ME 6222 Design of Mechanical

Transmission Elements

Design and Analysis of Brakes –

Lecture 10
 Learning Outcomes
• Automobile Brake System Design
• Brake working methods
• Brake Types
• Brake Torque requirement
• Dynamic Analysis
• Thermal Analysis
Thermal Analysis of Brakes

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 Thermal Analysis of Brakes

• Determination of friction pair temperatures

• Thermal stresses

• Temperature brake fluid

• Temperature of seals, bearings and surrounding

components
 Thermal Effects

• Thermal stresses greater than mechanical stresses

• Coning gives rise to
– Increased pedal travel
– Taper wear
– Uneven heat input (risk of forming hot bands)
Disc Coning and Undercuts

Cold Disc Hot Disc Hot Disc with

coning undercut

• Minimize stiffness of top hat and undercut

Heat flex can cause tapered wear
of the brake lining.
Disc Material

• Thermal Stresses >> Mechanical

• Maximising Thermal Conductivity
– Graphite Flake Structure
– High Carbon Cast Iron (Free Graphite)
– Silicon,Titanium,Vanadium, Copper, Molybdenum
– Ferrite and Pearlite different characteristics
 Thermal Analysis of Brakes
• Brake Sizing

• Design optimization

• Material suitability

• Brake friction performance prediction (at high temperature)

• Component fatigue and wear life (brake fading)

• Braking cooling and influencing factors

• NVH effects
 Brake Fading

• Brake Fading: A reduction or loss in braking force due to

loss of friction between the disc pad and the rotor. Fade is
caused by heat build-up through repeated or prolonged
brake application.

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Hot Spots on Brake Disc

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Braking Conditions

• Single Stop brake applications

• Repeated brake applications

• Continued or Drag brake applications

 Single Stop Braking

• Single stop brake application from vehicle top speed to

zero, with high deceleration, represents a very severe
braking duty with maximum kinetic energy to be
dissipated into the disc/drum and brake lining.

• High heat generation, the braking time may be less than

the time required for the heat to penetrate through the
drum / disc material.

• No convective brake cooling and almost 80% energy

goes to the drum/disc.
 Repeated Braking
• Repeated Braking: A vehicle is decelerated at a given
deceleration from test speed to lower or zero speed, after
which the vehicle is accelerated again to test speed and the
braking cycle is carried out.
• Brake pumping involves repeated brake application from
one single speed until the vehicle stops.
• Brake Pumping is a technique that is sometimes used in
slippery conditions to allow the wheels to unlock so that
the vehicle stays somewhat straight during a stop.

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Continued or Drag Braking

• Continued or Drag Braking: When the brakes are

applied during a long downhill descend, cooling while
braking must be considered.
• This is also part of the brake regulations and more
specific to heavy commercial vehicles.

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Energy Input

• Brake Energy
• Brake Power

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Thermal Analysis continues..

• The average braking power for vehicle coming to

complete stop,
𝑘𝑚 1 − 𝑠 𝑉1 ∗ 𝑎 ∗ 𝑊
𝑄=
2𝑔

• Where, a = deceleration in m/s -units

km = correction factor for rotating masses
S= time slip, defined by the ratio of the difference
between vehicle forward speed and circumferential
speed to vehicle forward speed
V1 = initial velocity (m/s)
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W = mg = vehicle weight (N) 28
Thermal Analysis continues..

• The average braking power for vehicle coming to

complete stop, due to grading

Q  V W (G   R )

• Where, G= Gradient (in percentage)

V1 = velocity (m/s)
W = mg = vehicle weight (N)

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Temperature Analysis

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 Brake Design Values

Lining Pad Drum/Disc Units

Density 2034 2595 7228 Kg/m3

Specific 1256 1465 419 J/kgK

heat
Thermal 1.167 1.21 48.5 W/mK
conductivity
Diffusivity 4.56e-07 3.183e-07 1.6e-05 m2/s
 Repeated Braking
• Repeated Braking: A vehicle is decelerated at a given
deceleration from test speed to lower or zero speed, after
which the vehicle is accelerated again to test speed and the
braking cycle is carried out.
Assumptions:
• Disc/drum is lumped system
• Heat transfer coefficient and thermal properties are
constant
• Temperature is uniform throughout drum/disc and it is
function of time.
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Heat Distribution of Repeated
Braking

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 Temperature Analysis for
continuous braking
• Continuous braking: when the brakes are applied
during a long downhill, cooling must be considered.

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 Problems
Q9. Federal motor Vehicle Safety Standard 105 required
burnishing of the brake at GVW from a speed of
64kmph at a deceleration of 3.66 m/s2 for 200 stops.
The cycle distance is 1.61km and the approximate
cooling cycle time 88s. Compute the average rear brake
temperature after 5th, 10th and 200th stop. Use the data
that follow: 15% of total brake power absorbed by one
rear brake, brake drum volume is 0.00057m3, brake
cooling area is 0.051m2, convective heat transfer
coefficient h=368kNm/hKm2, vehicle weight
W=16.458kN
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 Problems
Q10. Compute the average brake temperature of a tractor
semi trailer descending a 7% grade at a constant speed
of 32.2kmph. Neglect an engine retardation, compute
the brake temperature after 1.6, 3.2 and 8km of
operation. Use the data that follow: vehicle weight
355.84kN, tyre rolling resistance coefficient 0.01, brake
drum volume 0.00793m3, cooling area 0.372m2,
convective heat transfer coefficient 265.772kNm/hKm2,
relative braking power per one tractor near brake 0.11,
initial and ambient temperatures 338K and 283K
respectively.
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Thermal Analysis of Friction Brakes
Heat transfer coefficient in still air

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Thermal Analysis of Friction Brakes
Ventilation factor against moving velocity

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 Problems
11. A Tata venture GX model van has length/width/height dimensions
are 3950 X 1565 X 1878 in mm. The rated maximum gross weight of
the van is 19.52kN. The wheel base is 2100 mm and ground
clearance is 200 mm. The wheel size is 650 mm dia x 150 mm wide.
The ratio of brake effort in the front and the real wheel is 60: 40. The
coefficient of tyre and road adhesion is 0.8 and the coefficient of
friction of rolling friction is 0.015. If the van is braked from 90kmph
in 6 seconds, determine the peak and bulk temperature attained by the
front wheel brake drums. If the vehicle is braked repeatedly from 80
kmph to 30 kmph with an interval of 3 minutes between successive
braking, determine the equilibrium temperature attained by the front
brake drums and life of the brake linings. The mass of the brake drum
is 11 kg, dia is 300mm and thickness is 12.5 mm. The brake lining
width is 60 mm and brake liner thickness at the neck is 8 mm.
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Total Braking Distance

Does not Depend on: Does Depend on:

• Type of brakes • Tyre to road friction
• Size of brakes • Vehicle balance
• Skill of driver
• System Reaction
Time

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Total Stopping Distance

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SAE coefficient of friction code for
Brake Linings

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 Problems

8. A Maruti Swift car weighing 12.4 kN is provided with CI

brake drum 250 mm dia x 50 mm wide for the front wheels
with one leading and one trailing shoe. The shoes are
actuated by a twin piston 30 mm diameter wheel cylinders.
The ratio of braking efforts in the front and the rear is 1.7: 1.
The pedal ratio is 1.8: 1 and servo assistance is 4.86:1.
Diameter of the master cylinder is 25 mm. The maximum
pedal force is 350 N and the coefficient of road adhesion is
0.8. From the brake analysis, find out suitable brake lining
for the application of as per SAE standards. The tyre
diameter is 650 mm. The brake arrangement is as drawn in
class.
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Brake Factor

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 Brake Pad Materials

• Asbestos
• Semi-Metallic
• Non-Asbestos Organics
• Low Steel
• Carbon
• Exact composition of each manufacturer’s pads is a
closely guarded secret
 Brake (Friction) Linings
• Friction materials such as disc brake pads or drum brake
shoes contain a mixture of ingredients. These materials
include a binder such as a thermosetting resin, fibers for
reinforcement, and friction modifiers to obtain a desired
coefficient of friction.
• The various ingredients in brake lining are mixed and
molded into the shape of the finished product. The fibers
in the material are the only thing holding this mixture
together. A large press is used to force the ingredients
together to form a brake block, which eventually becomes
the brake lining.
 Asbestos Brake Lining

• Widely used in early disk brake applications

• Good for absorbing and dissipating heat
• Average stopping power
• Asbestos is legally regulate due to it’s carcinogenic properties
• No longer used due to health risks
 Semimetallic Brake Lining

• Semimetallic linings require a very smooth finish on the rotor because

the metal in the lining does not conform to the surface of the rotor.
• Different pads use Steel, Iron, and Copper
• Harder material is very durable and has excellent heat resistance
• Used in most cars and SUV’s
 Semimetallic Brake Lining
• Low to medium coefficient of friction ~ 0.28 –0.38
• Relatively high CoF variation (temperature, duty cycle)
• Good fade characteristics
• Poor wear at low temps., <100C
• Excellent wear at temps. over 200C
• Good wear under heavy loads
• Poor wear at high speeds
• Generally inferior Noise, Vibration & Harshness compared to NAOs
• Contains no copper
• Low initial cost
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 Non-asbestos Brake Linings

• Brake pads and linings that use synthetic material such as

aramid fibers (for aromatic polyamide fibers) instead of
steel are usually referred to as nonasbestos, nonasbestos
organic (NAO), or nonasbestos synthetic (NAS).
• Kevlar is the Dupont brand name of aramid and a
registered trademark of E.I. Dupont de Nemours and
Company.
• Nonasbestos linings are often quieter than semimetallics
and do not cause as much wear to brake rotors as do
semimetallic pads.
 Non-asbestos Brake Linings

• Low to medium-high coefficient of friction ~ 0.33 –0.40.

• Excellent wear at lower temps. < 200C.
• Relatively poor wear under heavy duty conditions and at
higher friction levels.
• Good noise & roughness characteristics
• Can have morning effectiveness noise – squealing noise on
first couple of brake applies in the morning
• More expensive.

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 Low Steel Brake Linings
• Typically contain ferrous and nonferrous metals, inorganic
and organic fibers, aggressive abrasives, lots of
carbonaceous and sulfide lubricants
• Replacing semi-metallic as the standard for passenger cars.
• Higher coefficient of friction levels ~ 0.38 –0.50
• Good pedal feel, braking confidence, fade and high speed
performance
• Good for high speed wear
• Lots of wheel dust
• Inferior noise and life.
Carbon Fiber Brake Material
• Newest and most expensive of the lining materials. Carbon
fiber material is often called CFRC (carbon fiber-
reinforced carbon).
• It is composed of a carbon mix into which reinforcing
carbon fibers are embedded. CFRC is commonly used in
the brakes of jet aircraft and racing cars.
• CFRC brakes provide high and constant friction coefficient
whether cold or hot, low wear rates, and low noise
development.
• Operating temperature is around 800-1000°C
• Extremely expensive to produce
 Disc/Drum Materials
 Grey cast iron disc
 Heavy
 Rust formation
 Aluminium disc
 Light
 Less resistant to heat and fade
 Carbon-fiber disc
 Heat resistant
 Needs high working temperature
 Ceramic disc
 Inorganic and non-metallic
 Hard and brittle material
 High heat and abrasive resistance
 Can sustain large compressive load
 Disc/Drum Materials
 Grey cast iron disc
 Heavy
 Rust formation
 Aluminium disc
 Light
 Less resistant to heat and fade
 Carbon-fiber disc
 Heat resistant
 Needs high working temperature
 Ceramic disc
 Inorganic and non-metallic
 Hard and brittle material
 High heat and abrasive resistance
 Can sustain large compressive load
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