Mathematical Preliminaries
Fall 2005 Costas Busch - RPI 1
Mathematical Preliminaries
• Sets
• Functions
• Relations
• Graphs
• Proof Techniques
Fall 2005 Costas Busch - RPI 2
SETS
A set is a collection of elements
A {1, 2, 3}
B {train, bus, bicycle, airplane}
We write
1 A
ship B
Fall 2005 Costas Busch - RPI 3
Set Representations
C = { a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k }
C = { a, b, …, k } finite set
S = { 2, 4, 6, … } infinite set
S = { j : j > 0, and j = 2k for some k>0 }
S = { j : j is nonnegative and even }
Fall 2005 Costas Busch - RPI 4
A = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 }
U
6 A
2 3 8
1
7 4 5
9
10
Universal Set: all possible elements
U = { 1 , … , 10 }
Fall 2005 Costas Busch - RPI 5
Set Operations
A = { 1, 2, 3 } B = { 2, 3, 4, 5}
A B
• Union
2 4
1
A U B = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 } 3 5
• Intersection
U
A B = { 2, 3 } 2
3
• Difference
A-B={1}
1
B - A = { 4, 5 }
Venn diagrams
Fall 2005 Costas Busch - RPI 6
• Complement
Universal set = {1, …, 7}
A = { 1, 2, 3 } A = { 4, 5, 6, 7}
4
A
A 3 6
1
2
5 7
A=A
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{ even integers } = { odd integers }
Integers
1 odd
even
6 5
2
0
4
3 7
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DeMorgan’s Laws
AUB=A B
U
A B=AUB
U
Fall 2005 Costas Busch - RPI 9
Empty, Null Set:
={}
SU =S
U
S = = Universal Set
S- =S
-S=
Fall 2005 Costas Busch - RPI 10
Subset
A = { 1, 2, 3} B = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 }
A B
U
Proper Subset: A B
U
B
A
Fall 2005 Costas Busch - RPI 11
Disjoint Sets
A = { 1, 2, 3 } B = { 5, 6}
A B=
U
A B
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Set Cardinality
• For finite sets
A = { 2, 5, 7 }
|A| = 3
(set size)
Fall 2005 Costas Busch - RPI 13
Powersets
A powerset is a set of sets
S = { a, b, c }
Powerset of S = the set of all the subsets of S
2S = { , {a}, {b}, {c}, {a, b}, {a, c}, {b, c}, {a, b, c} }
Observation: | 2S | = 2|S| ( 8 = 23 )
Fall 2005 Costas Busch - RPI 14
Cartesian Product
A = { 2, 4 } B = { 2, 3, 5 }
A X B = { (2, 2), (2, 3), (2, 5), ( 4, 2), (4, 3), (4, 5) }
|A X B| = |A| |B|
Generalizes to more than two sets
AXBX…XZ
Fall 2005 Costas Busch - RPI 15
FUNCTIONS
domain range
4 A B
f(1) = a a
1
2 b
3 c
5
f : A -> B
If A = domain
then f is a total function
otherwise f is a partial function
Fall 2005 Costas Busch - RPI 16
RELATIONS
R = {(x1, y1), (x2, y2), (x3, y3), …}
xi R yi
e. g. if R = ‘>’: 2 > 1, 3 > 2, 3 > 1
Fall 2005 Costas Busch - RPI 17
Equivalence Relations
• Reflexive: xRx
• Symmetric: xRy yRx
• Transitive: x R y and y R z xRz
Example: R = ‘=‘
•x=x
•x=y y=x
• x = y and y = z x=z
Fall 2005 Costas Busch - RPI 18
Equivalence Classes
For equivalence relation R
equivalence class of x = {y : x R y}
Example:
R = { (1, 1), (2, 2), (1, 2), (2, 1),
(3, 3), (4, 4), (3, 4), (4, 3) }
Equivalence class of 1 = {1, 2}
Equivalence class of 3 = {3, 4}
Fall 2005 Costas Busch - RPI 19
GRAPHS
A directed graph
e
b
node
a d
edge c
• Nodes (Vertices)
V = { a, b, c, d, e }
• Edges
E = { (a,b), (b,c), (b,e),(c,a), (c,e), (d,c), (e,b), (e,d) }
Fall 2005 Costas Busch - RPI 20
Labeled Graph
2
6 e
b 2
1 3
a 6 d
5
c
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Walk
e
b
a d
Walk is a sequence of adjacent edges
(e, d), (d, c), (c, a)
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Path
e
b
a d
Path is a walk where no edge is repeated
Simple path: no node is repeated
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Cycle
base e
b
3
a 1 d
2
c
Cycle: a walk from a node (base) to itself
Simple cycle: only the base node is repeated
Fall 2005 Costas Busch - RPI 24
Euler Tour
8 base
7 e
b 1
4 6
a 5 2 d
3
c
A cycle that contains each edge once
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Hamiltonian Cycle
5 base
e
b 1
4
a 2 d
3
c
A simple cycle that contains all nodes
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Finding All Simple Paths
e
b
a d
c
origin
Fall 2005 Costas Busch - RPI 27
Step 1
e
b
a d
c
origin
(c, a)
(c, e)
Fall 2005 Costas Busch - RPI 28
Step 2
e
b
a d
(c, a) c
origin
(c, a), (a, b)
(c, e)
(c, e), (e, b)
(c, e), (e, d)
Fall 2005 Costas Busch - RPI 29
Step 3
e
b
a d
(c, a) c
origin
(c, a), (a, b)
(c, a), (a, b), (b, e)
(c, e)
(c, e), (e, b)
(c, e), (e, d)
Fall 2005 Costas Busch - RPI 30
Step 4
e
b
(c, a) a d
(c, a), (a, b) c
origin
(c, a), (a, b), (b, e)
(c, a), (a, b), (b, e), (e,d)
(c, e)
(c, e), (e, b)
(c, e), (e, d)
Fall 2005 Costas Busch - RPI 31
Trees
root
parent
leaf
child
Trees have no cycles
Fall 2005 Costas Busch - RPI 32
root
Level 0
Level 1
leaf Height 3
Level 2
Level 3
Fall 2005 Costas Busch - RPI 33
Binary Trees
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PROOF TECHNIQUES
• Proof by induction
• Proof by contradiction
Fall 2005 Costas Busch - RPI 35
Induction
We have statements P1, P2, P3, …
If we know
• for some b that P1, P2, …, Pb are true
• for any k >= b that
P1, P2, …, Pk imply Pk+1
Then
Every Pi is true
Fall 2005 Costas Busch - RPI 36
Proof by Induction
• Inductive basis
Find P1, P2, …, Pb which are true
• Inductive hypothesis
Let’s assume P1, P2, …, Pk are true,
for any k >= b
• Inductive step
Fall 2005 Show that Pk+1 Costas
is true
Busch - RPI 37
Example
Theorem: A binary tree of height n
has at most 2n leaves.
Proof by induction:
let L(i) be the maximum number of
leaves of any subtree at height i
Fall 2005 Costas Busch - RPI 38
We want to show: L(i) <= 2i
• Inductive basis
L(0) = 1 (the root node)
• Inductive hypothesis
Let’s assume L(i) <= 2i for all i = 0, 1, …, k
• Induction step
Fall 2005
we need to Costas
show that
Busch - RPI
L(k + 1) <= 2 k+1
39
Induction Step
height
k
k+1
From Inductive hypothesis: L(k) <= 2k
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Induction Step
height
k L(k) <= 2k
k+1
L(k+1) <= 2 * L(k) <= 2 * 2k = 2k+1
(we add at most two nodes for every leaf of level k)
Fall 2005 Costas Busch - RPI 41
Remark
Recursion is another thing
Example of recursive function:
f(n) = f(n-1) + f(n-2)
f(0) = 1, f(1) = 1
Fall 2005 Costas Busch - RPI 42
Proof by Contradiction
We want to prove that a statement P is true
• we assume that P is false
• then we arrive at an incorrect conclusion
• therefore, statement P must be true
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Example
Theorem: 2 is not rational
Proof:
Assume by contradiction that it is rational
2 = n/m
n and m have no common factors
We will show that this is impossible
Fall 2005 Costas Busch - RPI 44
2 = n/m 2 m 2 = n2
n is even
Therefore, n2 is even
n=2k
m is even
2 m2 = 4k2 m2 = 2k2
m=2p
Thus, m and n have common factor 2
Contradiction!
Fall 2005 Costas Busch - RPI 45
