THE NATURE OF THE
LEARNER
HUMAN DEVELOPMENT – is the dynamic
process of change that occurs in the
physical, psychological, social, spiritual
and emotional constitution and make up of
an individual which starts from
CONCEPTION to DEATH.
Changes may entail:
GROWTH – which is quantitative involving
increase in the size of the parts of the
body
DEVELOPMENT – which is qualitative
involving gradual changes in character
Two Major Processes that takes places
during growth and development:
– LEARNING – a complex process which
involves changes in mental processing,
development of emotional functioning and
social development skills which develop and
evolve from birth to death.
– MATURATION – includes bodily changes
which are primarily a result of heredity or the
traits that a person inherits from his parents
which are genetically determined,
preprogrammed inherited biological patterns
are reflected in maturation.
PERIODS OF LIFE SPAN
DEVELOPMENT
Infancy
extends from birth up to 18 to 24 months,
characterized by time of extreme dependence on
adults , babyhood and the beginning of many
psychological activities like language, symbolic
thought, sensorimotor coordination and social
learning.
Sensorimotor development – head turns to
direction of touch, lifts chin and head, hold head
erect, reaches for objects, sits with support, stands
with help, crawls, and walks with support.
Early Childhood
– begins from the end of infancy to about 5-
6 years which is sometimes called “ Pre-
School Years”.
Become more self – sufficient and care for
themselves
Develop school readiness skills like identifying letters
and following instructions.
Spend many hours in play with peers
Middle and Late Childhood (School Age)
This is the period where:
The fundamental skills of reading, writing and
arithmetic are mastered; and
When the child is formally exposed to the world
and its culture, he/she becomes more achievement
centered with increased self – control.
Adolescence
– Marks the transition from childhood to
early adulthood; approximately from 10-12
years and ending at 18-22 years old.
-Where full physical development is
achieved.
Puberty – marked by the development of
sexual characteristics
Pursuit of independence and an identity is
prominent
Thoughts are more logical, abstract and
idealistic
More time is spent outside the family
More marked internal than external
development during later adolescence
Spends more time with the physical looks and
improving appearance
Early Adulthood
begins in late teens or early twenties
through the thirties. It is a period of:
– establishing personal and economic
independence
– career development
– selecting a mate
– intimate relationships, and
– starting a family
Middle Adulthood
from 35-45 years old up to 65 years old. It is
characterized by:
– menopause for women
– climacteric or andropause for men
– time of expanding personal and social
involvement and responsibility, assisting next
generation in becoming competent
Late Adulthood
Or senescence, begins from 65 to 80 years
old and lasting until death
– time of adjustment to decreasing strength and
health
– life review
– retirement
– adjustment to new social roles
– affiliations with members of one’s age group
FOUR THEORIES OF HUMAN
DEVELOPMENT
Sigmund Freud Psychosexual
Development Theory
the Father of Modern Psychology, believed that human
beings pass through a series of stages that are dominated
by the development of sensitivity in a particular
erogenous zone or pleasure giving area in the body.
The person must be able to resolve the conflicts that each
stage poses before he can move on to the next higher
stage. Failure to resolve the conflict results to frustration
and the individual may become so addicted to the
pleasure of a given stage that he develops fixation and
fails to move on to the next higher stage of development.
Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages of
Development
Each stage has a major developmental task or dilemma
that must be resolved … the individual is presented with a
crisis he must resolve.
Crisis – a turning point, crucial period of increased
vulnerability and heightened potential. The individual
develops a “ healthy personality” by mastering life’s outer
and inner dangers.
Epigenetic principle – personality continues to develop
throughout the entire life span. Each part of the
personality has a particular time in the life span when it
must develop, if it is going to develop at all.
Eight Major Stages of Social –Emotional
Development
1. Infant
Trust vs. Mistrust - needs of infant must
be met by caretakers who are responsive
and sensitive… infants must be cuddled
and fondled.
– development of trust results into a sense of
safe and dependable place
– non- resolution may develop into mistrust and
fear of the future and a suspicious mind.
2. Toddler
Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt - as a child
begins to crawl, walk and explores his
surroundings, the conflict is whether to assert
their wills or not.
– resolution : children acquire sense of independence
and competence when parents are patients and
encouraging.
– Non – resolution : children develop excessive shame
and doubt when parents are overprotective and
always curtail their child’s freedom of movement.
3. Pre- school
Initiative vs. Guilt – development of
mental and motor abilities
– resolution : children will develop initiative if
parents allow them freedom to run, slide, play
with other children, go bike riding etc.
– non- resolution: children develop sense of
inadequacy and feel that they are mere
intruders or “ istorbo” and “ pasaway”; they
become passive recipients of whatever the
environment brings.
4. School Age
: Industry vs. Inferiority - child’s concern is ‘
how things work” and how they are made.
– resolution : children gain a sense of industry or
accomplishment if their efforts are recognized,
rewarded and reinforced.
– Non-resolution: children acquire a sense of
inadequacy and inferiority especially if parents/
teachers, rebuff, ridicule, constantly scold or ignore
the child’s efforts to improve.
5. Adolescence
: Identity vs. Role Confusion
Entering adolescence, children experience “
psychological revolution” search for answers to
the questions “ who am I”, what do I value”, “
where am I headed in life?; trying on many new
roles; and parent/teen conflict usually occurs.
– resolution : establishment of an integrated and
coherent image of oneself as a unique person resulting
to a sense of centered identity.
– Non – resolution : role confusion or negative identity
like “ hoodlum” or delinquent.
6. Young Adulthood
Intimacy vs. Isolation
– Intimacy : the capacity to reach out and make
contact with other people; ability to share
with and care for another person without fear
of losing oneself in the process; ex. Deep
friendships and lasting relationships
– Rejection : results to withdrawal, isolation
and formation of shallow relationships.
7. Middle Adulthood
: Generativity vs. Stagnation
– Generativity – entails selflessness ; reaching
out beyond one’s own concerns to embrace the
welfare of society and future generations
through creative or productive work and
caring for children.
– Stagnation – people are pre-occupied with
their material possessions or physical well
being ( self – centered, embittered individual)
8. Old Age
1. Ego Integrity vs. Despair – towards
twilight years, people tend to take stock of
their lives or do a self accounting. May
result to sense of satisfaction with their
accomplishments or despair.
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive
Development
Universal Constructivist Perspective – the child
constructs reality by interacting with the
environment and that children have predictable
qualitative differences in how they think about
things at different ages.
All humans construct their understanding of the
world in predictable ways. Humans take an active
role in their own development by acting on the
physical environment.
Key Concepts :
Mental Structures – cognitive structures – begins with
reflexes in infancy evolving into schemata and more
complex structures called operations
Schema – a mental concept formed through experiences
with objects and events
Schemata – are building blocks of cognitive structures
Operations – mental actions allowing children to interact
with the environment using their minds and bodies;
invariant sequence where child must first develop
concrete operations before formal operations.
Organization – humans have natural and innate
tendency to organize their relationship with the
environment; people organize activity lawfully,
constructing a reality that makes sense at that time.
Lawrence Kohlberg – Moral
Development Theory
Three Levels and Six Stages of Moral Development
– Pre – conventional Level
– Stage 1 – Punishment / obedience orientation
ego centered … self centered : “ survival of the fittest”
obedience to figure of authority brought about by fear of
physical punishment
– Stage II – instrumental – relativist orientation
concerned with satisfying oneself at the expense of others
or doing something for others based on what gain or
benefit he/she can derive for a favor done
Conventional Level
Stage III – Good boy / nice girl orientation
the child becomes other – directed and the
concern is for social approval and acceptance
thus behavior conforms to accepted social and
traditional norms and practices
Stage IV. Law and order orientation
decisions are based on the rule of the law, honor
and commitment duty
Post – conventional Level
Stage V – social contract orientation
depends on social contracts, written documents,
abstract thing and highly legalistic concerns
believes in the saying, “ the law must be for the
greatest number of people”
Stage VI – Universal ethical principle orientation
behaves according to concept of universal social
justice
respect for human rights and upholding of the
principles of dignity, equality and justice.
THE DETERMINANTS OF
LEARNING
– Learning Needs – what the learner
needs to learn
– Learning Readiness – when the learner
is receptive to learning
– Learning Style – how the learner best
learns
