UNIT – 2 DBMS III SEM B.

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UNIT – 2
Relational Algebra
Relational Algebra: Introduction to Relational Algebra, Operations: Selection, Projection, Set Operations,
Join Operations, Division. Structured Query Language (SQL): SQL Basics: DDL and DML, Aggregate
Functions (Min(), Max(), Sum(), Avg(), Count ()), Logical operators (AND, OR, NOT), Predicates (Like,
Between, Alias, Distinct), Clauses (Group By, Having, Order by, top/limit).
Introduction to Relational Algebra

Relational Algebra:
Relational Algebra is a formal language used to query and manipulate relational databases,
consisting of a set of operations like selection, projection, union, and join. It provides a
mathematical framework for querying databases, ensuring efficient data retrieval and
manipulation. Relational algebra serves as the mathematical foundation for query SQL.
• It provides a clear, structured approach for formulating database queries.
• Helps in understanding and optimizing query execution plans for better performance.
• SQL queries are based on relational algebra operations, making it essential for learning
SQL.
• Enables complex queries, like joins and nested queries, that are critical for working with
large datasets.
Key Concepts in Relational Algebra:
• Relations: In relational algebra, a relation is a table that consists of rows and columns,
representing data in a structured format. Each relation has a unique name and is made up
of tuples.
• Tuples: A tuple is a single row in a relation, which contains a set of values for each attribute.
It represents a single data entry or record in a relational table.
• Attributes: Attributes are the columns in a relation, each representing a specific
characteristic or property of the data. For example, in a “Students” relation, attributes could
be “Name”, “Age”, and “Grade”.
• Domains: A domain is the set of possible values that an attribute can have. It defines the
type of data that can be stored in each column of a relation, such as integers, strings, or
dates.
Operators in Relational Algebra
Relational algebra consists of various operators that help us fetch and manipulate data from
relational tables in the database to perform certain operations on relational data. The
fundamental operators in relational algebra, such as selection, projection, and join, are essential
for querying and transforming data efficiently within a relational database.

Relational Operations

Unary Operation Set Theory Operation Binary Operation Extended OR Derived

Selection (𝜎) Union(∪) Joins(⋈) Outer join
Projection(𝜋) Intersection(∩) Inner join Left join
Rename(𝜌) Cross Product/Cartesian(X) Theta join Right join
Minus/Set Difference (-) Natural join Full join
Division(/)

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1. Unary Operation
Operations which perform on Single relation
1. Selection (𝝈):
Select operation chooses the subset of tuples from the relation that satisfies the given condition
mentioned in the syntax of selection. The selection operation is also known as horizontal
partitioning since it partitions the table or relation horizontally.
Notation:
σ c(R)
where ‘c’ is the selection condition which is a boolean expression(condition), we can have a
single condition like Roll= 3 or a combination of conditions like X>2 AND Y<1, and symbol
‘σ (sigma)’ is used to denote select(choose) operator, R is a relational algebra expression, whose
result is a relation. The boolean expression specified in condition ‘c’ can be written in the
following form:

<attribute name> <comparison operator> <constant value> or <attribute name>

where <attribute name> is the name of an attribute of relation, <comparison operator> is any
of the operator {<, >, =, <=, >=, !=} and, <constant value> is a constant value taken from the
domain of the relation.

Example-1:
σ Place = 'Mumbai' or Salary >= 1000000 (Citizen)
σ Department = 'Analytics'(σ Location = 'NewYork'(Manager))
The query above(immediate) is called nested expression, here, as usual, we evaluate the inner
expression first (which results in relation say Manager1), then we calculate the outer expression
on Manager1(the relation we obtained from evaluating the inner expression), which results in
relation again, which is an instance of a relation we input.

2. Projection(𝝅):
Project operation selects (or chooses) certain attributes discarding other attributes. The
Project operation is also known as vertical partitioning since it partitions the relation or
table vertically discarding other columns or attributes.
Notation:
πA(R)
where ‘A’ is the attribute list, it is the desired set of attributes from the attributes of
relation(R),
symbol ‘π(pi)’ is used to denote the Project operator,
R is generally a relational algebra expression, which results in a relation.
Example –
πAge(Student)
πDept, Sex(Emp)
Project Class and Dept from Faculty –
πClass, Dept(Faculty)

3. Rename(𝝆):
The RENAME operation is used to rename the output of a relation. Sometimes it is simple and
suitable to break a complicated sequence of operations and rename it as a relation with different
names. Reasons to rename a relation can be many, like

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• We may want to save the result of a relational algebra expression as a relation so that we
can use it later.
• We may want to join a relation with itself, in that case, it becomes too confusing to specify
which one of the tables we are talking about, in that case, we rename one of the tables and
perform join operations on them.
Notation:
ρ X (R)
where the symbol ‘ρ’ is used to denote the RENAME operator and R is the result of the
sequence of operation or expression which is saved with the name X.
• Example-1: Query to rename the relation Student as Male Student and the attributes
of Student – RollNo, SName as (Sno, Name).
• ρ MaleStudent(Sno, Name) πRollNo, SName(σCondition(Student))
Example-2: Query to rename the attributes Name, Age of table Department to A,B.
ρ (A, B) (Department)
Example-3: Query to rename the table name Project to Pro and its attributes to P, Q, R.
ρ Pro(P, Q, R) (Project)
Example-4: Query to rename the first attribute of the table Student with attributes A, B, C
to P.
ρ (P, B, C) (Student)

2. Set Theory Operation

1) Union(∪):
✓ Combines the results of two relations (tables) and removes duplicates.
✓ Both relations must have the same number of attributes and compatible domains.
Syntax in SQL:
SELECT column_name FROM table1
UNION
SELECT column_name FROM table2;

2) Intersection(∩):
✓ Returns only the common tuples present in both relations.
✓ Like UNION, both relations must have the same attributes and domains.
Syntax in SQL:
SELECT column_name FROM table1
INTERSECT
SELECT column_name FROM table2;

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3) Set difference (-):

✓ Returns tuples that exist in the first relation but not in the second.
✓ Also called MINUS in SQL.
Syntax in SQL:
SELECT column_name FROM table1
EXCEPT/Minus
SELECT column_name FROM table2;

4) Cross Product/Cartesian(X):
The Cartesian Product is also an operator which works on two sets. It is sometimes called the
CROSS PRODUCT or CROSS JOIN.
Syntax in SQL:
SELECT * FROM table1, table2;
OR
SELECT * FROM table1 CROSS JOIN table2;

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JOINS:
A DBMS JOIN operates through SQL to link different tables using matching field contents.
The DBMS JOIN functionality allows users to seek related data by creating linkages between
different tables which helps produce efficient data retrieval and organization processes. Hard
and soft JOIN operations including INNER JOIN and LEFT JOIN and FULL JOIN enable
diverse ways to conduct data unions and analysis.

JOINS (⋈)

Inner Join Outer Joins

Theta Join Left Join
Natural Join Right Join
Full Join
• DBMS join is a binary operation that allows combining join products and selecting in one
single statement.
• If data needs to be retrieved from two or more tables, we can use joins to retrieve data.
• Tables in DBMS are associated with the primary key and foreign keys.

There are multiple types of joins in DBMS:

1. Inner Join
2. Right Join
3. Left Join
4. Full Join
5. Natural Join

1. Inner Join:
The INNER JOIN keyword selects all rows from both the tables as long as the condition is
satisfied. This keyword will create the result set by combining all rows from both the tables
where the condition satisfies i.e value of the common field will be the same.
Syntax:
SELECT table1.column1,table1.column2,table2.column1,.... FROM table1 INNER JOIN
table2 ON table1.matching_column = table2.matching_column;
Note: We can also write JOIN instead of INNER JOIN. JOIN is same as INNER JOIN.

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Inner Join
Example of INNER JOIN
Consider the two tables, Student and StudentCourse, which share a common
column ROLL_NO. Using SQL JOINS, we can combine data from these tables based on their
relationship, allowing us to retrieve meaningful information like student details along with their
enrolled courses.

Student
2. StudentCourse Table:

.
Query:
SELECT StudentCourse.COURSE_ID, [Link], [Link] FROM Student
INNER JOIN StudentCourse
ON Student.ROLL_NO = StudentCourse.ROLL_NO;
Output

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Inner Join further divided into three subtypes:

• Theta join
• Natural join
• EQUI join

Outer Joins
Theta Join, Equijoin, and Natural Join are called inner joins. An inner join includes only those
tuples with matching attributes and the rest are discarded in the resulting relation. Therefore,
we need to use outer joins to include all the tuples from the participating relations in the
resulting relation. There are three kinds of outer joins − left outer join, right outer join, and full
outer join.
Outer Join further divided into three subtypes:
1. Left join
2. Full join
3. Right join
1. SQL LEFT JOIN
A LEFT JOIN returns all rows from the left table, along with matching rows from the right
table. If there is no match, NULL values are returned for columns from the right table. LEFT
JOIN is also known as LEFT OUTER JOIN.
Syntax
SELECT table1.column1,table1.column2,table2.column1,....
FROM table1
LEFT JOIN table2
ON table1.matching_column = table2.matching_column;
Note: We can also use LEFT OUTER JOIN instead of LEFT JOIN, both are the same.

Left JOIN
LEFT JOIN Example
In this example, the LEFT JOIN retrieves all rows from the Student table and the matching
rows from the StudentCourse table based on the ROLL_NO column.
Query:
SELECT [Link],StudentCourse.COURSE_ID
FROM Student

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LEFT JOIN StudentCourse

ON StudentCourse.ROLL_NO = Student.ROLL_NO;
Output

2. SQL RIGHT JOIN

RIGHT JOIN returns all the rows of the table on the right side of the join and matching rows
for the table on the left side of the join. It is very similar to LEFT JOIN for the rows for which
there is no matching row on the left side, the result-set will contain null. RIGHT JOIN is also
known as RIGHT OUTER JOIN.
Syntax
SELECT table1.column1,table1.column2,table2.column1,....
FROM table1
RIGHT JOIN table2
ON table1.matching_column = table2.matching_column;
Key Terms
• table1: First table.
• table2: Second table
• matching_column: Column common to both the tables.
Note: We can also use RIGHT OUTER JOIN instead of RIGHT JOIN, both are the same

Right JOIN
RIGHT JOIN Example
In this example, the RIGHT JOIN retrieves all rows from the StudentCourse table and the
matching rows from the Student table based on the ROLL_NO column.

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Query:
SELECT [Link], StudentCourse.COURSE_ID
FROM Student
RIGHT JOIN StudentCourse
ON StudentCourse. ROLL_NO = Student. ROLL_NO;
Output

3. SQL FULL JOIN

FULL JOIN creates the result-set by combining results of both LEFT JOIN and RIGHT JOIN.
The result-set will contain all the rows from both tables. For the rows for which there is no
matching, the result-set will contain NULL values.

Syntax
SELECT table1.column1,table1.column2,table2.column1,....
FROM table1
FULL JOIN table2
ON table1.matching_column = table2.matching_column;
Key Terms
• table1: First table.
• table2: Second table
• matching_column: Column common to both the tables.
FULL JOIN Example
This example demonstrates the use of a FULL JOIN, which combines the results of both
LEFT JOIN and RIGHT JOIN. The query retrieves all rows from the Student and

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StudentCourse tables. If a record in one table does not have a matching record in the other
table, the result set will include that record with NULL values for the missing fields
Query:
SELECT [Link],StudentCourse.COURSE_ID
FROM Student
FULL JOIN StudentCourse
ON StudentCourse.ROLL_NO = Student.ROLL_NO;
4. SQL Natural Join
A Natural Join is a type of INNER JOIN that automatically joins two tables based on columns
with the same name and data type. It returns only the rows where the values in the common
columns match.
• It returns rows where the values in these common columns are the same in both tables.
• Common columns appear only once in the result, even if they exist in both tables.
• Unlike a CROSS JOIN, which creates all possible combinations of rows, a Natural Join
only includes rows with matching values
Example:
Look at the two tables below: Employee and Department
Employee
Emp_id Emp_name Dept_id
1 Ram 10
2 Jon 30
3 Bob 50
Department
Dept_id Dept_name
10 IT
30 HR
40 TIS
Find all Employees and their respective departments.
(Employee) ? (Department)
Output:
Emp_id Emp_name Dept_id Dept_id Dept_name
1 Ram 10 10 IT
2 Jon 30 30 HR

Division :

Division in SQL is typically required when you want to find out entities that are interacting
with all entities of a set of different types of entities. The division operator is used when we
have to evaluate queries that contain the keyword 'all'. The DIVISION (÷) operation is a special
type of operation in Relational Algebra that is used to retrieve records that are related to all
entries of another set. It is typically used when dealing with "all" conditions in a query.

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When to Use the Division Operator

You typically require the division operator in scenarios where you need to ascertain entities
that meet all specified conditions across different datasets. Here are a few common examples:
• Identifying people who have accounts in every bank within a particular city.
• Determining students who have enrolled in all necessary courses to qualify for
graduation.

1. Definition
• The division operation (÷) is used when a relation contains a set of values that need to be
matched with all values in another relation.
• It is used in scenarios where we need to find entities that have a relationship with all
possible values of another set.

2. Syntax
If we have two relations A(X, Y) and B(Y), the result of A ÷ B will return a set of values from
X that are related to
all values in B.
A(X, Y) ÷ B(Y) = C(X)
• A(X, Y): A table containing attributes X and Y.
• B(Y): A table containing only Y values.
• C(X): The result contains only X values that are associated with all Y values in B.

3. Example of DIVISION Operation

Given Two Relations:
Student_Course Table (A - X, Y)
Student Course
Alice DBMS
Alice OS
Bob DBMS
Bob OS
Charlie DBMS
Course Table (B - Y)
Course
DBMS
OS
Query:
Find students who have taken all courses listed in the Course Table (B).
Result:
Student
Alice
Bob
Explanation:
Alice has taken DBMS and OS → Included
Bob has taken DBMS and OS → Included
Charlie has taken only DBMS → Not included (missing OS)
So, Alice and Bob are the only students who have taken all courses in the Course [Link]

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Structured Query Language (SQL)

SQL Basics:
Database Language is a particular type of programming language used to define and manipulate a
database. Based on their application, database languages are classified into four types: DDL, DML,
DCL, and TCL. Database languages are used to perform various critical tasks that help a database
management system function correctly.
Types of Database Languages
The Data Languages are categorized into four different types based upon the various operations
performed by the language. These include:

1. Data Definition Language (DDL):

Data Definition Language (DDL) is a set of special commands that allows us to define and modify
the structure and the metadata of the database. These commands can be used to create, modify, and
delete the database structures such as schema, tables, indexes, [Link] DDL commands can alter the
structure of the whole database and every change implemented by a DDL command is auto-
committed (the change is saved permanently in the database), these commands are normally not used
by an end-user (someone who is accessing the database via an application).Some of the DDL
commands are:

1) CREATE :It is used to create the database or its schema objects.

MySQL Syntax -To create a new database :
CREATE DATABASE database_name;
To create a new table :
CREATE TABLE table_name (
column_1 DATATYPE,
column_2 DATATYPE,
column_n DATATYPE );

2) DROP :It is used to delete the database or its schema objects.

MySQL Syntax -To delete an object :
DROP object object_name
To delete an existing table :

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DROP TABLE table_name;

To delete the whole database :
DROP DATABASE database_name;

3) ALTER :It is used to modify the structure of the database objects.

MySQL Syntax -To add new column(s) in a table :
ALTER TABLE table_name ADD (
column_1 DATATYPE,
column_2 DATATYPE,
column_n DATATYPE );
To change the datatype of a column in a table :
ALTER TABLE table_name
MODIFY column_name DATATYPE;
To remove a column from a table :
ALTER TABLE table_name
DROP COLUMN column_name;

4) TRUNCATE :It is used to remove the whole content of the table along with the deallocation of
the space occupied by the data, without affecting the table's structure.
MySQL Syntax -To remove data present inside a table :
TRUNCATE TABLE table_name;

5) RENAME: It is used to change the name of an existing table or a database object.

MySQL Syntax -To rename a table:
RENAME old_table_name TO new_table_name;
To rename a column of a table:
ALTER TABLE table name
RENAME COLUMN old_Column_name to new_Column_name;

2. Data Manipulation Language (DML)

Data Manipulation Language (DML) is a set of special commands that allows us to access and
manipulate data stored in existing schema objects. These commands are used to perform certain
operations such as insertion, deletion, updation, and retrieval of the data from the database. These
commands deal with the user requests as they are responsible for all types of data modification. The
DML commands that deal with the retrieval of the data are known as Data Query language.
Some of the DML commands are:

1. SELECT :It is used to retrieve or fetch data from a database. The SELECT statement cannot
manipulate data, it can only access it. Hence, it is known as the Data Query Language, i.e., a
limited form of DML statement.
MySQL Syntax -To fetch an entire table :
SELECT * FROM table_name;
To fetch particular columns from a table :
SELECT column_1, column_2 FROM table_name;
To fetch particular columns from a table based on a condition:
SELECT column_1, column_2
FROM table_name
WHERE <condition>;
Fetching data with various clauses (General SELECT statement):
SELECT column_list FROM table-name

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[WHERE Clause]
[GROUP BY clause]
[HAVING clause]
[ORDER BY clause];

2. INSERT :It is used to insert new rows into the table.

MySQL Syntax -To insert values according to the table structure :
INSERT INTO table_name
VALUES value1, value2, value3;
To insert values based on the columns :
INSERT INTO table_name column1, column2, column3
VALUES value1, value2, value3;
Note: While using the INSERT command, make sure that the datatypes of each column match with
the inserted value, as this may lead to unexpected scenarios and errors in the database.
3. UPDATE :It is used to update existing column(s)/value(s) within a table.
MySQL Syntax -To update the columns of a table based on a condition (General UPDATE statement):
UPDATE table_name
SET column_1 = value1,
column_2 = value2,
column_3 = value3,
[WHERE condition]
Note: Here, the SET statement is used to set new values to the particular column, WHERE clause is
used to select rows for which the columns are updated for the given table.

4. DELETE :It is used to delete existing records from a table, i.e., it is used to remove one or more
rows from a table.
MySQL Syntax -To delete rows from a table based on a condition :
DELETE FROM table_name [WHERE condition];
Note: The DELETE statement only removes the data from the table, whereas the TRUNCATE
statement also frees the memory along with data removal. Hence, TRUNCATE is more efficient in
removing all the data from a table.

5. MERGE:It is a combination of the INSERT, UPDATE, and DELETE [Link] is used to

merge data from a source table or query-set with a target table based on the specified condition.
MySQL Syntax -To delete an object :
MERGE INTO target_table_name
USING source_table_name
ON <condition>
WHEN MATCHED THEN
UPDATE <statements>
WHEN NOT MATCHED THEN
INSERT <statements>

6. CALL :It is used to execute a structured query language function or a Java subprogram from
within [Link] use the CALL statement, we need to define a function using CREATE
PROCEDURE command. Its syntax is:
CREATE PROCEDURE procedure_name (parameter_1 DATATYPE_1, ...)
AS
BEGIN
QUERY

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END
Now, we can execute this procedure using the CALL statement.
MySQL Syntax -
SET @parameter1 = value1;
CALL procedure_name([@parameter1,.. ]

Aggregate Functions

In SQL, grouping and aggregating data are essential techniques for analysing datasets. When
dealing with large volumes of data, we often need to summarize or categorize it into meaningful
groups. The combination of the GROUP BY clause and aggregate functions like COUNT (),
SUM(), AVG(), MIN(), and MAX() makes it easy to perform such tasks.

aggregate functions perform a calculation on a set of values and return a single aggregated
result. These functions are typically used in conjunction with the GROUP BY clause to
summarize data, enabling users to derive meaningful insights from large datasets. Common
aggregate functions in MySQL include SUM(), AVG(), COUNT(), MIN(), and MAX(), which
help in calculating totals, averages, counts, and finding the minimum or maximum values in a
dataset.

Aggregating Data: Aggregate functions perform calculations on multiple rows of data and
return a single result. Common aggregate functions include COUNT(), SUM(), AVG(), MIN(),
and MAX(). These help us get summaries like totals, averages, and counts for different
categories or groups
SELECT column1, column2, …, AGGREGATE_FUNCTION(column3)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition
GROUP BY column1, column2, …
HAVING condition
ORDER BY column1;

What Are SQL Aggregate Functions?

SQL Aggregate Functions are essential for summarizing and analysing large datasets. These
functions operate on multiple rows of a table, combining them into a single, more meaningful
result. SQL Aggregate functions are mostly used with the GROUP BY clause of the SELECT
statement. SQL aggregate functions, such as COUNT(), AVG(), and SUM(), are essential tools
for performing mathematical analysis on data. These functions allow you to gather valuable
insights from your database, such as calculating totals, and averages, and counting specific
rows.
Various Aggregate Functions
1. Count()
2. Sum()
3. Avg()
4. Min()
5. Max()

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The five aggregate functions that we can use with the SQL Order By statement are:
• AVG(): Calculates the average of the set of values.
• COUNT(): Returns the count of rows.
• SUM(): Calculates the arithmetic sum of the set of numeric values.
• MAX(): From a group of values, returns the maximum value.
• MIN(): From a group of values, returns the minimum value.

1) SQL COUNT() Function

The COUNT() function provides the number of rows that match a specified condition. This
function is particularly useful for understanding the volume of data entries and identifying
trends based on countable metrics.
Syntax:
SELECT COUNT(column_name)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;

2) SQL AVG() Function

The AVG() function provides the average value of a numeric column, helping you determine
central tendencies in your data. This is useful for understanding the mean value of a set of
numbers, such as salaries, prices, or scores.
Syntax:
SELECT AVG(column_name)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;

3) SQL SUM() Function

The SUM() function provides the total sum of a numeric column. This function is ideal for
calculating totals such as sales, revenue, or any other cumulative numeric value.
Syntax:
SELECT SUM(column_name)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;
Examples of SQL COUNT(), AVG() and SUM() Function
Let’s look at some examples of the COUNT(), AVG() and SUM() Function in SQL to
understand them better.
To demonstrate this, let us create a table “GeeksTab“.
CREATE TABLE GeeksTab (
Name VARCHAR(50),
City VARCHAR(50),
Salary INT,
ID INT,
DOJ VARCHAR(50)
);
INSERT INTO GeeksTab (Name, City, Salary, ID, DOJ) VALUES
('Abc', 'Delhi', 4500, 134, '6-Aug'),
('Dfe', 'Noida', 6500, 245, '4-March'),

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('Def', 'Jaipur', 5400, 546, '2-July'),

('Mno', 'Noida', 7800, 432, '7-June'),
('Jkl', 'Jaipur', 5400, 768, '9-July'),
('Lmn', 'Delhi', 7800, 987, '8-June'),
('Ijk', 'Jaipur', 6700, 654, '5-June');

4) MIN(): This function returns the smallest (minimum) value within a set of values in a
specific column.
SELECT MIN(column_name)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;
5) MAX(): This function returns the largest (maximum) value within a set of values in a
specific column.
SELECT MAX(column_name)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;

Example 1: COUNT() Function

The following SQL statement finds the number of Names in the “GeeksTab” table.
Query:
SELECT COUNT(Name)
FROM GeeksTab;
Output:
7
Example 2: AVG() Function
The following SQL statement finds the average price of salary in the “GeeksTab” table.
Query:
SELECT AVG(Salary)
FROM GeeksTab;
Output:
6300
Example 3: SUM() Function
The following SQL statement will find the sum of the Salary in the “GeeksTab” table.
Query:
SELECT SUM(Salary)
FROM GeeksTab;
SQL Aggregate Functions with Examples
Let’s consider a demo Employee table for our examples. This table contains employee details
such as their ID, Name, and Salary.
Query:
CREATE TABLE Employee (
Id INT PRIMARY KEY,
Name CHAR(1), -- Adjust data type and length if names can be longer than a single character
Salary DECIMAL(10,2) -- Adjust precision and scale if needed for salaries
);
INSERT INTO Employee (Id, Name, Salary)

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VALUES (1, 'A', 802),

(2, 'B', 403),
(3, 'C', 604),
(4, 'D', 705),
(5, 'E', 606),
(6, 'F', NULL);
In this example, we will use multiple aggregate functions on the data.
Queries
--Count the number of employees
SELECT COUNT(*) AS TotalEmployees FROM Employee;
-- Calculate the total salary
SELECT SUM(Salary) AS TotalSalary FROM Employee;
-- Find the average salary
SELECT AVG(Salary) AS AverageSalary FROM Employee;
-- Get the highest salary
SELECT MAX(Salary) AS HighestSalary FROM Employee;
-- Determine the lowest salary
SELECT MIN(Salary) AS LowestSalary FROM Employee;
Output
TotalEmployees
6
TotalSalary
3120
AverageSalary
624
HighestSalary
802
LowestSalary
403

Logical operators
In SQL, logical operators are used to create conditional expressions that evaluates to either true
or false. They are used in the WHERE clause of SELECT, UPDATE, DELETE, and other SQL
statements to filter data based on specified conditions.

1) AND Operator:
The AND operator is used to combine two or more conditions in an SQL query. It returns
records only when all conditions specified in the query are true. This operator is commonly
used when filtering data that must satisfy multiple criteria simultaneously.
Example
Retrieve the records of employees from the employees table who are located in 'Allahabad' and
belong to 'India', ensuring that both conditions are met.
Query:
SELECT * FROM employee WHERE emp_city = 'Allahabad' AND emp_country = 'India';

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Output

Explanation:
In the output, both conditions (emp_city = 'Allahabad' and emp_country = 'India') are satisfied
for the listed employees, so these records are returned by the query.

2) OR Operator
The OR operator combines multiple conditions in a SQL query and returns TRUE if at least
one of the conditions is satisfied. It is ideal for situations where you want to retrieve records
that meet any of several possible conditions.
Example
Retrieve the records of employees from the employee table who are either from 'Varanasi' or
have 'India' as their country.
Query
SELECT * FROM employee WHERE emp_city = 'Varanasi' OR emp_country = 'India';
Output

Explanation:
In this case, the output includes employees from 'Varanasi' as well as those who have 'India' as
their country, even if they are from different cities. The query returns all records where at least
one of the conditions is true.

3) NOT Operator
The NOT operator is used to reverse the result of a condition, returning TRUE when the
condition is FALSE. It is typically used to exclude records that match a specific condition,
making it useful for filtering out unwanted data.
Example
Retrieve the records of employees from the employee table whose city names do not start with
the letter 'A'.
Query:
SELECT * FROM employee WHERE emp_city NOT LIKE 'A%';

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Output

Explanation:
In this query, the NOT operator negates the LIKE condition. The LIKE operator is used to
match patterns in string data, and the 'A%' pattern matches any city name that starts with the
letter 'A'. By using the NOT operator, we exclude cities starting with 'A' from the result set.

Predicates

A predicate is simply an expression that evaluates to TRUE, FALSE, or UNKNOWN.

Predicates are typically employed in the search condition of WHERE and HAVING clauses,
the join conditions of FROM clauses, as well as any other part of a query where a boolean
value is required.

1) LIKE
The LIKE operator in SQL is used in the WHERE clause to search for a specified pattern in a
column. It is particularly useful when we want to perform pattern matching on string data.
The LIKE operator works with two main wildcards:
• %: Represents zero or more characters. It allows matching any sequence of characters in
the string.
• _: Represents exactly one character. It is used when you want to match a specific number
of characters at a given position.
Example
Retrieve the records of employees from the employee table whose city names start with the
letter 'P'.
Query:
SELECT * FROM employee WHERE emp_city LIKE 'P%';
Output

Explanation:
In this case, the output includes only those employees whose emp_city starts with 'P'.
The % wildcard ensures that the query matches any city name starting with the specified letter,
regardless of how many additional characters follow it.

2) BETWEEN
The BETWEEN operator in SQL allows us to test if a value or expression lies within
a specified range.
• Inclusive Range – Includes both the lower and upper limits in the result set.
• Versatile Use – Works with numbers, dates, and text values.

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• Efficient Filtering – Ideal for selecting data within a defined range.

Example
Retrieve the records of employees from the employee table whose emp_id values fall within
the range of 101 to 104 (inclusive).
Query:
SELECT * FROM employee WHERE emp_id BETWEEN 101 AND 104;
Output

Explanation:
In this query, the BETWEEN operator is used to filter employees with emp_id values ranging
from 101 to 104. Since the BETWEEN operator is inclusive, employees with emp_id values
of 101, 102, 103, and 104 will be included in the result set.

3) Alias
In a Database Management System (DBMS), an alias is a temporary, alternative name given to
a table or a column within a SQL query. This temporary name exists only for the duration of
that specific query and does not alter the original name of the table or column in the database
schema.
There are two types of aliases in SQL:
• Column Aliases: Temporary names for columns in the result set.
• Table Aliases: Temporary names for tables used within a query.
Example of SQL Aliases
We will use the following Customer table to demonstrate all SQL alias concepts. This table
contains customer information such as ID, name, country, age, and phone number.
CREATE TABLE Customer (
CustomerID INT PRIMARY KEY,
CustomerName VARCHAR(50),
LastName VARCHAR(50),
Country VARCHAR(50),
Age INT,
Phone VARCHAR(15)
);
-- Inserting sample data into the Customer table
INSERT INTO Customer (CustomerID, CustomerName, LastName, Country, Age, Phone)
VALUES
(1, 'Shubham', 'Thakur', 'India', 23, '9876543210'),
(2, 'Aman', 'Chopra', 'Australia', 21, '9876543211'),
(3, 'Naveen', 'Tulasi', 'Sri Lanka', 24, '9876543212'),
(4, 'Aditya', 'Arpan', 'Austria', 21, '9876543213'),
(5, 'Nishant', 'Jain', 'Spain', 22, '9876543214');
1. Column Aliases
A column alias is used to rename a column just for the output of a query. They are useful when:

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• Displaying aggregate data

• Making results more readable
• Performing calculations
Syntax:
SELECT column_name AS alias_name
FROM table_name;
The following table explains the arguments in detail:
• column_name: column on which we are going to create an alias name.
• alias_name: temporary name that we are going to assign for the column or table.
• AS: It is optional. If you have not specified it, there is no effect on the query execution.
Example 1: Column Alias for Renaming a Column
To fetch the CustomerID and rename it as id in the result set
SELECT CustomerID AS id
FROM Customer;

2. Table Aliases
A table alias is used when you want to give a table a temporary name for the duration of a
query. Table aliases are especially helpful in JOIN operations to simplify queries, particularly
when the same table is referenced multiple times (like in self-joins).
Example 2: Table Alias for Joining Tables
We want to join the Customer table with itself to find customers who have the same country
and are aged 21. We will use table aliases for each instance of the Customer table.
Query:
SELECT [Link], [Link]
FROM Customer AS c1, Customer AS c2
WHERE [Link] = [Link] AND [Link] = [Link];

Combining Column and Table Aliases

We want to fetch customers who are aged 21 or older and rename the columns for better clarity.
We will use both table and column aliases.
Query:
SELECT [Link] AS Name, [Link] AS Location
FROM Customer AS c
WHERE [Link] >= 21;

4) Distinct:
The SQL DISTINCT keyword is used to retrieve unique values from a specified column or set
of columns in a database table. It eliminates duplicate records, ensuring that only distinct, non-
repeated values are returned.
When you would use it
You would use the DISTINCT keyword when you want to eliminate duplicate values and
retrieve a list of unique values from one or more columns in a table. It is especially useful when
working with datasets that may contain redundant or repeated information.
Syntax
The syntax for using DISTINCT is as follows:
SELECT DISTINCT column1, column2, ...

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FROM table_name
WHERE condition;
• column1, column2, ...: The column(s) from which you want to retrieve distinct values.
• table_name: The name of the table containing the data.
• condition (optional): An optional condition to filter the rows.
Parameter values
• column1, column2, ...: The column(s) for which you want to retrieve distinct values. These
columns should be part of the specified table.
• table_name: The table where the data is stored.
• condition (optional): A condition that filters the rows if you want to apply additional
filtering before returning distinct values.
Example 1: Fetch Unique Names from the NAME Field.
The query returns only unique names, eliminating the duplicate entries from the table.
Query:
SELECT DISTINCT NAME FROM students;

Example 2: Fetching Unique Combinations of Multiple Columns

This query retrieves distinct combinations of NAME and AGE — if two rows have the same
name and age, only one of them will appear in the result set.
Query:
SELECT DISTINCT NAME, AGE FROM students;

Example 3: Using DISTINCT with the ORDER BY Clause

We can combine the DISTINCT keyword with the ORDER BY clause to filter unique values
while sorting the result set. This query retrieves the unique ages from the students table and
sorts them in ascending order
Query:
SELECT DISTINCT AGE FROM students ORDER BY AGE;

Example 4: Using DISTINCT with Aggregate Functions (e.g., COUNT())

Here, we will check the COUNT() function with a DISTINCT clause, which will give the total
number of students by using the COUNT() function.
Query:
SELECT COUNT(DISTINCT ROLL_NO) FROM Students ;

Clauses:

Structured Query Language (SQL) is a powerful language used to manage and manipulate
relational databases. One of the essential features of SQL is its clauses, which allow users to
filter, sort, group, and limit data efficiently. SQL clauses simplify querying and enhance
database performance by retrieving only the necessary records based on specific conditions.

What are Clauses in SQL?

SQL clauses are built-in functions that define specific conditions within an SQL statement to
retrieve, update, or manipulate data from a database. These clauses work alongside SELECT,
UPDATE, DELETE, and INSERT queries to refine results and ensure efficient data handling.

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1) GROUP BY CLAUSE
SQL GROUP BY is used to arrange identical data into groups. It is used with the SQL SELECT
statement. The GROUP BY statement follows the WHERE clause in a SELECT statement and
precedes the ORDER BY clause. It is also used with aggregation functions.
The syntax is as follows −
SELECT column FROM table_name WHERE conditions GROUP BY column ORDER BY
column;

The GROUP BY clause is used to group records with the same values in a column and
perform aggregate functions such as SUM(), COUNT(), etc. This example calculates
the total student fees per class.
Query:
SELECT stu_class, SUM(stu_fees) AS total_fees
FROM Students
GROUP BY stu_class;

2) HAVING CLAUSE
It is used to search conditions for a group or an aggregate. It is generally used in Group by
clause. If we are not using group by clause then we can use having clause just like where
clause.
The syntax is as follows −
SELECT column1, column2
FROM table_name
WHERE conditions
GROUP BY column1, column2
HAVING conditions
ORDER BY column1, column2;
Query:
SELECT company, COUNT(*) FROM product group by company
having count(*)>1;

3) ORDER BY Clause
This clause sorts the result in either ascending or descending order. By default, it does an
ascending order if you don’t mention anything. ASC and DESC are the keywords used to
order the records.
The syntax is as follows −
SELECT column1, column2
FROM table_name
WHERE condition
ORDER BY column1, column2... ASC|DESC;
Sorting in ascending order
Use the below mentioned command to sort in ascending order −
SELECT *
FROM product
ORDER BY company;

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Sorting in descending order

Use the below mentioned command to sort in descending order −
SELECT *
FROM product
ORDER BY company DESC;
The ORDER BY clause is used to sort query results in ascending or descending order. This
example sorts students by their fees in ascending order
Query:
SELECT * FROM Students
ORDER BY stu_fees ASC;

4) SQL LIMIT Clause

The LIMIT clause in SQL is used to control the number of rows returned in a query result. It
is particularly useful when working with large datasets, allowing us to retrieve only the required
number of rows for analysis or display.

What is the SQL LIMIT Clause?

The SQL LIMIT clause is used to control maximum number of records returned by a query.
It is commonly used for limiting query results when only a subset of the data is required, such
as for pagination, filtering top values, or analyzing a smaller portion of a large table.
Syntax:
SELECT column1, column2, ...
FROM table_name
WHERE condition
ORDER BY column
LIMIT [offset,] row_count;
Key Terms
• offset: number of rows to skip before returning the result set.
• row_count: number of rows to return in the result set.
Query:
SELECT * FROM student
LIMIT 3;

5) SQL TOP Clause

While we are retrieving data from an SQL table, the SQL TOP clause is used to restrict the
number of rows returned by a SELECT query in SQL server. In addition, we can also use it
with UPDATE and DELETE statements to limit (restrict) the resultant records.
Syntax
The basic syntax of the SQL TOP clause is as follows −
SELECT TOP value column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE[condition];
Query:
SELECT TOP 4 * FROM CUSTOMERS;

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