Chapter 4: Option Pricing Models:

The Binomial Model

Options traders can get by with less math than you think.
 Tour de France cyclists don't need to know how to solve
Newton's laws in order to bank around a curve.  Indeed,
thinking too much about physics while riding or playing
tennis may prove a hindrance.  But good traders do have to
have the patience to understand the essential mechanism
of replicating the factors they're trading.

Emanuel Derman
The Journal of Derivatives, Winter 2000, p. 62

Chance/Brooks An Introduction to Derivatives and Risk Management, 9th ed. Ch. 4: 1

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 Important Concepts in Chapter 4

 The concept of an option pricing model

 The one- and two-period binomial option pricing models
 Explanation of the establishment and maintenance of a
risk-free hedge
 Illustration of how early exercise can be captured
 The extension of the binomial model to any number of
time periods
 Alternative specifications of the binomial model

Chance/Brooks An Introduction to Derivatives and Risk Management, 9th ed. Ch. 4: 2

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  Definition of a model
 A simplified representation of reality that uses certain
inputs to produce an output or result
 Definition of an option pricing model
 A mathematical formula that uses the factors that
determine an option’s price as inputs to produce the
theoretical fair value of an option.

Chance/Brooks An Introduction to Derivatives and Risk Management, 9th ed. Ch. 4: 3

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 One-Period Binomial Model
 Conditions and assumptions
 One period, two outcomes (states)
 S = current stock price
 u = 1 + return if stock goes up
 d = 1 + return if stock goes down
 r = risk-free rate
 Value of European call at expiration one period later
 Cu = Max(0,Su - X) or
 Cd = Max(0,Sd - X)
 See Figure 4.1

Chance/Brooks An Introduction to Derivatives and Risk Management, 9th ed. Ch. 4: 4

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 One-Period Binomial Model (continued)

 Important point: d < 1 + r < u to prevent arbitrage

 We construct a hedge portfolio of h shares of stock and
one short call. Current value of portfolio:
 V = hS - C
 At expiration the hedge portfolio will be worth
 Vu = hSu - Cu

 Vd = hSd - Cd

 If we are hedged, these must be equal. Setting Vu = Vd

and solving for h gives

Chance/Brooks An Introduction to Derivatives and Risk Management, 9th ed. Ch. 4: 5

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 One-Period Binomial Model (continued)
Cu  Cd
h
Su  Sd
 These values are all known so h is easily computed
 Since the portfolio is riskless, it should earn the risk-free
rate. Thus
 V(1+r) = Vu (or Vd)

 Substituting for V and Vu

(hS - C)(1+r) = hSu - Cu

 And the theoretical value of the option is

Chance/Brooks An Introduction to Derivatives and Risk Management, 9th ed. Ch. 4: 6

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 One-Period Binomial Model (continued)
pC u  (1  p)C d
C
1 r
where
p = (1  r - d)/(u - d)

 This is the theoretical value of the call as determined by

the stock price, exercise price, risk-free rate, and up and
down factors.
 The probabilities of the up and down moves were never
specified. They are irrelevant to the option price.

Chance/Brooks An Introduction to Derivatives and Risk Management, 9th ed. Ch. 4: 7

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 One-Period Binomial Model (continued)
 An Illustrative Example
 S = 100, X = 100, u = 1.25, d = 0.80, r = 0.07
 First find the values of Cu, Cd, h, and p:
 C = Max(0,100(1.25) - 100)
u
= Max(0,125 - 100) = 25
 C = Max(0,100(.80) - 100) = Max(0,80 - 100) = 0
d
 h = (25 - 0)/(125 - 80) = 0.556

 p = (1.07 - 0.80)/(1.25 - 0.80) = 0.6

 Then insert into the formula for C:

(0.6)25  (0.4)0.0
C  14.02
1.07

Chance/Brooks An Introduction to Derivatives and Risk Management, 9th ed. Ch. 4: 8

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 One-Period Binomial Model (continued)
 A Hedged Portfolio
 Short 1,000 calls and long 1000h = 1000(0.556) = 556
shares. See Figure 4.2.
 Value of investment: V = 556($100) - 1,000($14.02)
$41,580. (This is how much money you must put up.)
 Stock goes to $125
 Value of investment = 556($125) - 1,000($25)

= $44,500
 Stock goes to $80
 Value of investment = 556($80) - 1,000($0)

= $44,480

Chance/Brooks An Introduction to Derivatives and Risk Management, 9th ed. Ch. 4: 9

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 One-Period Binomial Model (continued)

You invested $41,580 and got back $44,500, a 7 % return,

which is the risk-free rate.
 An Overpriced Call
 Let the call be selling for $15.00
 Your amount invested is 556($100) - 1,000($15.00)
= $40,600
 You will still end up with $44,500, which is a 9.6%
return.
 Everyone will take advantage of this, forcing the call
price to fall to $14.02

Chance/Brooks An Introduction to Derivatives and Risk Management, 9th ed. Ch. 4: 10

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 One-Period Binomial Model (continued)

 An Underpriced Call
 Let the call be priced at $13
 Sell short 556 shares at $100 and buy 1,000 calls at
$13. This will generate a cash inflow of $42,600.
 At expiration, you will end up paying out $44,500.
 This is like a loan in which you borrowed $42,600 and
paid back $44,500, a rate of 4.46%, which beats the
risk-free borrowing rate.

Chance/Brooks An Introduction to Derivatives and Risk Management, 9th ed. Ch. 4: 11

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 Two-Period Binomial Model
 We now let the stock go up another period so that it ends
up Su2, Sud or Sd2.
 See Figure 4.3.
 The option expires after two periods with three possible
values:

C u 2  Max[0, Su 2  X]
C ud  Max[0, Sud  X]
C d 2  Max[0, Sd 2  X]

Chance/Brooks An Introduction to Derivatives and Risk Management, 9th ed. Ch. 4: 12

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 Two-Period Binomial Model (continued)
 After one period the call will have one period to go before expiration. Thus, it will worth either of the following two values

The price of the call today will be

pC u 2  (1  p)C ud


Cu  , or
1 r
pC du  (1  p)C d 2
Cd 
1 r

Chance/Brooks An Introduction to Derivatives and Risk Management, 9th ed. Ch. 4: 13

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 Two-Period Binomial Model (continued)
pC u  (1  p)Cd
C
1 r
which can also be written as
p 2 C u 2  2p(1  p)C ud  (1  p) 2 C d 2
C
(1  r) 2

•The hedge ratios are different in the different states:

Cu  Cd C u 2  C ud C ud  C d 2
h , hu  2 , hd
Su  Sd Su  Sud Sud  Sd 2

Chance/Brooks An Introduction to Derivatives and Risk Management, 9th ed. Ch. 4: 14

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 Two-Period Binomial Model (continued)

 An Illustrative Example
 Su2 = 100(1.25)2 = 156.25
 Sud = 100(1.25)(0.80) = 100
 Sd2 = 100(0.80)2 = 64
 The call option prices are as follows

C u 2  Max[0,Su 2  X]  Max[0,156.25  100]  56.25

C ud  Max[0,Sud  X]  Max[0,100  100]  0.0
C d 2  Max[0,Sd 2  X]  Max[0,64  100]  0.0

Chance/Brooks An Introduction to Derivatives and Risk Management, 9th ed. Ch. 4: 15

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 Two-Period Binomial Model (continued)

 The two values of the call at the end of the first period are

pC u 2  (1  p)C ud (0.6)56.25 + (0.4)0.0

Cu  =  31.54
1 r 1.07
pC du  (1  p)C d 2 (0.6)0.0  (0.4)0.0
or C d    0.0
1 r 1.07

Chance/Brooks An Introduction to Derivatives and Risk Management, 9th ed. Ch. 4: 16

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 Two-Period Binomial Model (continued)

 Therefore, the value of the call today is

pC u  (1  p)C d
C
1 r
(0.6)31.54  (0.4)0.0
  17.69
1.07

Chance/Brooks An Introduction to Derivatives and Risk Management, 9th ed. Ch. 4: 17

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 Two-Period Binomial Model (continued)

 A Hedge Portfolio
 See Figure 4.4.
 Call trades at its theoretical value of $17.69.
 Hedge ratio today: h = (31.54 - 0.0)/(125 - 80) = 0.701
 So
 Buy 701 shares at $100 for $70,100

 Sell 1,000 calls at $17.69 for $17,690

 Net investment: $52,410

Chance/Brooks An Introduction to Derivatives and Risk Management, 9th ed. Ch. 4: 18

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 Two-Period Binomial Model (continued)
 A Hedge Portfolio (continued)
 Note each of the possibilities:
 Stock goes to 125, then 156.25

 Stock goes to 125, then to 100

 Stock goes to 80, then to 100

 Stock goes to 80, then to 64

 In each case, you wealth grows by 7% at the end of the

first period. You then revise the mix of stock and calls
by either buying or selling shares or options. Funds
realized from selling are invested at 7% and funds
necessary for buying are borrowed at 7%.

Chance/Brooks An Introduction to Derivatives and Risk Management, 9th ed. Ch. 4: 19

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 Two-Period Binomial Model (continued)

 A Hedge Portfolio (continued)

 Your wealth then grows by 7% from the end of the first
period to the end of the second.
 Conclusion: If the option is correctly priced and you
maintain the appropriate mix of shares and calls as
indicated by the hedge ratio, you earn a risk-free return
over both periods.

Chance/Brooks An Introduction to Derivatives and Risk Management, 9th ed. Ch. 4: 20

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 Two-Period Binomial Model (continued)

 A Mispriced Call in the Two-Period World

 If the call is underpriced, you buy it and short the stock,
maintaining the correct hedge over both periods. You
end up borrowing at less than the risk-free rate.
 If the call is overpriced, you sell it and buy the stock,
maintaining the correct hedge over both periods. You
end up lending at more than the risk-free rate.
 See Table 4.1 for summary.

Chance/Brooks An Introduction to Derivatives and Risk Management, 9th ed. Ch. 4: 21

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 Extensions of the Binomial Model
 Pricing Put Options
 Same procedure as calls but use put payoff formula at
expiration. In our example the put prices at expiration
are
Pu 2  Max[0, X  Su 2 ]  Max[0,100  156.25]  0.0
Pud  Max[X  Sud]  Max[0,100  100]  0.0
Pd 2  Max[X  Sd 2 ]  Max[0,100  64]  36.0

Chance/Brooks An Introduction to Derivatives and Risk Management, 9th ed. Ch. 4: 22

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 Extensions of the Binomial Model
(continued)
 Pricing Put Options (continued)
 The two values of the put at the end of the first period
are

pPu 2  (1  p)Pud
(0.6)0.0 + (0.4)0.0
Pu  = 0.0,
1 r 1.07
pPdu  (1  p)Pd 2 (0.6)0.0  (0.4)36
or Pd    13.46
1 r 1.07

Chance/Brooks An Introduction to Derivatives and Risk Management, 9th ed. Ch. 4: 23

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 Extensions of the Binomial Model
(continued)
 Pricing Put Options (continued)
 Therefore, the value of the put today is

pPu  (1  p)Pd
P
1 r
(0.6)0.0  (0.4)13.46
  5.03
1.07

Chance/Brooks An Introduction to Derivatives and Risk Management, 9th ed. Ch. 4: 24

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 Extensions of the Binomial Model
(continued)
 Pricing Put Options (continued)
 Let us hedge a long position in stock by purchasing
puts. The hedge ratio formula is the same except that
we ignore the negative sign:
0  13.46
h  0.299
125  80

 Thus, we shall buy 299 shares and 1,000 puts. This will
cost $29,900 (299 x $100) + $5,030 (1,000 x $5.03) for
a total of $34,930.
Chance/Brooks An Introduction to Derivatives and Risk Management, 9th ed. Ch. 4: 25
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 Extensions of the Binomial Model
(continued)
 Pricing Put Options (continued)
 Stock goes from 100 to 125. We now have
 299 shares at $125 + 1,000 puts at $0.0 = $37,375

 This is a 7% gain over $34,930. The new hedge

ratio is
0.0  0.0
h  0.000
156.25  100
 Thus, sell 299 shares, receiving 299($125) = $37,375,
which is invested in risk-free bonds.

Chance/Brooks An Introduction to Derivatives and Risk Management, 9th ed. Ch. 4: 26

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 Extensions of the Binomial Model
(continued)
 Pricing Put Options (continued)
 Stock goes from 100 to 80. We now have
 299 shares at $80 + 1,000 puts at $13.46 = $37,380

 This is a 7% gain over $34,930. The new hedge

ratio is
0  36
h  1.000
100  64
 Thus, buy 701 shares, paying 701($80) = $56,080, by
borrowing at the risk-free rate.

Chance/Brooks An Introduction to Derivatives and Risk Management, 9th ed. Ch. 4: 27

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 Extensions of the Binomial Model
(continued)
 Pricing Put Options (continued)
 Stock goes from 125 to 156.25. We now have
 Bond worth $37,375(1.07) = $39,991

 This is a 7% gain.

 Stock goes from 125 to 100. We now have

 Bond worth $37,375(1.07) = $39,991

 This is a 7% gain.

Chance/Brooks An Introduction to Derivatives and Risk Management, 9th ed. Ch. 4: 28

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 Extensions of the Binomial Model
(continued)
 Pricing Put Options (continued)
 Stock goes from 80 to 100. We now have
 1,000 shares worth $100 each, 1,000 puts worth $0

each, plus a loan in which we owe $56,080(1.07)

= $60,006 for a total of $39,994, a 7% gain
 Stock goes from 80 to 64. We now have
 1,000 shares worth $64 each, 1,000 puts worth $36

each, plus a loan in which we owe $56,080(1.07)

= $60,006 for a total of $39,994, a 7% gain

Chance/Brooks An Introduction to Derivatives and Risk Management, 9th ed. Ch. 4: 29

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 Extensions of the Binomial Model
(continued)
 American Puts and Early Exercise
 Now we must consider the possibility of exercising the
put early. At time 1 the European put values were
 P = 0.00 when the stock is at 125
u
 P = 13.46 when the stock is at 80
d
 When the stock is at 80, the put is in-the-money by $20
so exercise it early. Replace Pu = 13.46 with Pu = 20.
The value of the put today is higher at
(0.6)0.0  (0.4) 20
P  7.48
1.07

Chance/Brooks An Introduction to Derivatives and Risk Management, 9th ed. Ch. 4: 30

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 Extensions of the Binomial Model
(continued)
 Dividends, European Calls, American Calls, and Early
Exercise
 One way to incorporate dividends is to assume a
constant yield, , per period. The stock moves up, then
drops by the rate .
 See Figure 4.5 for example with a 10% yield
 The call prices at expiration are

C u 2  Max(0,140.625  100)  40.625

C ud  C du  Max(0,90  100)  0.0
C d 2  Max(0,57.60  100)  0

Chance/Brooks An Introduction to Derivatives and Risk Management, 9th ed. Ch. 4: 31

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 Extensions of the Binomial Model
(continued)
 Dividends, European Calls, American Calls, and Early
Exercise (continued)
 The European call prices after one period are

(0.6)40.625  (0.4)0.0
Cu   22.78
1.07
(0.6)0.0  (0.4)0.0
Cu   0.00
1.07

 The European call value at time 0 is

(0.6)22.78  (0.4)0.0
C  12.77
1.07

Chance/Brooks An Introduction to Derivatives and Risk Management, 9th ed. Ch. 4: 32

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 Extensions of the Binomial Model
(continued)
 Dividends, European Calls, American Calls, and Early
Exercise (continued)
 If the call is American, when the stock is at 125, it pays
a dividend of $12.50 and then falls to $112.50. We can
exercise it, paying $100, and receive a stock worth
$125. The stock goes ex-dividend, falling to $112.50
but we get the $12.50 dividend. So at that point, the
option is worth $25. We replace the binomial value of
Cu = $22.78 with Cu = $25. At time 0 the value is
(0.6)25  (0.4)0.0
C  14.02
1.07

Chance/Brooks An Introduction to Derivatives and Risk Management, 9th ed. Ch. 4: 33

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 Extensions of the Binomial Model
(continued)
 Dividends, European Calls, American Calls, and Early
Exercise (continued)
 Alternatively, we can specify that the stock pays a
specific dollar dividend at time 1. Assume $12.
Unfortunately, the tree no longer recombines, as in
Figure 4.6. We can still calculate the option value but
the tree grows large very fast.
See Figure 4.7.
 Because of the reduction in the number of
computations, trees that recombine are preferred over
trees that do not recombine.

Chance/Brooks An Introduction to Derivatives and Risk Management, 9th ed. Ch. 4: 34

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 Extensions of the Binomial Model
(continued)
 Dividends, European Calls, American Calls, and Early
Exercise (continued)
 Yet another alternative (and preferred) specification is
to subtract the present value of the dividends from the
stock price (as we did in Chapter 3) and let the
adjusted stock price follow the binomial up and down
factors. For this problem, see Figure 4.8.
 The tree now recombines and we can easily calculate
the option values following the same procedure as
before.

Chance/Brooks An Introduction to Derivatives and Risk Management, 9th ed. Ch. 4: 35

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 Extensions of the Binomial Model
(continued)
 Dividends, European Calls, American Calls, and Early
Exercise (continued)
 The option prices at expiration are

C u 2  Max(0,138.74  100)  38.74

C ud  Max(0,88.79  100)  0.0
C d 2  Max(0,56.82  100)  0.0

Chance/Brooks An Introduction to Derivatives and Risk Management, 9th ed. Ch. 4: 36

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 Extensions of the Binomial Model
(continued)
 Dividends, European Calls, American Calls, and Early
Exercise (continued)
 At time 1 the option prices are

(0.6)38.74  (0.4)0.0
Cu   21.72
1.07
(0.6)0.0  (0.4)0.0
Cd   0.0
1.07
 We exercise at time 1 so that Cu is now 22.99. At time 0
(0.6)22.99  (0.4)0.0
C  12.89
1.07
 The European option value would be 12.18.

Chance/Brooks An Introduction to Derivatives and Risk Management, 9th ed. Ch. 4: 37

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 Extensions of the Binomial Model
(continued)
 Foreign Currency Options
 Underlying instrument is currency
 Holding of foreign currency can earn the foreign risk-free
interest rate
 The binomial probability is altered to adjust for the
foreign risk-free interest rate effect
 The binomial probability is

1 r
d
1 
p
ud

Chance/Brooks An Introduction to Derivatives and Risk Management, 9th ed. Ch. 4: 38

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 Extensions of the Binomial Model
(continued)
 Extending the Binomial Model to n Periods
 With n periods to go, the binomial model can be easily
extended. There is a long and somewhat complex
looking formula in the book. The basic procedure,
however, is the same. See Figure 4.9 in which we see
below the stock prices the prices of European and
American puts. This illustrates the early exercise
possibilities for American puts, which can occur in
multiple time periods.
 At each step, we must check for early exercise by
comparing the value if exercised to the value if not
exercised and use the higher value of the two.

Chance/Brooks An Introduction to Derivatives and Risk Management, 9th ed. Ch. 4: 39

© 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Extensions of the Binomial Model
(continued)
 Behavior of the Binomial Model for Large n and a Fixed
Option Life
 The risk-free rate is adjusted to (1 + r)T/n-1
 The up and down parameters are adjusted to

ue  T/n

d  1/u
 where  is the volatility. Let us price the DCRB
June 125 call with one period.

Chance/Brooks An Introduction to Derivatives and Risk Management, 9th ed. Ch. 4: 40

© 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Extensions of the Binomial Model
(continued)
 The Behavior of the Binomial Model for Large n and a Fixed
Option Life (continued)
 The parameters are now

r  (1.0456)0.0959/1  1  .004285
u  e 0.83 0.0959/1  1.293087
d  1/1.293087  0.773343
 The new stock prices are
 Su = 125.9375(1.293087) = 162.8481

 Sd = 125.9375(0.773343) = 97.3929

Chance/Brooks An Introduction to Derivatives and Risk Management, 9th ed. Ch. 4: 41

© 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Extensions of the Binomial Model
(continued)
 The Behavior of the Binomial Model for Large n and a
Fixed Option Life (continued)
 The new option prices would be

• Cu = Max(0,162.8481-125) = 37.85
• Cd = Max(0,97.3929 - 125) = 0.0
 p would be (1.004285 - 0.773343)/(1.293087 -
0.773343) = 0.444; 1 - p = 0.556.
 The price of the option at time 0 is, therefore,
(0.444)37.85  (0.556)0.00
C  16.74
1.004285

Chance/Brooks An Introduction to Derivatives and Risk Management, 9th ed. Ch. 4: 42

© 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Extensions of the Binomial Model
(continued)
 The Behavior of the Binomial Model for Large n and a
Fixed Option Life (continued)
 The actual price of the option is 13.50, but

obviously one binomial period is not enough.

 Table 4.2 shows what happens as we increase the

number of binomial periods. The price converges to

around 13.56. In Chapter 5, we shall see that this is
approximately the Black-Scholes-Merton price.

Chance/Brooks An Introduction to Derivatives and Risk Management, 9th ed. Ch. 4: 43

© 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Extensions of the Binomial Model
 Alternative Specifications of the Binomial Model
 We can use a different specification of u, d and p

(ln(1 r)  2 /2)(T/n)  T/n

ue
(ln(1 r)  2 /2)(T/n)  T/n
de
 2 (T/n)/2
e  e  T/n
p
e T/n
 e  T/n

 where ln(1 + r) is the continuously compounded interest

rate. Here p will converge to 0.5 as n increases.

Chance/Brooks An Introduction to Derivatives and Risk Management, 9th ed. Ch. 4: 44

© 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Extensions of the Binomial Model
 Alternative Specifications of the Binomial Model
(continued)
 Now let us price the DCRB June 125 call but use two
periods. We have r = (1.0456)0.0959/2 - 1 = 0.0021.
Using our previous formulas,

u  e 0.83 0.0959/2  1.1993

d  1/1.1993  0.8338
1.0021  0.8338
p  .4605
1.1993  0.8338

Chance/Brooks An Introduction to Derivatives and Risk Management, 9th ed. Ch. 4: 45

© 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Extensions of the Binomial Model
 Alternative Specifications of the Binomial Model (continued)
 Now let us use these new formulas:

(ln(1.0456) -0.832 /2)(0.0959/2)  0.83 0.0959/2

ue  1.1822
(ln(1.0456) -0.832 /2)(0.0959/2)  0.83 0.0959/2
de  0.8219
0.832 (0.0959/2)/2
e  e 0.83 0.0959/2
p  0.500251
0.83 0.0959/2  0.83 0.0959/2
e e
 We can use 0.5 for p. See Figure 4.10. The prices are close and
will converge when n is large.
 See [Link] for software to calculate the binomial model.

Chance/Brooks An Introduction to Derivatives and Risk Management, 9th ed. Ch. 4: 46

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 Summary

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