Review
Overview of Cryptography
Classical Symmetric Cipher
Substitution Cipher
Transposition Cipher
Product Cipher
Modern Symmetric Ciphers (DES)
Basic Terminology
plaintext - the original message
ciphertext - the coded message
cipher - algorithm for transforming plaintext to ciphertext
key - info used in cipher known only to sender/receiver
encipher (encrypt) - converting plaintext to ciphertext
decipher (decrypt) - recovering ciphertext from plaintext
cryptography - study of encryption principles/methods
cryptanalysis (codebreaking) - the study of principles/
methods of deciphering ciphertext without knowing key
cryptology - the field of both cryptography and
cryptanalysis
Feistel Cipher Structure
Feistel cipher implements Shannons S-P
network concept
based on invertible product cipher
Process through multiple rounds which
partitions input block into two halves
perform a substitution on left data half
based on round function of right half & subkey
then have permutation swapping halves
Feistel
Cipher
Structure
Feistel cipher
implements
Shannons S-P
network concept
Achieve diffusion
and confusion
DES (Data Encryption Standard)
Published in 1977, standardized in 1979.
Key: 64 bit quantity=8-bit parity+56-bit key
Every 8th bit is a parity bit.
64 bit input, 64 bit output.
64 bit M
64 bit C
DES
Encryption
56 bits
DES Top View
56-bit Key
64-bit
48-bitInput
K1
Permutation
Round 1
Round 2
...
Round 16
Swap
Permutation
64-bit Output
Generate keys
Initial Permutation
48-bit K1
48-bit K2
48-bit K16
Swap 32-bit halves
Final Permutation
Bit Permutation (1-to-1)
Input:
1 2
0 0
3
1
4
0
32
1
1 bit
Output
22
13 32
..
1
3
Per-Round Key Generation
Initial Permutation of DES key
C i-1 28 bits
D i-1 28 bits
Circular Left Shift
Circular Left Shift
One
round
Round 1,2,9,16:
single shift
Others: two bits
Permutation
with Discard
48 bits
Ki
Ci
28 bits
Di
28 bits
A DES Round
32 bits Ln
32 bits Rn
E
One
Round
Encryption
48 bits
Mangler
Function
S-Boxes
P
32 bits
32 bits Ln+1
32 bits Rn+1
48 bits
Ki
Mangler Function
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
6
Permutation
S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 S8
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
The permutation produces
spread among the
chunks/S-boxes!
Bits Expansion (1-to-m)
Input:
1
0
2
0
3
1
4
0
5
1.
32
1
Output
1
..
0
48
S-Box (Substitute and Shrink)
48 bits ==> 32 bits. (8*6 ==> 8*4)
2 bits used to select amongst 4 substitutions
for the rest of the 4-bit quantity
2 bits
row
4 bits
column
I1
I2
I3
I4
I5
I6
Si
i = 1,8.
O1
O2
O3
O4
S-Box Example (S-Box 1)
Each row and column contain different numbers.
0
14
13
15
11
15
14
13
10
14
13
11
15
15
12
Example: input: 100110 output: ???
9. 15
DES Standard
Cipher Iterative
Action :
Input:
64 bits
Key:
48 bits
Key Generation Box :
Input:
56 bits
Output: 48 bits
Output: 64 bits
One round (Total 16 rounds)
DES Box Summary
Simple, easy to implement:
Hardware/gigabits/second,
software/megabits/second
56-bit key DES may be acceptable for noncritical applications but triple DES (DES3)
should be secure for most applications today
Supports several operation modes (ECB CBC,
OFB, CFB) for different applications
Outlines
Strength/weakness of DES, AES
Public Key Cryptography
Modular Arithmetic
RSA
Avalanche Effect
Key desirable property of encryption alg
Where a change of one input or key bit
results in changing more than half output bits
DES exhibits strong avalanche
Strength of DES Key Size
56-bit keys have 256 = 7.2 x 1016 values
Brute force search looks hard
Recent advances have shown is possible
in 1997 on a huge cluster of computers over the
Internet in a few months
in 1998 on dedicated hardware called DES cracker
by EFF in a few days ($220,000)
in 1999 above combined in 22hrs!
Still must be able to recognize plaintext
No big flaw for DES algorithms
DES Replacement
Triple-DES (3DES)
168-bit key, no brute force attacks
Underlying encryption algorithm the same, no
effective analytic attacks
Drawbacks
Performance: no efficient software codes for DES/3DES
Efficiency/security: bigger block size desirable
Advanced Encryption Standards (AES)
US NIST issued call for ciphers in 1997
Rijndael was selected as the AES in Oct-2000
AES
Private key symmetric block cipher
128-bit data, 128/192/256-bit keys
Stronger & faster than Triple-DES
Provide full specification & design details
Evaluation criteria
security effort to practically cryptanalysis
cost computational
algorithm & implementation characteristics
Outlines
Strength/weakness of DES, AES
Public Key Cryptography
Modular Arithmetic
RSA
Private-Key Cryptography
Private/secret/single key cryptography uses one
key
Shared by both sender and receiver
If this key is disclosed communications are
compromised
Also is symmetric, parties are equal
Hence does not protect sender from receiver
forging a message & claiming is sent by sender
Public-Key Cryptography
Probably most significant advance in the 3000
year history of cryptography
Uses two keys a public & a private key
Asymmetric since parties are not equal
Uses clever application of number theoretic
concepts to function
Complements rather than replaces private key
crypto
Public-Key Cryptography
Public-key/two-key/asymmetric cryptography
involves the use of two keys:
a public-key, which may be known by anybody, and can
be used to encrypt messages, and verify signatures
a private-key, known only to the recipient, used to
decrypt messages, and sign (create) signatures
Asymmetric because
those who encrypt messages or verify signatures
cannot decrypt messages or create signatures
Public-Key Cryptography
Public-Key Characteristics
Public-Key algorithms rely on two keys with the
characteristics that it is:
computationally infeasible to find decryption key
knowing only algorithm & encryption key
computationally easy to en/decrypt messages when
the relevant (en/decrypt) key is known
either of the two related keys can be used for
encryption, with the other used for decryption (in
some schemes)
Public-Key Cryptosystems
Two major applications:
encryption/decryption (provide secrecy)
digital signatures (provide authentication)
Outlines
Strength/weakness of DES, AES
Public Key Cryptography
Modular Arithmetic
RSA
Modular Arithmetic
Public key algorithms are based on modular
arithmetic.
Modular addition.
Modular multiplication.
Modular exponentiation.
Modular Addition
Addition modulo (mod) K
Poor cipher with (dk+dm) mod K, e.g., if K=10 and dk is the key.
Additive inverse: addition mod K yields 0.
Decrypt by adding inverse.
Modular Multiplication
Multiplication modulo K
Multiplicative inverse: multiplication mod K yields 1
Only some numbers have inverse
Modular Multiplication
Only the numbers relatively prime to n will have
mod n multiplicative inverse
x, m relative prime: no other common factor
than 1
Eg. 8 & 15 are relatively prime - factors of 8 are
1,2,4,8 and of 15 are 1,3,5,15 and 1 is the only
common factor
Totient Function
Totient function (n): number of integers less than
n relatively prime to n
if n is prime,
(n)=n-1
if n=pq, and p, q are primes, p != q
(n)=(p-1)(q-1)
E.g.,
(37) = 36
(21) = (31)(71) = 26 = 12
Modular Exponentiation
xy
Modular Exponentiation
xy mod n = xy mod (n) mod n
if y = 1 mod (n) then xy mod n = x mod n
Outlines
Strength/weakness of DES, AES
Public Key Cryptography
Modular Arithmetic
RSA
RSA (Rivest, Shamir, Adleman)
The most popular one.
Support both public key encryption and digital
signature.
Assumption/theoretical basis:
Factoring a big number is hard.
Variable key length (usually 512 bits).
Variable plaintext block size.
Plaintext must be smaller than the key.
Ciphertext block size is the same as the key length.
What Is RSA?
To generate key pair:
Pick large primes (>= 256 bits each) p and q
Let n = p*q, keep your p and q to yourself!
For public key, choose e that is relatively prime to
(n) =(p-1)(q-1), let pub = <e,n>
For private key, find d that is the multiplicative
inverse of e mod (n), i.e., e*d = 1 mod (n), let priv =
<d,n>
RSA Example
1.
Select primes: p=17 & q=11
2.
Compute n = pq =1711=187
3.
Compute (n)=(p1)(q-1)=1610=160
4.
Select e : gcd(e,160)=1; choose e=7
5.
Determine d: de=1 mod 160 and d < 160 Value is
d=23 since 237=161= 10160+1
6.
Publish public key KU={7,187}
7.
Keep secret private key KR={23,17,11}
How Does RSA Work?
Given pub = <e, n> and priv = <d, n>
encryption: c = me mod n, m < n
decryption: m = cd mod n
signature: s = md mod n, m < n
verification: m = se mod n
given message M = 88 (nb. 88<187)
encryption:
C = 887 mod 187 = 11
decryption:
M = 1123 mod 187 = 88
Why Does RSA Work?
Given pub = <e, n> and priv = <d, n>
n =p*q, (n) =(p-1)(q-1)
e*d = 1 mod (n)
xed = x mod n
encryption: c = me mod n
decryption: m = cd mod n = med mod n = m mod n = m
(since m < n)
digital signature (similar)
Is RSA Secure?
Factoring 512-bit number is very hard!
But if you can factor big number n then given public
key <e,n>, you can find d, hence the private key by:
Knowing factors p, q, such that, n = p*q
Then (n) =(p-1)(q-1)
Then d such that e*d = 1 mod (n)
Threat
Moores law
Refinement of factorizing algorithms
For the near future, a key of 1024 or 2048 bits
needed
Symmetric (DES) vs. Public Key (RSA)
Exponentiation of RSA is expensive !
AES and DES are much faster
100 times faster in software
1,000 to 10,000 times faster in hardware
RSA often used in combination in AES and DES
Pass the session key with RSA
