorous, more conclusive
future study will not begin with an inadequate understanding of the
nature of the management problem.

 The findings discovered through exploratory research would the

researchers to emphasize learning more about the particulars of the
findings in subsequent conclusive studies.
 Goals of Exploratory Research

1) Become familiar with the basic facts, setting, and conce

rns;
2) Develop well grounded picture of the situation;
3) Develop tentative theories, generate new ideas, conjectu
res, or hypotheses;
4) Determine the feasibility of conducting the study;
5) Formulate questions &
refine issues for more systematic inquiry
6) Develop techniques and a sense of direction for future r
esearch.
 B. Descriptive Research
Descriptive research presents a picture of the
specific details of a situation, social setting, or
relationship.
 The major purpose of descriptive research is to
describe characteristics of a population or
phenomenon.
Descriptive research seeks to determine the
answers to who, what, when, where, and how
questions.
Descriptive study offers to the researcher a profile
or description of relevant aspects of the
phenomena of interest.
Look at the class in research methods and try to
 Goals of Descriptive Research
1)Describe the situation in terms of its characteristics
2)Give a verbal or numerical picture (%) of
the situation;
3)Present background information;
4)Create a set of categories or classify the information
;
5)Clarify sequence, set of stages; and
6)Focus on `who,' `what,' `when,' `where,' and `how' b
ut not why?
 C. Explanatory Research
When we encounter an issue that is already known
and have a description of it, we might begin to
wonder why things are the way they are.
The desire to know "why," to explain, is the
purpose of explanatory research. It builds on
exploratory and descriptive research and goes on
to identify the reasons for something that occurs.
Explanatory research looks for causes and reasons.
For example, a descriptive research may discover
that 10 percent of the parents abuse their children,
whereas the explanatory researcher is more
interested in learning why parents abuse their
children
 Goals of Explanatory Research

1) Explain things not just reporting. Why? Elaborate an

d enrich a theory's explanation.
2) Determine which of several explanations is best.
3) Determine the accuracy of the theory;
4) Test a theory's predictions or principle.
5) Advance knowledge about underlying process.
6) Build and elaborate a theory;
7) Elaborate and enrich a theory's predictions or princip
le.
8) Extend a theory or principle to new areas and
new topics:
9) Provide evidence to support or refute
 2. Classification of Research
A. Basic Research
Basic research advances fundamental knowledge ab
out the human world.
 It focuses on refuting or
supporting theories that explain how world operates
.
Basic research is the source of most new scientific
ideas and ways of thinking about the world.
It can be exploratory, descriptive, or explanatory;

however, explanatory research is the most common.

Basic research generates new ideas, principles and
theories, which may not be immediately utilized;
A new idea or fundamental knowledge is not
generated only by basic research. Applied
research, too, can build new knowledge.
Nonetheless, basic research is essential for
nourishing the expansion of knowledge.
 B. Applied Research
 Applied researchers try to solve specific policy problems or
help practitioners accomplish tasks. Theory is less central
to them than seeking a solution on a specific problem for a
limited setting.
 Applied research is frequently a descriptive research, and
its main strength is its immediate practical use. Applied
research is conducted when decision must be made about a
specific real-life problem.
 Applied research encompasses those studies undertaken to
answer questions about specific problems or to make
decisions about a particular course of action or policy.
 For example, an organization contemplating a paperless
office and a networking system for the company's personal
computers may conduct research to learn the amount of
time its employees spend at personal computers in an
average week
 Types of Applied Research
i) Action research
ii) Impact Assessment Research
 C. Basic and Applied Research Compared
The procedures and techniques utilized by basic
and applied researchers do not differ substantially.
Both employ the scientific method to answer the
questions at hand.
 The distinction between them is in the application
– Basic research has little application to real world
policy and management but could be done to
guide applied research
– Applied research is essential for immediate use
3) Research by Time Dimension:
1. Cross-Sectional Research
2. Time series Research
3. The panel study
4)Research (data collection) Techniques Used
Quantitative: - Experiments, Surveys,
and Content Analysis and
Using Existing Statistics
Qualitative :- Field Research, Case Study and
Focus Group Discussion
 1.6 Scientific Approaches
The general process called the scientific approach
is influenced by the philosophical views.
The approach can be characterized as having the
following general steps:
◦ Identifying the problem/issue/question.
◦ Defining the research objectives
◦ Develop approaches for achieving the objectives
◦ Conduct the analysis
◦ Interpret the result and draw conclusions.
 Scientific Approaches:
Deductive and Inductive Thinking
The modern method of science is broadly of two
types: Induction and Deduction.
Deductive reasoning works from the more general
to the more specific.
◦ Also called a "top-down" approach.
◦ begin with a theory – to specific hypotheses – into
observations.
◦ test the hypotheses with specific data- a
confirmation (or not) of our original theories.
Deductive Reasoning
 Scientific Approaches:
Deductive and Inductive Thinking

Inductive reasoning works the other way, moving

from specific observations to broader
generalizations and theories.
◦ this is a "bottom up" approach.
We begin with specific observations and measures,
begin to detect patterns and regularities, formulate
some tentative hypotheses, and finally end up
developing some general conclusions or theories.
Inductive Thinking
 1.8 Research Ethics
Ethics: The established customs, morals, and fundamental
human relationships that exist throughout the world.

Ethical Behavior: Behavior that is morally accepted as good

or right as opposed to bad or wrong.

 General ethical rules apply also to the researchers.

 Researchers, subjects, funding bodies and society may have

conflicting incentives.

A. Researchers-researchers

 Researchers may be unethical on researchers

Plagiarism: using words or ideas without proper

acknowledgment
• Plagiarism is the unauthorized use of someone else's
thoughts or wording either by

o Incorrect documentation, failing to cite your

sources altogether, or

o Simply by relying too heavily on external

resources.

• Whether intentional or unintended some or all of

another author's ideas become represented as your
own.
• Plagiarizing undermines your academic integrity.

o It betrays your own responsibilities,

B. Researchers-society
 Falsifying data: Changing data
 Fabrication: Making up data
 Irresponsible policy advise
 Waste of research fund
C. Funding bodies-researchers
 Fund allocations directing research
 i.e. ‘money buying research results’
1.9 Research methods and research
methodology
Research methods are all methods or
techniques that are used for conducting a
research.
◦ Put differently, research method is all about
design of research techniques
Methods refers to the techniques researcher use
to collect and analyze data. It is the specific
techniques, tools or procedures applied to
achieve a given objective.
 Cont…
- Research methods can be put into the following
three groups:-
1. Methods concerning with the collection of
data. These methods will be used where the
data already available are not sufficient to
arrive at the required solution.
2. Methods of statistical techniques used for
establishing relationship between the data
and the unknowns.
3. Methods used to evaluate the accuracy of the
results obtained.
 Note: The last two groups are generally taken
as “analytical tools of research”
 Research Methodology
Methodology refers to the study of the general
approach to inquiry in a given field
◦ Therefore, Research methodology is a way to
systematically solve the research problem.
It can also be said as a science of studying how
research is done scientifically.
Of course, it is necessary for the researcher to
know not only the research methods/techniques
but also the methodology.
 Cont…
Research methodology studies
◦ Various steps in studying research problem and
logic behind them.
◦ Method or technique relevant and which are
not.
◦ Assumptions underlying various techniques.
◦ Criteria by which researchers can decide that
certain techniques and procedures will be
applicable to certain problem.
Research methodology has many dimension and
research methods do constitute a part of the
research methodology.
Chapter Two: Formulation of Research
Problem and Hypothesis
2.1. Research Problem
2.1.1. Source of Research Problem
2.1.2. Criteria of a good Research Problem
2.1.3. Formulating and testing of the problem
2.2. Research Hypothesis
2.2.1. Characteristics of a usable hypothesis
2.2.2. Difficulties in formulating Hypothesis
2.2.3. Hypothesis Testing
2.2.4. Criteria for Good Hypothesis
 The Research Process
Before embarking on the details of research
methodology and techniques, it seems appropriate
to present a brief overview of the research process.

Research process consists of series of actions or

steps necessary to effectively carry out research and
the desired sequencing of these steps
 Design the
Define the research Review the Formulate Research
problem Literature Hypotheses (including
Sampling)

Collect Data

Analyze Data

Interpret and
Report
 [Link] of Research Problem
 A Research problem
 is a discrepancy between what one knows and
ought to know to solve a problem.
 refers to some difficulty which a researcher
experiences in the context of either a theoretical or
practical situation and wants to obtain a solution
for the same.
 Sources of research problem
Sources are:
Experiences
Literatures
Theories
Reports
 Technology
 Inconsistence in past studies
2.2. Criteria of good research problem
1. Interests
2. Researchable
3. Feasible/practical
4. Significance
5. Economics
 2.3. Formulating a Research Process

1. Defining a problem
2. Showing the severity of the problem with data
3. Showing the extent of the problem with data
4. Showing the gap in the previous studies and
your value-added
 Defining the Research Problem
 Knowing what to research and its purpose is key to
the first step in the research design.
 A good research topic is broad enough to allow
you to find plenty of material, but narrow enough
to fit within the size and time constraints of your
paper.
 The problem identification affects the quality,
usefulness, effectiveness and efficiency of the
research activity.
 Defining the problem, showing the severity of the
problem, showing the extent of the problem, and
showing the gaps
 Defining the Research Problem
 What does one mean when he/she wants to define a
research problem?
It involves the task of laying down boundaries
within which a researcher shall study the problem.

How to define a research problem is undoubtedly

exceptional task.
However, it is a task that must be tackled
intelligently to avoid the perplexity encountered in
a research operation.
 Defining the Research Problem
Defining a research problem properly and clearly is
a crucial part of a research study and must no case
be accomplished hurriedly.

However, in practice this is frequently overlooked,

which causes a lot of problems later on.

Hence, the research problem should be defined in a

systematic manner, giving due emphasis to all
relating points.
 The research problem and objectives
The researcher must know exactly what his/her
problem is before he/she begins working on it.
A problem clearly defined is a problem half
solved.
◦ Problem definition or problem statement is a
clear and precise statement of the question or
issue to be investigated.
 Laying down the boundaries within which a
researcher shall study the problem.
 Helps to narrow the perspectives of the problem to
a set of issues on which new information is
sought.
 The research problem and objectives
 The researcher is required
 to describe the background of the study, its
theoretical basis and underlying assumptions in
concrete, specific and workable questions.
 The problem statement should make a convincing
argument that
o there isn’t sufficient knowledge available to
explain the problem or
◦ there is, at least, a need to test what is known and
taken as fact.
 The research problem and objectives
 Some ways to show that you are adding to the knowledge in
your field:
 Gap: A research gap is an area where no or little research
has been carried out.
 The research problem is defined by asking a question to
which the answer is unknown, and which you will
explore in your research.
◦ Continuing a previously developed line of enquiry:
Building on work already done, but taking it further (by
using a new sample, extending the area studied, taking
more factors into consideration, taking fewer factors into
consideration, etc).
 The research problem and objectives
 The problem statement could close with a question.
 Typically, the question could contain two variables, a
measurable relationship, and some indication of population.
 A good example of research question:
 "What is the relationship between farm productivity and
farmer use of fertilizer"?
 The information needed is:

◦ Productivity levels
◦ Some measure of fertilizer use.
 The research problem and objectives
 A bad example might be: "What is the best way to
train for use of fertilizer"?
-This is insufficient because:
 What are the variables?
 What will be measured?
 What relationships
 Selecting the problem
As a researcher, note that
◦ Topic which is overdone should not be
normally chosen, for it will be a difficult task to
throw any new light in such a case.
◦ The topic selected for research needs familiarity
and feasibility so that the related research
material or sources of research are within one’s
reach.
 Selecting the problem
◦ Controversial subject should not become the
choice of an average researcher.
◦ Too narrow or too vague problems should be
avoided.
◦ Take into account the importance of the subject,
the qualifications and the training of a
researcher, the costs involved, time factor
 What is not a problem?
Lack of study in this area
Studies were carried out elsewhere but not done
locally
Studies were carried out using a particular type of
sample but mine will use a different type of
sample
Studies have found some factors but I want to
find more factors
 objectives
Objectives of the study:
◦ This is the step of rephrasing the problem into
operational or analytical terms, i.e. to put the problem in
as specific terms as possible.
◦ in this section the specific activities to be achieved are
listed.
 The main purposes of the study must be clearly enunciated.
 Objectives
 General objectives
 Provides a short statement of the specific goals pursued
by the research.
 What is the general reason for carrying out this research?
In most of the cases, it is your topic written in the form of
an objective.
 Specific objectives

◦ These emanate from the general objectives. Specific

objective must be SMART.
◦ By using action verbs, the researcher must list at least
three specific objectives to achieve the general objective
◦ Indicate the type of knowledge to be produced,
audiences to be reached, etc.
◦ Against which the success of the whole research will be
judged.
 Identification of a research Topic
- The title is the doorway to the proposal.
- Must be
- Simple and catching words.
- Clear, concise, specific, self explanatory and
stated in one sentence (15 to 20 words are
recommended).
 The purpose of the study should be implied from
the title.
 Your research title must also clearly depict
variables involved. Both Dependent and
Independent variables must be clear
 Identification of a Research Topic
There are three types of research titles:

◦ Indicative title:
 they state the subject of the proposal rather than
expected outcomes.
 Example: The role of agricultural credit in
alleviating poverty in a low-potential area of
Ethiopia.
◦ Hanging titles have two parts: a general first part
followed by a more specific second part.
• Example: ‘Alleviation of poverty in low-
potential area of Ethiopia: the impact of
agricultural credit’.
 Identification of a Research Topic
Question-type titles are used less commonly than
indicative and hanging titles.
However, they are acceptable where it is possible
to use few words – say less than 15.
◦ Example: ‘Does agricultural credit alleviate
poverty in low-potential areas of Ethiopia?’
 Identification of a Research Topic
Where do research topics come from?
A topic must spring from the researcher’s mind like
a plant springs from its own seed.
◦ It could be generated by the researcher
The best way to identify a topic is to draw up a
shortlist of possible topics that have emerged from
your reading or from your own experience that
look potentially interesting.
◦ A general area of interest or aspect of a subject
matter (agriculture, industry, social sector, etc.)
may have to be identified at first.
 Identification of a Research Topic
A) Professional Experience
Own professional experience is the most important
source of a research topic.
Many researchers are directly engaged in program
implementation and come up with a topic based on
what they see happening around them.
◦ Contacts and discussions with others,
◦ attending conferences, seminars, and
◦ listening to learned speakers
are all helpful in identifying research problems.
 Identification of a Research Topic
b) Inferences from the literature
Another source for research ideas is the theoretical
or empirical literature in your specific field.
Many researchers get ideas for research by reading
the literature and thinking of ways to extend or
refine previous research.
Two types of literature can be reviewed.
The conceptual literature
The empirical literature
Research reports, bibliographies of books, and
articles, periodicals, research abstracts and research
guides suggest areas that need research.
 Identification of a Research Topic
C) Provided by a client
◦ Requests For Proposals (RFPs) are published by
government agencies and some companies.
 These RFPs describe some problem that the agency
would like researchers to address -- they are virtually
handing the researcher an idea.
 The RFP describes the problem that needs addressing,
the contexts in which it operates, the approach they
would like you to take to investigate to address the
problem, and the amount they would be willing to pay
for such research.
 Identification of a Research Topic
d) Technological and Social Changes
◦ New developments bring new development
challenges for research.
e) Other Sources
Many researchers simply think up their research
topic on their own.
No one lives in a vacuum, so we would expect that
the ideas you come up with on your own are
influenced by your background, culture, education
and experiences.
 Identification of a Research Topic
In any case, the most fundamental rule of good
research is to investigate questions that sincerely
interest you.
 i.e. research which a researcher honestly enjoys
even if he/she encounters problems frustrating
or discouraging.
 2.2. Research Hypothesis
It is a tentative prediction or explanation about the
relationship between variables: Ho and H1

It is simple or complex and directional or non-

directional.

Purpose of Research Hypothesis

1. Unifying the theory to reality

2. Extends knowledge
3. Give direction to research
 2.2.1. Characteristics of a usable
hypothesis

1. Specify relationship
2. Testable
3. Justifiable
4. Concise
 2.2.3. Hypothesis Testing
There are four procedures:
1. Stating the hypothesis
2. Setting the criteria for a decision
3. Collecting data
4. Evaluate the H0
Problem: Type I (When Ho is wrongly rejected) and Type
II accept Ho wrongly when it is false in fact)

Decision
Reject Ho Accept Ho
Truth Ho Type I Right Decision
H1 Right Decision Type II
 Significance of the study
Significance of the study is also called
justification or importance of the study.
State why you feel the study is important. This is
usually stated in terms of identifying people or
institution that will benefit from it and how they
will benefit.
This is where you convince scholars that their
research is worth undertaking or studying.
 Scope of the study
 Specifies the boundaries of their research.
 Itcovers
◦ Geographical scope which defines the location of the
study;
◦ Theoretical scope by defining issues to be covered; and
◦ Time scope stating the period coverage of the research
 Limitation
Limitation, by definition, are factors affecting
research findings substantially and lies beyond the
control of the researcher.
It could be concerned to chosen research method,
research technique, sampling method, sampling
size, etc
 Chapter Three: Literature Review and
Research Design

3.1. Related literature review

3.1.1. Characteristics of Related Literature
[Link]. Paraphrasing
[Link]. Incorporating Direct Quotes
3.1.2. Proper Citation Style
3.2 . Definition and Components of Research Design
3.3. Research Proposal
3.5.1. Importance of Research Proposal
3.5.2. Elements of a Research Proposal
 Literature Review
 This involves to
 review existing literature
 prepare a summary of the topic
 submit for approval
 It is a written summary of journal articles, books and other
documents that describes the past and current state of
information, organizes the literature into topics and
documents a need for a proposed study.
 Well-written analytical narrative that brings a reader up-to-
date on what is known on a given topic, but also provide
fresh insights that advance knowledge.
 Conceptual Framework
 What is conceptual Framework?
 It is a theoretical structure of assumptions, principles, and
rules that holds together the ideas comprising a broad
concept.
 It described as the abstract, logical structure of meaning that
guide the development of the study.
 All frameworks are based on the identification of key
concepts and the relationships among those concepts.
 It consists of concepts that are placed within a logical and
sequential design.
 Purpose of Conceptual framework
To clarify concepts and propose relationships
among the concepts in a study
 To provide a context for interpreting the study
findings
 To explain observations
 To encourage theory development that is useful to
practice
“The terms conceptual framework and theoretical
framework are sometimes used interchangeably, but
they have different meanings.”
 Goals of a literature review
To demonstrate a familiarity with a body of
knowledge and establish credibility.
To know the path of prior research and how a
current research project is linked to it.
To integrate and summarize what is known in an
area.
To learn from others and stimulate new ideas.
To identify variables.
To help developing conceptual framework.
 Where to find literature review
1) Articles in scholarly journals
2) Scholarly books (Available in literature)
3) Dissertation
4) Government documents
5) Policy reports
 Notices the difference
- Paraphrase (express someone else’s idea in
your own words)
- Summarize (express someone else’s idea in a
reduced form in your own words)
- Quote (express someone else’s idea in their
exact words)
- Copy (reproduce a diagram, graph or table from
someone else’s work).
 Steps to Conduct a Literature Review

Step 1: Identify Key Terms or “Descriptors”

• Extract key words from your title (remember, you
may
decide to change the title later)
• Use some of the words other authors reported in the
literature
• Scan both electronic and library journals from the
past 10 years and look for key terms in the articles
 Steps to Conduct a Literature Review
Step 2: Locate Literature
Use academic libraries, do not limit your search
to an electronic search of articles
• Use primary and secondary sources.
A “primary source” is research reported by the
researcher that conducted the study.
 A “secondary source” is research that
summarizes or reports findings that come from
primary sources
 Steps to Conduct a Literature Review
Search different types of literature: summaries,
encyclopedias, dictionaries and glossaries of
terms, handbooks, statistical indexes, reviews and
syntheses, books, journals, indexed publications,
electronic sources, abstract series, and databases
 Steps to Conduct a Literature Review
Step 3: Critically Evaluate and Select Literature
Rely on journal articles published in national
journals
Prioritize your search: first look for refereed journal
articles, then, non-refereed articles, then books, then
conference papers, dissertations and theses and then
papers posted to websites
Look for research articles and avoid as much as
possible “opinion” pieces
Blend qualitative and quantitative research in your
review
 Steps to Conduct a Literature Review
Step 4: Organize the Literature
Create a “file” or “abstract” system to keep track
of what you read. Each article you read should be
summarized in one page
Study-by-study Review: a detailed summary of
each study under a broad theme is provided. Link
summaries (or abstracts) using transitional
sentences. Must be organized and flow coherently
under various subheadings. Avoid string
quotations (i.e., lengthy chunks of text directly
quoted from a source)
 Steps to Conduct a Literature Review
Step 5:Write a Literature Review
 Types of Reviews:
Thematic Review: a theme is identified and studies
found under this theme are described. Major ideas
and findings are reported rather than details.
Review in chronological order
Review across countries
 Definition and Components of Research
Design
 “A research design is the arrangement of conditions
for collection and analysis of data in a manner that
aims to combine relevance to the research purpose
with economy in procedure.”
 It is the conceptual structure within which research is
conducted;
 it constitutes the blueprint for the collection,
measurement and analysis of data.
 Cont…
 In short, research design consists of:
 The plan that specifies the sources and types of
information relevant to the research problem.
 The strategy specifying which approach will be
used for gathering and analyzing the data.
 The time and cost budgets since most studies are
done under these two constraints.
 Description of the study area
Brief description of the study area or study
organizations or sampling unit.
It provides information about the characteristics
of the study areas as population, location, climate,
socioeconomic activities etc.
In case you are studying about institutions,
information concerning target institutions is
inevitable. Such information may include
organizational structure, mandates of respective
institutions, establishment laws etc.
 Census and sampling survey
A complete enumeration of all items in the
‘population’ is known as a Census.
◦ All items in any field of inquiry is a population
or universe.
Under census, the assumption is that no element
is left and highest accuracy is obtained.
 But, in practice
This may not be true, even the slightest element
of bias in such an inquiry will get larger and
larger as the number of observation increases.
There is no way of checking the element of bias
or its extent EXCEPT through a resurvey.
Anyhow, this involves a great deal of time, money
and energy.
In such cases, there is no utility of census.
 Cont…
Alternatively, sample respondents can be
selected from the population.
The respondents selected should be as
representative of the total population as
possible.
The selected respondents constitute what is
technically called a ‘sample’ and the selection
process is called ‘sampling technique.’ The
survey so conducted is known as ‘sample
survey’.
 Sample is defined
A sample is a subset, or some part, of a larger
population.
◦ A larger population could be anything out
which sample is taken.
A complete group of entities sharing some
common set of characteristics is population.
 Why sample?
Saves Cost, Labor, and Time
Quality Management/supervision
Accurate and Reliable Results
Sampling may be the Only Way
 Sampling terminologies
Population (Universe)
◦ A population is the theoretically specified
aggregation of study elements.
 For example, let us look at the study of
“University students”. Fundamental question
coming into ones’ mind is who are the
University students? Public or Private, level
of students, faculties/departments
 Cont ….
 Universe is the set of objects to be studied.
 Universe can be finite

◦ Finite universe – items to be studied are

certain. For example, population of a city,
number of works in a factory etc.
 Cont ….
Target population
◦ Target population is the complete group of
specific population elements relevant to the
research project.

◦ Target population may also be called survey

population i.e. that aggregation of elements
from which the survey sample is actually
selected.
 Sampling …..
Sampling

◦ Sampling is the process of selecting a small

number of items or parts from a larger
population to make conclusions about the whole
population
 Sampling frame
A sampling frame is the list of elements from
which the sample may be drawn.
A simple example could be listing of all University
students meeting the criteria of target population.
A sampling frame is also called the working
population because it provides the list that can be
worked with operationally.
 Sampling unit
A sampling unit is that element or set of elements
considered for selection in some stage of
sampling.
Sampling may be done in single stage or in
multiple stages.
◦ Single-stage sample, the sampling units are the
same as the elements.
◦ In more complex samples, however, different
levels of sampling units may be employed – the
case of clustering or stratified techniques
 Or
 Sampling unit is the unit to be studied.
 Sampling unit can be
- Geographical unit as state
- Construction unit as a house, flat etc
- Social unit as family, club, school
- Individual
 The researcher will have to decide one or more
of such units
 Parameter
A parameter is the summary description of a
given variable in a population.
◦ The mean income of all families in a city and the
age distribution of the city’s population are
parameters.
More precisely, parameters is the characteristics of
a POPULATION.
 Research Proposal
 Your proposal should have the following elements in order.
1. Title page
2. Table of contents
3. Background of the study
4. Statement of the Problem(Defining the problem, severity of the
problem, extent of the problem, gap analysis)
5. Objective of the study (major and specific objectives)
6. Research Questions
7. Hypothesis of the study
8. Scope of the study
9. Significance of the study
10. Literature review (Theories, empirics and conceptual framework)
11. Methods of the study ( Research design, model specification, data
nature and source, estimation method)
12. Work plan (time and budget)
13. List of references
 Sampling Techniques

Non-Probability Sampling Probability Sampling

Techniques techniques

Convenience Quota Snowball

Simple Random Systematic Stratified Cluster

 Non-probability Sampling Techniques
Non-probability (Non-random/Judgment)
sampling is a sampling method where personal
knowledge and opinion play major role in
identifying which elements of the population are
to be included in the sample,
The probability of an element from the population
to be included in the sample is not known.
 A. Quota Sampling
 Quota sampling: is a sampling procedure which
ensures that certain characteristics of a population
sample will be represented to the exact extent that
the researcher desires.
Given characteristics may be male and female,
under age 30, ages 30 to 60, over 60 etc then
decides how many to get in each category.
Thus, the number of people in various categories of
the sample is fixed.
 Cont….
Advantages

◦ Inexpensive way of selecting a sample

◦ Sampling frame is not needed
◦ Guarantees inclusion of target groups
Disadvantages

◦ Sample is not a probability one (no

generalization)
◦ Accessible respondents might have unique
characteristics
◦ In some cases selection cannot be guided by
visible characteristics.
 B. Convenience/ Accidental Sampling
Convenience/Accidental sampling involves
choosing the nearest and most convenient
persons for the researcher
The main consideration is ease of access to
population and not selection of respondents.
Selection continues until required number of
respondents is contacted.
 C. Purposive sampling
In this sampling technique, a researcher
purposively selects people who she/he believes
have the required characteristics needed for the
study.
◦ For example, a researcher is conducting a study
on factors contributing to poor performance in
Mathematics might lead him to select teachers
who teach Mathematics.
D. Snowball (Network) Sampling – chain
sampling
◦ This is a method for identifying and selecting the
cases in a network.
◦ It is based on an analogy to a snowball.
It begins with one or a few people or cases and
use them to establish contact with others.
You start with one or two information-rich key
informants and ask them if they know persons
who know a lot about your topic of interest.
 Cont….
This group is then used to locate others who
possess similar characteristics and who, in turn,
identify others.
◦ For example, if a researcher wants to get
information about people who are HIV positive
then the researcher can use this kind of sampling.
 Cont…
Advantages

◦ Useful if you do only know little of the group

you wish to study
◦ Good for studying e.g. communication patterns,
decision-making, or diffusion of information
Disadvantages

◦ Difficult for larger samples

◦ Choice of entire sample rests on choice of first
individuals (bias)
 1. Probability Sampling Techniques
 Probability sampling is sampling method
whereby all items (i.e., each element) in the
population have a chance of being chosen in the
sample
 the probability of each element of the population
included in the sample is known.
 When to use?
◦ Probability sampling designs are used when the
representativeness of the sample is of
importance in the interest of wider
generalizability.
 A. Simple Random Sample
This method is also known as chance sampling or
probability sampling
In this method, each and every item in the
population has an equal chance of inclusion in
the sample.
This is performed through lottery.
 B. Systematic sampling
In this sampling, an element of randomness is
usually introduced by using random numbers to
pick up the unit with which to start.
This procedure is useful when sampling frame
(source listing) is available in the form of list.
Systematic sampling is method of selecting
sample in which an element in the sample is
obtained by taking every Kth element on a list of
all elements in the population.
To determine which of the first K elements is
chosen, a number from 1 to K is chosen at
random.
 Example
Suppose that there are 1000 resident or
households in one village with different income
levels. If the researcher has the list of all
households randomly listed and wants to study the
income disparity in that village by taking 50
samples?
◦ instead of a list of random numbers, the
researcher calculates a sampling interval.
 The sampling interval is the standard distance
between elements selected in the sample.
 C. Stratified sampling
If the population from which a sample is to be
drawn does not constitute homogenous group,
then stratified sampling technique is applied so as
to obtain a representative sample
By definition, stratified sampling is sampling in
which the population is divided into strata and
random sample is taken from the elements in
each stratum.
 Because
When the population is heterogeneous, the use of
simple random sample may not produce
representative sample. Some of the bigger strata
may get over representation while some of the
small ones may entirely be eliminated.
Why strata?
In order to sub-divide heterogonous population
into a relatively homogenous groups within the
strata
 Cont…
The reasons for stratifying
To increase a sample’s statistical efficiency
(smaller standard errors).
To provide adequate data for analyzing the
various subpopulation.
To enable different research methods and
procedures to be used in different strata.
Can be multiple stage stratified random sampling
E.g., in the household survey we may be
interested to have sufficient number of households
from each region of Ethiopia; stratify by region!
 Cont….

How to Stratify
◦ Three major decisions must be made in order to
stratify the given population into some mutually
exclusive groups.
(1) What stratification base to use: stratification
would be based on the principal variable under
study such as income, age, education, sex,
location, religion, etc.
 Cont…
(2) How many strata to use: there is no precise
answer as to how many strata to use.
◦ The more strata the closer one would be to come
to maximizing inter-strata differences and
minimizing intra-strata variables.
(3) What strata sample size to draw: different
approaches could be used:
 One could adopt a proportionate sampling
procedure.
 Or use disproportionate sampling, which
allocates elements on the basis of some bias.
 D. Cluster sampling
Cluster sample: Is useful when it is difficult or
costly to develop a complete list of the population
members or when
The population elements are widely dispersed
geographically.
Cluster methodology basically leads to less
efficient estimates (bigger confidence intervals, for
a given sample size) but the larger sample size can
offset this.
Population divided into clusters, e.g. regions of the
country
Only some of the clusters sampled. This reduces
cost, possibly substantially
 Cont…
Cluster sample: Is useful when it is difficult or
costly to develop a complete list of the population
members or when
The population elements are widely dispersed
geographically.
Cluster methodology basically leads to less
efficient estimates (bigger confidence intervals, for
a given sample size) but the larger sample size can
offset this.
Population divided into clusters, e.g. regions of
the country
Only some of the clusters sampled. This reduces
cost, possibly substantially
 Determining the sample size
 Research designs with too small sample size are
unethical
◦ because they waste resources as they can only
provide anecdotal evidence.
If the sample size is too small, the data will be
unusable.
 Research studies that use too large samples i.e.,
larger than needed, also are unethical because:
they waste time and financial resources,
 Determining the sample size
 Sample size determination hinges on:
i) Degree of homogeneity: The size of the population
variance is an important parameter.
 The greater the dispersion in the population the
larger the sample must be to provide a given
estimation precession.
 Determining the sample size
ii) Degree of confidence required: Since a sample can
never reflect its population for certain, the
researcher must determine how much precision s/he
needs.
 Precision is measured in terms of
 (i) An interval range (the margin of error).
 (ii) The degree of confidence (how sure you
are)
 Determining the sample size
iii) Number of sub groups to be studied:
If the research is to make estimates on several
subgroups of the population then the sample
must be large enough for each of these subgroups
to meet the desired quality level.
iv) Cost: cost considerations have a major
implications.
All studies have some budgetary constraint and
hence cost dictates the size of the sample.
 Determining the sample size
V) Prior information: If similar previous study
exists we can use that prior information to
determine our sample size.
using prior mean and variance estimates or
stratifying the population to reduce variation
within groups.
samples that have met the requirements of
the statistical methods from past researches.
Researchers use it because they rarely have
information on the variance or standard errors.
 Determining the sample size
vi) Practicality: Of course the sample size you select
must make sense.
 We want to take enough observations to obtain
reasonably precise estimates of the parameters
of interest but we also want to do this within a
practical resource budget.
 Determining the sample size
Hence:
For small populations (under 1000 a large
sampling ratio (about 30%). Hence, a sample size
of about 300 is required.
For moderately large population (10,000), a
smaller sampling ratio (about 10%) is needed – a
sample size around 1,000.
To sample from very large population (over 10
million), one can achieve accuracy using tiny
sampling ratios (.025%) or samples of about
2,500.
 How to Calculate Sample Size for Different
Study Designs
 In the recent era of evidence-based medicine,
statistics has come under increased scrutiny.

 Evidence is as good as the research it is based on,

which in turn depends on the statistical soundness
of the claims it make.

 One of the important issues faced by a biomedical

researcher during the design phase of the study is
sample size calculation.

 It is very important to understand that method of

sample size calculation is different for different
study designs and one blanket formula for sample
size calculation cannot be used for all study designs.
Sample size calculation for cross sectional
studies/surveys
Cross sectional studies or cross sectional survey
are done to estimate a population parameter, for
instance, Prevalence of some disease in a
community or finding the average value of some
quantitative variable in a population.
For cross sectional data, the sample size formula
for qualitative variable and quantities variable are
different as presented below:
 For qualitative variable
Suppose an epidemiologist want to know
proportion of children who are hypertensive in a
population then this formula should be used as
proportion is a qualitative variable. Sample size
by Godden (2004)

Where n is the total sample size, P is the sample

proportion based on previous studies or pilot
studies, u is the acceptable error term (let the error
term be 0.05), (Z=1.96) is the standard normal
variable in the accepted level of the error term, the
level of confidence (α=0.05) will be used to check
For example: Let us assume that a researcher
wants to estimate proportion of patients having
hypertension in pediatric age group in a city.
According to previously published studies actual
number if hypertensive may not be more than 15
percent. The research wants to calculate this
sample size with the precision (MRE 5 percent)
and a type I error of 5 percent. So if we use the
pqz 2 the
above formula, sample size 2is 196.
0.15*0.85*(1.96)
n 2  2
 196
u 0.05
 For Quantitative Variable
 Suppose the same researcher is interested in knowing
average systolic blood pressure of children of the same
city then below mentioned formula should be used as
blood pressure is a quantitative variable.

SD * z1 / 2 2
n
d2
 Where Z is the standard normal variate as mentioned
before. SD is the standard deviation of variable. It can be
taken from previous done study. d is the absolute error or
precision as mentioned before. Let SD=25

25 *1.96 2
n 2
 96
5
 Problems in Sampling
 Two types of errors:
 Non sampling errors
 Sampling errors
1. Non Sampling errors: are biases or errors due to fieldwork
problems, interviewer induced bias, clerical problems in
managing data, etc.
◦ These would contribute to error in a survey,
irrespective of whether a sample is drawn or a census
is taken.
2. sampling errors are error which is attributable to sampling,
and which therefore, is not present in information gathered
in a census.
 Problems in Sampling
1. Non-Sampling Error: refers to
◦ Non-coverage error
◦ Wrong population is being sampled
◦ Non response error
◦ Instrument error
◦ Interviewer’s error
Non-Coverage sampling error: This refers to sample
frame defect.
◦ Omission of part of the target population (for
instance, soldiers, students living in campus,
people in hospitals, prisoners, households
without a telephone in telephone surveys, etc).
 Problems in Sampling
The wrong population is sampled
◦ Researchers must always be sure that the group
being sampled is drawn from the population
they want to generalize about or the intended
population.
Non response error – Common in self-administered
surveys
◦ This error occurs when you are not able to find
those whom you were supposed to study.
◦ Some people refuse to be interviewed because
they are ill, are too busy, or simply do not trust
the interviewer.
◦ When one is forced to interview substitutes, an
unknown bias is introduced.
 Problems in Sampling
Instrument error
◦ The word instrument in sampling survey means
the device in which we collect data- usually a
questionnaire.
◦ When a question is badly asked or worded, the
resulting error is called instrument error.
 Example: leading questions or carelessly
worded questions may be misinterpreted by
some researchers.
 Problems in Sampling
Interviewer error :
◦ Enumerator can distort the results of a survey by
in-appropriate suggestions, word emphasis, tone
of voice and question rephrasing.
◦ Cheating by enumerators -with only limited
training and under little direct supervision.
◦ Perceived social distance between enumerator
and respondent also has a distorting effect.
 E.G: questions about sexual behavior might be
differently answered depending on the gender
of the interviewer.
 Problems in Sampling
2 Sampling Errors
◦ Error which is attributable to sampling, and
which therefore is not present in a census.
◦ Sampling errors can be calculated only for
probability samples.
◦ Increasing the sample size is one of the major
instruments to reduce the extent of the sampling
error.
◦ Sampling error is related to confidence intervals.
A narrower confidence interval means more precise
estimates of the population for a given level of
confidence.
Chapter Four: Data Collection
and Management
/Data Processing and Analysis/

4.1. Coding, editing and cleaning the data

4.2. Data analysis
 Introduction
◦ Proper data collection, retention, and sharing are vital to
the research enterprise.
 Data refers to any group of facts, measurements, or
observations used to make inferences about the problem of
investigation.
◦ can range from material created in a laboratory, to
information obtained in social-science research, such as a
filled-out questionnaire, video and audio recordings, or
photographs, etc.
 Introduction
 No research project has unlimited funds, so selection of the
most promising data usually is affected by the priorities of
cost and convenience.
 So, design an experiment that creates meaningful and
unbiased data, that will not waste resources.

 If data are not recorded in a fashion that allows others to

validate findings, results can be called into question.
 Data Collection Methods

 It is the process of gathering and measuring information

on variables of interest in an accepted systematic fashion.
 Data collection methods vary by discipline and data types;
but the emphasis on ensuring accurate collection remains
the same.
 Data Collection Methods
 Consequences from improperly collected data:
Inability to repeat and validate the study.
Distorted, inaccurate findings.
Wasted resources.
Misleading other researchers to pursue fruitless avenues
of investigation.
 Data Collection Methods
 More importantly, poor collection may cause
disproportionate harm when the results of the flawed
research are used to support public policy suggestions.
 It is critical that researchers have sufficient skills to ensure
the integrity of their data collection efforts.
◦ For instance: Quality data collection requires a rigorous
and detailed recruitment and training plan for data
collectors.
 Data management issues
 Storage and Protection
Research data must be stored securely both during a
research project and after it ends.
Risks like fire, water or other environmental damage, or
common technical failures like hard disk crashes, must
be considered.
Make backup copies of the data periodically and store
the copies in a secure location.
 Data management issues
 Confidentiality
Confidentiality refers to limiting information access and
disclosure to authorized users and preventing access by
or disclosures to unauthorized persons. Policies on
who can handle which portion of data,
at what point during the project,
for what purpose, and so on.
 Data management issues

Integrity
Integrity refers to the trustworthiness of the
information.
Data should not be modified inappropriately,
whether accidentally or deliberately.
The right information is used.
 Data Collection Techniques
 Data can be acquired from Secondary and primary
sources or from both.
Secondary Sources of data
◦ Secondary sources are those, which have been
collected by other individuals or agencies.
◦ As much as possible secondary data should
always be considered first, if available.
 Data Collection Techniques
But, when dealing with secondary data you should
ask:
 Is the owner of the data making them available
to you?
 Is it free of charge? If not, how will you pay?
 Are the data suitable for your investigation?
 A description of the sampling technique, i.e.,
how the sample was collected.
 Data Collection Techniques
Sources of Secondary Data
Secondary data may be acquired from various
sources:
 Documents (reports of various kinds, books,
periodicals, reference books (encyclopedia),
university publications (thesis, dissertations,
etc.), policy documents, statistical
compilations, proceedings, personal
documents (historical documents, Data
archives, etc.
 The Internet
 Data Collection Techniques
Advantages of Secondary data
 Can be found more quickly and cheaply.
 Most researches on past events or distant
places have to rely on secondary data sources.
Limitations
◦ Authenticity: not much may be known about
 genuine?
 credible?
 representative?
 Data Collection Techniques

 Completeness: The information often does not meet one’s

specific needs.
 Definitions might differ, units of measurements may
be different and different time periods may be
involved.
◦ Data could also be out of date.
 Data Collection Techniques

Primary Sources of Data

 Data that come into being for the first time by the
researcher.
◦ There are two approaches to primary data collection:
 the qualitative approach and
 the quantitative approach
 Data Collection Techniques
Triangulation
 refers to the use of more than one approach to the
investigation of a research question in order to enhance
confidence in the findings.
 The purpose of triangulation is to obtain confirmation
of findings through convergence of different
perspectives.
Why use triangulation
◦ By combining multiple methods, and empirical
materials, researchers can hope to overcome the
weakness or biases and problems that are associated with
a single method.
 Data Collection Techniques
Taxonomy of triangulation
1. Data triangulation: Involves gathering data at different
times and situations, from different subjects using different
sampling techniques.
◦ Surveying relevant stakeholders about the impact of a
policy intervention would be an example.
E.G: Using survey data with time series data.
 Data Collection Techniques
2. Investigator triangulation: involves using more than one
field researcher to collect and analyze the data relevant
to a specific research object.
 Asking scientific experimenters to attempt to replicate
each other’s work is an example.
 Data Collection Techniques
3. Methodological triangulation: combination of different
research methods or different varieties of the same method -
two forms of methodological triangulation.
Within method triangulation involves making use of
different varieties of the same method.
making use of alternative econometric estimators would
be an example.
Between method triangulation involves making use of
different methods.
Using ‘quantitative’ and ‘qualitative’ methods in
combination.
 Data Collection Techniques
Quantitative Primary Data Collection Methods
 This method involves the collection of data so that
information can be quantified and subjected to statistical
treatment.
 Primary data may be collected through:
Direct personal observation method, or
Survey or questioning other persons,
 Data Collection Techniques
The Observation Method
◦ Observation includes the full range of monitoring
behavioral and non-behavioral activities.
 Advantages
 It is less demanding and has less bias.
 One can collect data at the time it occurs and need not
depend on reports by others.
 with this method one can capture the whole event as it
occurs.
 Data Collection Techniques
Weakness of the Method
 The observer normally must be at the scene of the event
when it takes place.
◦ But it is often difficult or impossible to predict when
and where an event will occur.
 It is also a slow and expensive process.
 Its most reliable results are restricted to data that can be
determined by an open or deliberate action or surface
indicator.
 Limited as a way to learn about the past, or difficult to
gather information on such topics as intentions,
attitudes, opinions and preferences.
 Data Collection Techniques
The Survey Method:
 To survey is to ask people questions in a questionnaire
- mailed or handled by interviewers.
Strength of the Survey Method
 It is a versatile or flexible method - capable of many
different uses.
 Surveys tend to be more efficient and economical than
observations -surveying using telephone or mail is less
expensive..
 Data Collection Techniques
Weakness of the Method
◦ The quality of information secured depends heavily on
the ability and willingness of the respondents.
 A respondent may interpret questions or concept
differently from what was intended by the researcher.
 A respondent may deliberately mislead the researcher
by giving false information.
 Data Collection Techniques
 Surveys could be carried out through:
 Face to face personal interview
 By telephone interview
 By mail or e-mail, or
 By a combination of all these.
a) Personal Face to face Interview
◦ It is a two-way conversion where one person interviews
another person for detailed information.
 Data Collection Techniques
Advantages
The depth and detail of the information exceeds the
information secured from telephone or mail surveys.
Interviewers can probe additional questions, gather
supplemental information through observation, etc.
Interviewers can make adjustments to the language of
the interview because they can observe the problems and
effects with which the interviewer is faced.
 Data Collection Techniques
Limitations of the Method
The method is an expensive enterprise – (e.g., locating
respondents)
Hence, personal interviews are generally used only
when subjects are not likely to respond to other survey
methods.
susceptible to interviewers’ bias/mistakes
Interviewer may also be reluctant to visit unfamiliar
neighborhoods.
 Data Collection Techniques
b) Telephone Interview
◦ Telephone can be a helpful medium of communication
in setting up interviews.
◦ Telephone surveys are the fastest method of gathering
information from a relatively large sample.
 generally lasts less than ten minutes.
 Data Collection Techniques
Strength of this method
◦ Moderate travel and administrative costs
◦ Faster completion of study
◦ Responses can be directly entered on to the computer
Limitations of this method
◦ Respondents must be available by phone.
◦ The length of the interview period is short.
◦ those interviewed by phone find the experience to be less
rewarding than a personal interview.
 Data Collection Techniques
C) Interviewing by mail (Solicited responses)
◦ Self-administrated questionnaires.
◦ They are ideal for large sample sizes, or when the sample
comes from a wide geographic area.
Advantages
◦ Lower cost than personal interview
◦ Persons who might otherwise be inaccessible can be
contacted (major corporate executives)
◦ Less interviewer bias
◦ better protects privacy/anonymity
 Data Collection Techniques
Disadvantages
◦ Non response error is high
◦ Large amount of information may not be acquired
d) Online Surveys (E-mail and internet)
◦ E-mail surveys are relatively new and little is known
about the effect of sampling bias in internet surveys.
Advantages:
◦ Very inexpensive -saves inputting costs as well
◦ Respondents feel privacy
 Data Collection Techniques
Disadvantages:
◦ Very biased toward wealthy - in Ethiopia
◦ Biased toward young everywhere – even the very poor
have less online access in industrialized world
 the demographic profile of the internet user does not
always represent the general population.
◦ Therefore, before doing an e-mail or internet survey,
carefully consider the effect that this bias might have on
the results.
Questionnaire Design
 Actual instrument design begins by drafting specific
measurement questions in the form of a questionnaire.
 Questionnaires are easy to analyze.
Data entry and tabulation can be easily done with
many computer software packages.
 Questionnaires are familiar to most people.
Nearly everyone has had some experience completing
questionnaires and they generally do not make people
apprehensive.
 Questionnaire Design
 Questionnaires reduce bias.
There is uniform question presentation.
The researcher's own opinions will not influence the
answer.
 Mailed questionnaires are less intrusive.
When a respondent receives a questionnaire by mail,
he/she is free to complete the questionnaire on his/her
own time-table.
 Questionnaire Design
The main Components of a questionnaire
◦ Identification data: respondent’s name, address, time
and date of interview, code of interviewer, etc.
◦ Instruction: Include clear and concise instructions on
how to complete the questionnaire.
◦ Information sought: major portion of the questionnaire
◦ Covering letter: brief purpose of the survey, who is
doing it, time involved, etc.
 Questionnaire Design
 When the goals of a study can be expressed in a few clear
and concise sentences, the design of the questionnaire
becomes considerably easier.
 Hence, ask only questions that directly address the study
goals.
◦ Avoid the temptation to ask questions because it would
be "interesting to know".
 Questionnaire Design

 As a general rule, long questionnaires get less response

than short questionnaires.
◦ Hence, keep your questionnaire short to maximize
response rate – essentials.
 Minimizing the number of questions is highly desirable,
but we should never try to ask two questions in one.
 Questionnaire Design
 Indeveloping a survey instrument the following issues
need to be considered carefully:
 Question content
 Question wording
 Response form
 Question sequence
 Questionnaire Design
1. Question Content
 Question content depends on the respondent’s:

◦ ability, and
◦ willingness to answer the question accurately.
a) Respondents’ ability:
◦ The respondent information level should be
assessed.
 Questions that overtax the respondent’s recall
ability may not be appropriate.
 Questionnaire Design
b) Willingness of respondent to answer
◦ Even if respondents have the information, they may be
unwilling to give it.
◦ Some of the main reasons for unwillingness:
 The situation is not appropriate for disclosing the
information – embarrassing or sensitive
 Disclosure of information is a potential threat to the
respondent
 topic is irrelevant and uninteresting for them.
 Questionnaire Design
 to secure more complete and truthful information
 Use indirect statements i.e., “other people”
 Change the design of the questioning process.
 Apply appropriate questioning sequences that will
lead a respondent from „safe“ question gradually to
those that are more sensitive.
 Begin with non-threatening and interesting
questions.
 Questionnaire Design
Different types of questions
 Types of questions depend on research question and affect
the nature of analysis
◦ Attributes – characteristics of respondents (e.g., age,
sex, etc.)
◦ Behaviour – what people do
◦ Beliefs – what people believe
◦ Knowledge – what people know
◦ Attitudes – what is desirable
 Questionnaire Design

 Questions should be
◦ Relevant
◦ reliable – same response by same individual and
different people should understand the question the
same way
◦ discriminating – should capture sufficient variation
◦ increasing response rates – sensitive questions and
poor survey administration can reduce response rates
Questionnaire Design
 Questions should be
◦ Simple and short
◦ About issues respondents have knowledge of
◦ With same meaning to all
 Questions should not be
◦ Double-barrelled – do not ask two questions
◦ Leading – push people to answer in a certain way
◦ Avoid words like usually, often, sometimes,
occasionally, seldom, etc.
 Questionnaire Design
2. Question Wording: Using Shared Vocabulary
 In a survey the two parties must understand each
other and this is possible only if the vocabulary used
is common to both parties.
 So, don’t use uncommon words or long sentences or
abbreviations and make items as brief as possible.
And, don’t use emotionally loaded or vaguely
defined words.
 Questionnaire Design
3. Response structure or format -
 Refers to the degree and form of the structure imposed on
the responses.
◦ Open-ended or closed questions
a) Open Ended Questions
◦ In open-ended questions respondents can give any
answer.
 They may express themselves extensively.
 The freedom may be to choose a word in a “fill in “
question.
 Questionnaire Design
Advantage
◦ Permit an unlimited number of answers
◦ Respondents can qualify and clarify responses
◦ Permit creativity, self expression, etc.
Limitations
 responses may not be consistent.
 Some responses may be irrelevant
 Comparison and statistical analysis difficult.
 Articulate and highly literature respondents have an
advantage, etc.
 Questionnaire Design
b) Closed Questions
◦ Generally preferable in large surveys.
 dichotomous or multiple-choice questions.
Advantages
◦ Easier and quicker for respondents to answer
◦ Easier to compare the answers of different respondents
◦ Easier to code and statistically analyze
◦ Are less costly to administer
◦ reduce the variability of responses
◦ make fewer demands on interviewer skill, etc.
◦ don’t discriminate against the less talkative
 Questionnaire Design
Limitations
◦ Can suggest ideas that the respondents would not
otherwise have
◦ too many choices can confuse respondents
 During the construction of closed ended questions:
 The response categories provided should be exhaustive.
 They should include all the possible responses that
might be expected.
 The answer categories must be mutually exclusive.
 Questionnaire Design
4) Question Sequence – the order of the questions
 The order in which questions are asked can affect the
overall data collection activity.
 Grouping questions that are similar will make the
questionnaire easier to complete, and the respondent will
feel more comfortable.
◦ Questions that use the same response formats, or those
that cover a specific topic, should appear together.
 Questionnaire Design
 Questions that jump from one unrelated topic to another
are not likely to produce high response rates.
 Each question should follow comfortably from the
previous question.
 Transitions between questions should be smooth.
 Questionnaire Design
5) Physical Characteristics of a Questionnaire
 An improperly laid out questionnaire can lead respondents
to miss questions, can confuse them.
 So, take time to design a good layout
◦ ease to navigate within and between sections
◦ ease to use the questionnaire in the field; e.g., questions
on recto and codes on verso sides of the questionnaire
◦ leave sufficient space for open-ended questions
◦ questionnaire should be spread out properly.
 Questionnaire Design
 Putting more than one question on a line will result in
some respondents skipping the second question.
 Abbreviating questions will result in misinterpretation
of the question.
Formats for Responses
◦ A variety of methods are available for presenting a
series of response categories.
 Boxes
 Blank spaces
 Questionnaire Design
Providing Instructions
◦ Every questionnaire whether to be self administered by
the respondent or administered by an interviewer should
contain clear instructions.
 General instructions: basic instructions to be followed in
completing it.
 Introduction: If a questionnaire is arranged into subsections
it is useful to introduce each section with a short statement
concerning its content and purpose.
 Questionnaire Design
 Specific Instructions: Some questions may require
special instructions.
 Interviewers instruction: It is important to provide clear
complementary instruction where appropriate to the
interviewer.
 Questionnaire Design
6) Reproducing the questionnaire
 A neatly reproduced instrument will encourage a higher
response rate, thereby providing better data.
◦ Pilot Survey: The final test of a questionnaire is to try
it on representatives of the target audience.
◦ If there are problems with the questionnaire, they
almost always show up here.
 Data Management
 Data analysis ranges from very simple summary statistics
to extremely complex multivariate analyses.
Data Preparation and Presentation
 Data processing starts with the editing, coding,
classifying and tabulation of the collected data.
Data Management
i) Editing
◦ Editing of data is the process of examining the
collected raw data to detect errors and omissions.
◦ In general one edits to assure that the data are:
Accurate
Consistent with other information/facts gathered
Uniformly entered
 Data Management
 The editing can be done at two levels
a) Field level Editing
 After an interview, field workers should review their
reporting forms, complete what was abbreviated,
translate personal shorthand, rewrite illegible
entries, and make callback if necessary.
b) Central editing
 when all forms have been completed and returned to
the office data editors correct obvious errors such as
entry in wrong place, recorded in wrong units, etc.
 Data Management
ii) Coding
 Coding refers to the process of assigning numerals to
answers so that responses can be put into a limited
number of categories or classes -coding sheet.
iii) Classification and Tabulation
 large volume of raw data must be reduced into
homogenous groups if we are to get meaningful
relationships.
 Classification is the process of arranging data in groups or
classes on the basis of common characteristics.
 Data Management
 Tabulation is the orderly arrangement of data in columns
and rows.
 Simple or complex tables.
◦ Simple tabulation gives information about one variable.
◦ Complex tabulation shows the division of data into two
or more categories.
 SPSS, R, excel, STATA, etc.
 Data Management
 Tabulation provides the following advantages:
It conserves space and reduces explanatory and
descriptive statement to a minimum.
It facilitates the process of comparison
It facilitates the summation of items and the detection
of errors and omissions
It provides a basis for various statistical computations
such as measures of central tendencies, dispersions, etc.
 Data Measurement

•Data Measurement
•Measurement of the data is the first step in the
process that ultimately guides the final analysis.

•Consideration of sampling, controls, errors

(random and systematic) and the required precision
all influence the final analysis.

•Validation: Instruments and methods used to

measure the data must be validated for accuracy.
•Precision and accuracy…Determination of error
•Social vs. Physical Sciences
 Chapter five
WRITING THE RESEARCH REPORT
 Process of Research Report
1. Begin writing up the report as soon as you can. Do
not leave it until you have finished your data
collection before you start writing up. Many
sections, can be drafted during or even before data
collection.
2. Write down ideas as soon as you get them, rather
than leaving them to the writing-up stage. Keep a
research diary where you can safely note any ideas.
Not all of your ideas will be useful, but it is certain
that some of them will be!
Do not imagine that you will be able to remember
these ideas at a later date.
 Report Writing
3. Be aware of the nature of the report and the
intended audience.
 If it is for a student research project, then ensure
you have read and understood the criteria laid down
by your institution in terms of content, presentation,
length and so on.

4. If you are writing for a journal, ensure that your

research fits within the scope of that journal’s
objectives as well as its editorial requirements.
If you are producing a report or piece of
consultancy, ensure that you are clear about the
requirements of your audience.
5. You will not be able to write the final report out
first time.
You will need to rewrite it a number of times before
it reaches completion.
 You should allow for this when planning your
research timetable, and not become discouraged
when the first draft is not perfect.
6. Make sure before you begin writing up that you
make backups of your work at every available
opportunity. Whatever you do, do not assume that
whatever you save on a hard drive will be safe!

7. You should keep your backups in a separate

location. As a further safety measure, print out what
you have written so far at regular intervals.
8. Final editing and proof reading. Once you have
got this far, the temptation is to skip over the final
proof reading and simply submit the project. Do
carefully read over to check spelling and grammar.

9. Submission of the report!

 TYPICAL RESEARCH REPORT STRUCTURE
1. Title Page
2. Abstract
3. Acknowledgements
4. Contents
- List of Tables
- List of Figures
- Acronyms
5. Introduction
- Background of the study
- Problem statement of the study
- Objective of the study
- Justification of the study
- Scope of the study
- Significance of the study
- Limitation of the study
- Organization of the paper
6. Literature Review
- Theoretical Literature Review
- Empirical Literature Review
- Conceptual Framework
7. Methodology
- Data
- Model Specification
- Estimation Method
8. Results, discussion and Analysis
9. Conclusions and Recommendations
11. Reference List
12. Appendices
 Steps in data analysis
 Actions After Data Collection
◦ Process the data
◦ Prepare tables and graphs
◦ Analyze and interpret findings
◦ Prepare for presentation
 Kinds of Data Analysis

 Descriptive Statistics Analysis

 Inferential Statistics Analysis
 Descriptive Statistics
 Refers to the description of data from a particular
sample, hence the conclusion must refer only the
sample.
 In other word, it is summarizing and describing
the character of the sample
 Descriptive statistics are numerical values
obtained from the sample that gives meaning to
the data collected
 Inferential Statistics Analysis

 The use of statistical tests, either to test for significant

relationships among variables or to find statistical
supports for the hypotheses.

Inferential statistics
 Are numerical values that enable the researcher to
draw conclusions about a population based on the
characteristics of a population sample
 This is based on the laws of probability.
 Uses of Inferential Analysis

• Cited some statistical test for inferential analysis.

1. t-test- is used to examine the difference between

the means of two independent groups.
2. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)- is used to test
the significance of differences between means of
two or more groups.
3. Chi-square- this is used to test hypotheses about
the proportion of elements that fall into various
 Presentation of Findings

• Findings are presented in different forms such as:

1. Narrative or textual form

◦ This is composed of summary of findings, direct
quotations and implications of the study.
2. Tables
◦ Tables are used to present a clear and organized
data.
◦ This is utilized for easy analysis and
 Summary of Findings

• This portion summarizes the result of data

analysis
• The best thing is to review the stated
problem and tie up with the result of your
data analysis.
 Conclusions
• A conclusion is drawn from the summary of
findings.
• focuses on the answers to the problem including
the outcome of the hypotheses whether it is
rejected or accepted.
 Recommendations
• This is based on the result of the conclusions
• The main goal is geared toward improvement or
development
Chapter Seven: Thesis formatting
 Thesis defined
A thesis is a document that presented to graduate
from a University.
It starts with writing up a research proposal to
convince reviewers that the researcher is capable of
successfully conducting the proposed research
project.
It also describes the research problem and its
importance, and gives a detailed account of the
methods that will be used and why they are
appropriate.
 Contents of thesis paper
Chapter One: Introduction
Chapter Two: Literature Review
Chapter Three: Research Design
Chapter Four: Data presentation and analysis
Chapter Five: Conclusion and Recommendations
 Chapter I: Introduction
 Background

 Problem statement
 Research objectives
 Research question/hypothesis
 Significance of the study
 Scope of the study
 Organization of the study/ structure of the study
 Limitation
 Chapter II: Literature Review
In this chapter, students are required to define
relevant key concepts.
It is not about to copy and paste, but the purpose is
to review and examine, to some extent.
Introduction
Definition of Basic Concepts
Theoretical Literature Review

◦ Sub-topics
Empirical Literature Review
 Chapter III: Research Design
Descriptionof the study area
Research Types
Research Approach
Sample Design
◦ Population
◦ Sample size
◦ Sampling techniques
 Chapter IV: Result and Discussion
Data Presentation using Tables, Charts or Figures
and Narrations
Proper Labels and Captions
Interpretation
 Chapter V: Conclusion and
Recommendation
Introduction - a brief on the chapter
Conclusions - a summary drive from the research
findings
Recommendations - should be derived from the
conclusions