Qualitative Research in Education

UNIT 1
Generalities
 Table of content

1. Unit 1: Generalities ........................................................................................ 3

Objective: ................................................................................................................. 3
Introduction: ............................................................................................................. 3

2. Information on the subtopics ...................................................................... 5

2.1. Subtopic 1: History of qualitative research .................................................. 5
2.2. Subtopic 2: Definition and characteristics ................................................... 7
2.3. Subtopic 3: Comparison between quantitative and qualitative ................ 9
2.4. Subtopic 4: The nature of qualitative research ......................................... 10

3. Unit Comprehension Questions ................................................................ 13

• Case scenarios .............................................................................................. 13

4. Supplementary materials ........................................................................... 16

5. References.................................................................................................... 17

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1. Unit 1: Generalities
Topic 1: Background and History

Objective:

This topic aims to introduce students to the foundational concepts and historical
development of qualitative research, clearly differentiating it from quantitative
methods while showcasing its practical applications in education. By exploring
real-world examples and fostering critical thinking, students will gain a
comprehensive understanding of qualitative research's unique contributions to
the field of pedagogy, empowering them to become informed consumers of
research and appreciate the diverse approaches available for investigating
educational phenomena.

Introduction:
This topic explores the story of qualitative research, from its early days to its
significant role in education today. It's about understanding how people learn and
teach, going more profound than just numbers.

We'll look back at how this kind of research started, who the important people
were, and how it has changed over time. It began with scientists who wanted to

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understand people better by living with them and watching them closely. This kind
of research helps us see things from different points of view, accept that everyone
sees the world differently, and connect our ideas with what we actually observe.

This type of research in education understands that there are many ways to see
the same thing. It values personal experiences and tells stories using words, not
just numbers. It starts with a question and then collects information to help us
make guesses and develop new ideas.

We'll also see how this research has grown and become more accepted. New
ways of doing it, like observing people in their everyday lives or focusing on their
personal stories, have helped us learn even more about the world. But it's
important to be careful when collecting information from people, especially in
schools. We must protect students and ensure they're okay with being part of the
research.

This topic shows us where qualitative research came from and why it's so helpful
for understanding education. It prepares us to learn more about how to do this
kind of research and use it to improve schools for everyone.

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2. Information on the subtopics

2.1. Subtopic 1: History of qualitative research
Understanding social phenomena is a timeless endeavor, and qualitative
research, despite its seemingly recent rise to prominence, has deep roots in this
quest (Ortiz, 2012). While early research often prioritized quantitative data and
hypothesis verification, the origins of a qualitative perspective can be traced back
to the birth of social and human sciences in the late 19th century.

Even in classical Greece, philosophers like Plato and Aristotle embodied

opposing viewpoints mirroring the quantitative-qualitative divide. Plato leaned
towards an abstract, mathematical view of the world, while Aristotle emphasized
empirical observation and understanding the nature of things through their
tangible characteristics (Ortiz, 2012).

The Middle Ages, primarily dominated by a religious worldview, also saw figures
like Newton championing quantitative approaches. Galileo furthered this scientific
spirit by shifting from passive observation to active experimentation, utilizing
instruments to analyze the natural world. Descartes' work on the importance of
mathematics and objectivity also contributed to the evolution of research
methodologies, including those with a qualitative bent.

In the 18th century, Kant proposed a human rationality model emphasizing

interpretation and understanding, moving beyond pure empiricism towards a
more subjective, relativistic perspective (Ñaupas et al., 2011; Ortiz, 2012). This
era was also marked by significant socio-economic transformations that gave rise
to modern science and the positivist paradigm.

Reflect: How does Kant's emphasis on interpretation and understanding

challenge the positivist view of science? In what ways does qualitative research
embrace this challenge?

Wilhelm Dilthey, in 1833, drew a crucial distinction between natural and human
sciences, highlighting the importance of 'understanding' consciousness as the

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object of study in the latter (Ortiz, 2012). This emphasis on understanding

remains central to qualitative research today.

Think about a time when you tried to understand someone else's

perspective or experience. How did you go about it? What
challenges did you face? How does this relate to 'understanding' in
qualitative research?

Towards the end of the 19th century, social researchers began questioning the
suitability of rigid quantitative models for studying social phenomena (Arteaga,
2012). This led to a resurgence of qualitative methodology, valuing flexibility and
the unique nature of social realities.

In the early 20th century, qualitative research methods became more formalized,
especially within anthropology and sociology. Researchers like Bronisław
Malinowski and Franz Boas pioneered participant observation and ethnographic
fieldwork, immersing themselves in the cultures they studied to gain profound
insights into their subjects. Their work laid the groundwork for the Chicago School
of Sociology, emphasizing urban ethnography and reinforcing the importance of
qualitative methods in understanding social phenomena.

As the mid-20th century approached, qualitative research expanded into various

disciplines, including psychology, education, and business. This period saw the
emergence of new methods such as grounded theory, phenomenology, and case
study research. There was also an increasing recognition of the value of
qualitative research as a complement to quantitative methods, as it provided a
rich, contextual understanding that numerical data alone could not offer.

In the late 20th century and beyond, qualitative research faced challenges in
establishing its legitimacy alongside quantitative methods, sparking debates over
issues of rigor and validity. This era also witnessed the rise of mixed-methods
research, which combined qualitative and quantitative approaches to tackle
complex research questions. Influences from postmodernism and critical theory
introduced a focus on reflexivity, power dynamics, and social justice within
research practices. Advances in technology further facilitated data collection and
analysis, leading to the development of new qualitative methods such as online
ethnography and visual analysis.

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2.2. Subtopic 2: Definition and characteristics

To give a concept of qualitative research and its use in the field of education, it is
pertinent to highlight the motivations presented for developing the subject, such
as the professional challenge that it implies, the development of knowledge about
the subject and the understanding of the incredible variety of methodological
currents that are part of it.

Likewise, for the epistemological implications, for its evolutionary process through
time, for its development based on a scientific or positivist method, qualitative
research can be adopted from two perspectives: the first, by which research
distances itself from the traditional method of creating knowledge; and the
second, as a hermeneutical method of creating such knowledge or source of
truths (Cerda, 2011).

There are many concepts about

qualitative research, within which
(Arteaga, 2012) specifies that it is not
the study of individual and independent
qualities. Contrary to this, it
corresponds to an integrated study and
constitutes a unit of analysis. Rueda
(2007) defines it as a process in which
various visions intervene to divide
phenomena and determine the
relationships among its components.
Note: Image created with [Link] Another concept is that of Cerda (2011),
who indicates that qualitative research
refers to non-quantifiable characters, attributes, or faculties that can describe,
understand, or explain a group's social phenomena or actions or of the human
being. Hernández et al. (2010) mention that in their method, the qualitative
approach uses data collection without numerical measurement to discover or
refine research questions during the development of the interpretation. In
addition, these authors state that the qualitative research paradigm can be
conceived as a group of interpretive practices or techniques that allow us to

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search the world by making it visible and transforming it into observable

representations such as annotations, recordings, and documents.
For this reason, its two main qualities are naturalistic and interpretive. From the
hermeneutical point of view, González (2013) refers to the fact that qualitative
research addresses the real as a cultural process from a subjective perspective,
with which one tries to understand and interpret all human actions, experiences,
and feelings in order to create ways of being in the world of life. In this sense, it
is essential to reflect on how important it is to investigate from your own
experiences, which will lead to an explanation of what is done, what is thought,
and its purpose.

Additionally, González (2013) advises that qualitative research aims to build

knowledge about social reality based on the particular conditions and
perspectives of those who originate and live it; therefore, methodologically, it
implies assuming a dialogical character in beliefs, mentalities, and feelings, which
are considered elements of analysis in the process of production and
development of knowledge regarding the reality of man in the society of which he
is a part of.

In the same way, Villegas et al. (2011) affirm that the nature of qualitative
research is shaped by the daily lives of people, communities, and society in
general. It is essential to mention that sometimes, all the facts that are part of
daily living are not always perceived; that is, they are unnoticed, and they are not
given a value that can be acquired from an investigative process.

The purpose of qualitative research is in the actual context, in which the problems
under investigation are presented, which are not isolated or independent, and
they are not part of a single discipline; they are broken into a complex context,
which is transdisciplinary and only from this conception is possible its
understanding.

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2.3. Subtopic 3: Comparison between

quantitative and qualitative
The main difference between these two types of research is that while
quantitative research is based on numbers and mathematical calculations,
qualitative research is based on subjective character and uses written or spoken
narratives. Quantitative research has the advantage of scale. It allows large
amounts of data extracted from many people to be collected and analyzed.
Qualitative research, on the other hand, is done with small samples. From this, it
is possible to extract more subjective data with open questions, which allows
knowing more about the individual. Qualitative research often opens up new
options and ideas impossible with quantitative research because of its closed
nature. The following table summarises their main comparison, considering their
roles, orientation, and data type.

Figure 1.
Qualitative vs Quantitative approaches

Focus
The role of theory in research
Epistemological orientation
Ontological orientation

Characteristics or research
approach

Type of data

Qualitative research is used to study individual cases and discover how people
think or feel about certain aspects. They can also be used to explore a subject
that has yet to be discovered, as in the case of a company that needs to know
how its image is in the market. It is more constructivist and looks to describe a
situation with words, although it can be criticized sometimes for being considered
subjective. Quantitative surveys are used to study trends in large groups and
accurately measure company data, as in the case of a census or vote-intention
surveys.

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2.4. Subtopic 4: The nature of qualitative

research
In the modern world, knowledge development is mainly influenced by the
components of daily living, its influence on culture, technological advances, and
the permanent changes in society, which generally demand the development of
investigative approaches that lead to analyzing and explaining reality.

In the educational field, the best way to produce knowledge will be by knowing,
understanding, and interpreting the existing reality, which can be addressed
through a qualitative research approach, which allows us to interpret in-depth and
detail what is happening with an object of study that starts from reality but the
interpretation is made in an integral way, where the research subject is part of
the phenomenon or object that is being studied (Cerda, 2011).

By the same token, Sandoval (2002) indicates that it is a process that involves
approaching, studying, knowing, understanding, analyzing, and constructing
knowledge from processes of interpretation of the social fact, framed in an
intimate relationship between the researcher and the object of study as a
subjective and intersubjective in the creation of knowledge. The role of the
researcher in the social and educational context is only possible from the
research-education agreement, in a systemic teacher-student relationship, in a
daily context that allows us to understand the importance of bringing theory to
social practice so that, in this way, the theory is in continuous evolution based on
what social reality in its construction, deconstruction, and reconstruction can offer
it.
Considering the relationship between research and education, it is necessary to
understand how history has profoundly marked the context and time; thus,
according to Maturrano (2009), at the time of the emergence of scientificity, a
dogmatic position is strongly assumed, positivist, naturalist, which allowed denial
of scientific status to qualitative research. Nominé (2007) states that this
knowledge tries to impose itself as an ‘all-knowing, a supposedly impersonal all-
knowing, a supposed knowledge stripped of all subjectivity’ (p. 188), given that
the influence of the positivist vision, as manifested by Sancho & Martínez (2014)
aims to give a view of people as objects, research subjects, and variables.

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The pertinent question is: Is a positive or quantifiable view of the observable

phenomenon valid? The aim is to understand that science cannot be static but
innovative and evolutionary. In this way, another well-founded perspective is
assumed, such as the qualitative conception of research, which allows us to
understand the phenomenon from a different perspective; neither better nor
worse than the naturalist, it is a different position.

A posture, as stated by Toro Jaramillo & Parra Ramírez (2010), accommodates

subjectivity, which cannot and does not pretend to be statistically measured; a
reflexivity that forces us to think about complexity because research in the social
sciences generates a more significant impact when it enters that subjective
communicative place of reality, linked to the social-cultural, biological and
subjective. De Andrea (2010) states that ‘knowledge of reality depends on the
subject who knows it, on their ways of perceiving, feeling, acting, characteristic
of that subject.

Furthermore, this reality is considered dynamic, changing, and in permanent

movement’. It is essential to make a distinction in the research proposed by
Maturrano (2009); on the one hand, the quantitative paradigm conceives the
research as a social technology by not complying with what is related to the
hypothetical deductive method.

On the other, the qualitative paradigm, where a hermeneutical and socio-critical

methodology intervenes within the framework of complexity theory, and finally,
the mixed or multimodal paradigm, a process that collects, analyzes, and links
quantitative and qualitative data, which, according to Hernández Sampieri et al.,
(2010) is the result of the mixture of the two approaches, qualitative-quantitative,
where each paradigm offers different research possibilities, none better or worse
than the other, just different, that adapt or are at the service of the researcher
according to the objectives that the research sets.

Qualitative research focuses on the socially closest; one of its fields of interest is
education, conceived as a social fact. Deslauriers (2004) argues that qualitative
research ‘can provide a more holistic and global vision of social reality, is
embedded in the real-time of people, not the experimental time of the laboratory’
(p. 22). For this reason, the relationship between the qualitative paradigm and

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education is given by a natural process of evolution, a contact process that hardly

separates the human and the subjective, in favor of transforming social and
educational practice and understanding such practice.

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3. Unit Comprehension Questions

• Case scenarios
This is the format for tests and the final exam.

Case Scenario 1
Dr. Ramirez is conducting a study on the impact of a new teaching method on
student motivation. She decides to observe students in their classrooms,
interview them about their experiences, and analyze their written reflections.
Which research approach is Dr. Ramirez primarily using?

A. Quantitative research
B. Qualitative research
C. Mixed-methods research
D. Experimental research

Explanation: Dr. Ramirez is using methods like observation, interviews, and

analysis of written reflections to gain an in-depth understanding of student
experiences and perspectives, which aligns with the characteristics of qualitative
research.

Case Scenario 2
A school principal wants to understand why a particular group of students is
consistently underperforming. He decides to conduct in-depth interviews with
these students, their teachers, and their parents to explore the possible factors
influencing their academic performance. What is the principal primarily aiming to
achieve through this approach?

A. Generalize the findings to the entire student population

B. Establish a causal relationship between specific factors and underperformance
C. Gain a deep understanding of the unique experiences and perspectives of the
underperforming students and those around them
D. Collect numerical data to measure the extent of underperformance

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Explanation: The principal's use of in-depth interviews indicates a desire to gain

a rich, contextual understanding of the specific situation of these underperforming
students, aligning with the interpretive and holistic nature of qualitative research.

Case Scenario 3
A researcher is interested in exploring the experiences of first-generation college
students navigating the challenges of higher education. She plans to use a
combination of surveys to collect demographic data and in-depth interviews to
explore their personal stories and perspectives. Which research approach best
describes this study?

A. Quantitative research
B. Qualitative research
C. Mixed-methods research
D. Action research

Explanation: The researcher is employing both quantitative (surveys for

demographic data) and qualitative (in-depth interviews for personal narratives)
methods to address the research question, indicating a mixed-methods
approach.

Case Scenario 4
A history teacher wants to help her students develop a deeper understanding of
the experiences of enslaved people in the American South. She decides to have
them read and analyze primary sources like diaries and letters written by
enslaved individuals. This approach aligns most closely with which historical
figure's emphasis on understanding the subjective experiences of others?

A. Plato
B. Galileo
C. Wilhelm Dilthey
D. Immanuel Kant

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Explanation: Wilhelm Dilthey's work emphasized the importance of

'understanding' consciousness and subjective experiences in the human
sciences, which is reflected in the teacher's approach of having students engage
with primary sources to gain insights into the lived experiences of enslaved
people.

Case Scenario 5
An educational researcher is interested in exploring teachers' experiences
implementing a new project-based learning curriculum. They plan to conduct in-
depth interviews with a small group of teachers to gain insights into their
challenges, successes, and overall perceptions of the new curriculum. Which of
the following best reflects the ontological orientation of this research approach?

A. Realist: A single, objective reality can be discovered through research.

B. Relativist: Multiple realities exist, constructed by individuals based on their
experiences and perspectives.
C. Positivist: Knowledge is generated through empirical observation and
measurement of objective phenomena.
D. Post-positivist: While there is an objective reality, it can only be imperfectly
apprehended due to human limitations and biases.

Explanation:
The researcher's focus on exploring the subjective experiences and perceptions
of teachers suggests a relativist ontological orientation. This approach
acknowledges that multiple realities exist, shaped by individual experiences and
interpretations. By conducting in-depth interviews, the researcher aims to
understand the various perspectives and meanings that teachers attribute to their
experiences with the new curriculum.

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4. Supplementary materials
The following supplementary resources are suggestions to expand information
on the topic covered as part of your autonomous learning process:

• Support Videos

Yale University. (2015.). Fundamentals of qualitative research methods: What is

qualitative research (Module 1) [Video]. YouTube.
[Link]

Tracy, S. J. (2016, November 6). Why go qualitative? [Video]. YouTube. Get Your
Qual On. [Link]

• Supporting References

Lichtman, M. (2013). Qualitative Research in Education; a user's guide. SAGE

Publications, Inc.

• Supporting Links

Lichtman, M. (2012.). Student study site for qualitative research in education: A

user's guide (3rd ed.). SAGE Publications.
[Link]

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5. References
Arteaga, I. H. (2012). Investigación cualitativa: Una metodología en marcha
sobre el hecho social. Rastros Rostros, 14(27).
Cerda Gutiérrez, H. (2011). Los elementos de la investigación: Cómo
reconocerlos, diseñarlos y construirlos.
De Andrea, N. G. (2010). Perspectivas cualitativa y cuantitativa en investigación:
¿Inconmensurables?
Deslauriers, J. P. (2004). Investigación cualitativa: Guía práctica. Editorial Papiro.
González Agudelo, E. M. (2013). Acerca del estado de la cuestión o sobre un
pasado reciente en la investigación cualitativa con enfoque hermenéutico.
Hernández Sampieri, R., Fernández Collado, C., & Baptista Lucio, P. (2010).
Metodología de la investigación.
Maturrano, E. F. L. (2009). La naturaleza epistemológica de la pedagogía: Una
resignificación cuantitativa-cualitativa. Investigación Educativa, 13(24),
169-177.
Ñaupas, H., Mejía, E., Novoa, E., & Villagómez, A. (2011). Metodología de la
investigación científica y asesoramiento de tesis. Una propuesta didáctica
para aprender a investigar y elaborar la tesis (2nd ed.). Editorial
Universidad Nacional Mayor De San Marcos.
Nominé, B. (2007). Clínica psicoanalítica. Cuadernos de una enseñanza
itinerante. Colección Ánfora, Estudios De Psicoanálisis.
Ortiz, L. (2012). Curso investigación cualitativa. Universidad Nacional Abierta y
a Distancia.
Restrepo Bernardo (2006). Investigación en educación. ICFES.
Rueda Beltrán, M. (2007). La investigación etnográfica y/o cualitativa y la
enseñanza en la universidad. Revista Mexicana de Investigación
Educativa, 12(34), 1021-1041.
Sancho Gil, J. M., & Martínez Pérez, S. (2014). La importancia de las relaciones
investigador-investigado: El caso de las narrativas de vida profesional.
Tendencias Pedagógicas.
Sandín, M. (2003). Investigación cualitativa en educación: Fundamentos y
tradiciones. McGraw-Hill.

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Sandoval, C. (2002). Investigación cualitativa. Instituto Colombiano para el

Fomento de la Educación Superior (ICFES). ARFO Editores e Impresores
Ltda.
Toro Jaramillo, I. D., & Parra Ramírez, R. D. (2010). Fundamentos
epistemológicos de la investigación y la metodología de la investigación:
Investigación cualitativa/Investigación cuantitativa. Fondo Editorial EAFIT.
Villegas, M., González, D., & Fredy, E. (2011). La investigación cualitativa de la
vida cotidiana: Medio para la construcción de conocimiento sobre lo social
a partir de lo individual. Psicoperspectivas, 10(2), 35-59.

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Qualitative Research in Education
UNIT 1
Generalities
 Table of content
1. Unit 1: Generalities ................................................................................................................... 3

Objective: ........................................................................................................................................... 3
Introduction: ....................................................................................................................................... 3

2. Information on the subtopics .................................................................................................. 4

2.1. Subtopic 1: Educational research and inquiry (What is it and as inquiry) ........................ 4

2.2. Subtopic 2: Critical role of the researcher ............................................................................ 6

2.3. Subtopic 3: How to be a qualitative researcher? ................................................................. 8

2.4. Subtopic 4: Ethical behavior (Conduct) ............................................................................... 10

3. Unit Comprehension Questions ........................................................................................... 12

• Case scenarios ....................................................................................................................... 12

4. Supplementary materials ....................................................................................................... 15

5. References................................................................................................................................ 16

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1. Unit 1: Generalities
Topic 2: Educational research

Objective:

This topic aims to provide students with a detailed overview of educational

research using a qualitative system.

Introduction:
Educational research, considered a discipline, currently results from the
adjustments that the educational system has experienced over time because of
changes in information systems and the impact of technological advances. In this
sense, the gathering of information has revolutionized the research process. As
a result, a researcher must resort to different types of sources in order to obtain
reliable information about the phenomenon he or she plans to study.

Furthermore, in this research case, inquiry is considered vital for intellectual

development in students or subjects, as they are their sources of information as
researchers. On the other hand, the ethical behavior that a professional,
researcher, or active subject in education must have been critical since it is
essential to act with ethical principles and values in any circumstances,
considering personal integrity and professional training.

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2. Information on the subtopics

2.1. Subtopic 1: Educational research and
inquiry (What is it and as inquiry)
Given the precipitous changes in knowledge and the complexity of paradigms in
society, the demand for professionals with levels of positive response to any type
of circumstance grows respectively in the reality of the current educational
system. For this reason, educational research in this situation is a crucial activity
to acquire or discover new knowledge. In addition, it can be seen as a discipline
that tries to answer unknown problems through processes that validate truthful
and reliable information (Morales et al., 2008).

Over time, educational research, in its context, has revolutionized the way of
conducting research practices, thanks to changes in access systems and
exchange of information and, of course, to technological advances, changing the
processes of gathering and processing information that become more complex
(Morales et al., 2008). Educational research is the focus of attention because it
is presented as a generator of knowledge to improve the teaching system. Based
on the above, school practices raise controversies in the educational system's
forms, changing its design, development, and tools for inquiry (Suárez, 2007).

Inquiry is a process formed from the earliest stages of human development; a

young child always makes inferences by inquiring out of curiosity. For example:
Where did your ball end up? Where is your favorite toy? Then, inquiry refers to
the ability of a human being to ask questions that turn out to be necessary tools
to understand and analyze the object of study (Camacho et al., 2008).

According to the National Standards, inquiry is defined as activities carried out by

students such as observing, collecting data, asking questions, evaluating books,
socializing results, and examining sources of information, which requires aspects
such as knowledge of theories, logical and critical thinking, skills in the
identification of concepts, among others (Camacho et al., 2008). From these
points, Connelly & Ontario Institute for Studies in Education (1977) conceive
research at three levels that are visualized below:

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Figure 1.
Levels of inquiry

Level 1:
Logical
processes

Inquiry Level 2:
Learning mode

Level 3:
Intersection
methodology

The last two levels are applicable for classroom work since they consider inquiry
an effective form of learning and instruction methodology, encouraging students
to become problem solvers (Camacho et al., 2008). In order to carry out a
practical inquiry, it is essential to make a parameterization in its context. So, we
ask: What is parameterization? Parameterizing refers to the analysis of the object
of study but with elements that can be measurable or observable to evaluate data
corresponding to the conduct or behavior that the phenomenon develops
(Morales et al., 2008).

Based on the preceding, the inquiry applied to educational research is a strategy

that contributes positively to the critical and reflective development of the students
to make them able to ask questions about what to do. When to do it? How to do
it? Moreover, it will analyze and synthesize definitions related to the case study
(Lipman et al., 1992).

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2.2. Subtopic 2: Critical role of the researcher

The research methodology is commonly established by the critical foundation of
the researcher, who is the one whose purpose is to learn during the development
and research process. According to Aravena et al. (2006), it is essential to
highlight that the researcher will be the one who determines specific significant
questions in terms of answering questions such as the following:

• What will be investigated?

•For what reason is this phenomenon to be
investigated?
• When is it advisable to investigate the
phenomenon?
• How and what procedures could be used
to arrive at the formative phenomena
studied?

Note: Image created with [Link]

When speaking of knowledge, we refer to reflecting on an event or phenomenon;

in this context, knowing is the researcher's (subject) action to learn an object of
knowledge or study. However, it is necessary to distinguish between knowing and
knowing. In both cases, one has the idea of what can happen, but knowing
undoubtedly refers to reason, that is, an experience that has been had with an
object or individual, and knowing instead refers to the skills learned over time,
such as speaking a language or playing a sport (Aravena et al., 2006).

Indeed, the researcher is the one who proposes to obtain or achieve knowledge;
therefore, when carrying out an investigation, the subject (researcher) sets a goal,
which is to finish the study with reliable knowledge results. In this sense, the
researcher's research process is based on knowing "a reality" with which he does
not necessarily interact but is unknown in the field (Aravena et al., 2006).

Investigator training
Alfaro (2010) states that a researcher has abilities, attitudes, knowledge, and
skills that differentiate him because he can see opportunities where there are

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problems; that is, he transforms reality into methodological processes that

confront the way of seeing things. For this reason, a researcher's training is
essential for his development and growth since he must have confidence in his
capabilities to carry out research with truthful results, carrying out a set of
guidelines to address the phenomenon under study (Aravena et al., 2006).

In this sense, research is a process that requires theoretical elements, scientific

techniques, and complex tools for study. Grajales (1999) states it is a constant
dialogue that occurs between the theory and a fragment of the 'reality' studied, in
whose development the theory is specified and the fragment or segment of reality
is taking depth beyond what it was. Furthermore, it is essential to consider that
the researcher is the leading actor who must make fundamental decisions in the
research.

Decisions

Decision-making for a researcher is an arduous task since the investigation's

success at the end of the project depends on it. Clearly, the researcher must
define what he wants to know and what strategies he could use to approach the
object. As Weber points out, all phenomena occurring in reality are very relevant;
some may be more notable for being frequent, others for being particular, and
others for being new in reality; everything can be related to everything. However,
it is the researcher's job to select and choose among the diversity of present
alternatives, the same ones that require knowledge regarding their characteristics
(Aravena et al., 2006).

Selection is one of the many decisions a researcher/actor must execute to

investigate. Among other decisions, the researcher must make the angle of
observation or the distance to the object of study, in addition to the theoretical
ideas that could be used in the study. However, it must be known that a decision
cannot be made without prior knowledge of these theories or opinions. In this
sense, the researcher's criteria are essential: who must investigate and analyze
each alternative regarding the case study and the potential advantages and
disadvantages that can be presented in each decision (Aravena et al., 2006).

7
Generalities

2.3. Subtopic 3: How to be a qualitative

researcher?
A qualitative researcher, at first instance, must recognize the reflective nature of
social research. In this sense, the researcher is part of the social world studied;
he is considered a vital tool for qualitative research. In a qualitative investigation,
the researcher does not start from a structured methodology but from an actual
event; therefore, a qualitative researcher begins with observations of a particular
phenomenon to organize observations and achieve an interpretation (Aravena et
al., 2006).

Unlike a quantitative researcher, who must approve and measure the presence
of characteristics of a particular phenomenon, a qualitative researcher focuses
on identifying the number of qualities the phenomenon possesses by relating the
information of its characteristics to build a theory based on the observations.
Aravena et al. (2006) state that a qualitative researcher can select only some
cases at the beginning to carry out the study because they would appear as the
investigation progresses. In this sense, a qualitative researcher is guided by
unstructured research strategies (Aravena et al., 2006).

Qualitative research demands the researcher or subject to a series of

characteristics and qualities (Figure 3).

Figure 3.
Qualities and characteristics to become a researcher

8
Generalities

Considering each characteristic and quality a qualitative researcher must-have is

essential. Indeed, qualitative researchers are sensitive to the aspects they can
cause in individuals (objects of study); they tend to become naturalists because
they interact with informants in a normal and not forced way. Furthermore, they
try to understand people within their frame of reference to understand the
phenomenon in question. For a qualitative researcher, all perspectives are valid
since they aim to understand what is happening in their environment (Álvarez-
Gayou, 2004).

Undoubtedly, one of the main characteristics in addition to those detailed above

that differentiates a qualitative researcher from a quantitative one is the
techniques used to study a particular phenomenon. In this sense, according to
Aravena et al. (2006), the most frequent techniques used by a qualitative
researcher are:

A. Participant observation
B. Individual and group qualitative interview
C. Discussion groups
D. Focus groups
E. Life history or life history
F. ory (historiography)
G. Documentary information: written (Minutes, press, records) and visual
(images, photographs)

Each exposed technique used has a parameter that the qualitative researcher
must be able to manage in order to obtain positive results in the investigation of
the study phenomenon (Aravena et al., 2006).

9
Generalities

2.4. Subtopic 4: Ethical behavior (Conduct)

Ethical behavior refers to the way the individual (researcher) proceeds, conduct
that is aligned between professional and personal life. Ethical conduct is the basis
of the human being's morality, established by norms and parameters that regulate
his way of acting (Tójar & Serrano, 2000). In any circumstance, human beings
impose dilemmas about what is right or wrong.

In the educational environment, ethical proposals increase since a series of rights

cannot be violated to not violate the coexistence, integrity, and sensitivity of
individuals according to the code of ethics or deontology. In this aspect, according
to Tójar & Serrano (2000), unethical practices, also called bad practices, refer to
the prestige of the researcher since the scope of these practices reaches human
discipline.

Figure 4.
Ethical behavior

Note: Image created with DALL-E

Ethics
Ethics refers to the part of philosophy that illustrates the reason for morality and
tries to rationally construct concepts that help to understand the dimension of
morality in the human being. (Cortina, Orts, & Navarro, 1996).

10
Generalities

Professional ethics
Professional ethics refer to the norms, principles, and values that improve
conduct in developing work activities and determine the behavior guidelines
based on universal values. It is essential to consider ethics as the basis of
success in any job since it implies a series of practices and values such as
responsibility, respect, and punctuality, among others. According to Tójar &
Serrano (2000), one of human beings' most controversial problems is when an
ethical decision must be made. It is the point where the proper professional
training and integrity of the human being is balanced. Three factors influence
human beings to make ethical decisions, and they are detailed below:

• Individual values: They vary according to time and culture; however, the
individual's knowledge and experiences will help determine which behavior is
ethical and which is not.
• Behavior and values of third parties: They refer to the influences of third
parties, whether good or bad.
• Code of ethics: This code guides individuals to conduct ethically in any
circumstance.

On the other hand, the plurality of methodologies in educational research harbors

its own peculiarities independent of the researcher. In a complex circumstance,
according to Spradley (1979), where the unethical behavior of some
professionals can be observed, the question to be asked is: What to do if the
researcher, during the process of his investigation, is aware of cases of corruption
or fraud of funds? In this sense, one can have both physical and psychological
abuse. Indeed, in situations like this, a researcher's duties and obligations as a
citizen are faced with complex decisions against society (Tójar & Serrano, 2000).

11
Generalities

3. Unit Comprehension Questions

• Case scenarios
This is the format for tests and the final exam.

Case Scenario 1
A group of teachers is interested in exploring the impact of a new technology tool
on student engagement in their classrooms. They decide to conduct an inquiry-
based research project to investigate this phenomenon. Which of the following
actions best reflects an inquiry-based approach to this research project?

A) The teachers design a controlled experiment with a treatment group and

a control group to measure student engagement quantitatively.
B) The teachers implement the technology tool in all classrooms and collect
standardized test scores to assess its impact.
C) The teachers observe student interactions with the technology tool, collect
student feedback, and analyze their findings to understand its influence on
engagement.
D) The teachers consult existing literature on technology integration and write
a comprehensive review paper summarizing the findings.

Explanation: An inquiry-based approach involves active exploration and data

collection directly related to the research question. Observing student
interactions and gathering their feedback provides firsthand insights into the
impact of the technology tool on engagement.

Case Scenario 2
A researcher is conducting a study on the experiences of individuals with
disabilities in accessing higher education. During the research process, the
researcher encounters ethical dilemmas regarding participant confidentiality and
potential power imbalances. Which of the following actions best demonstrates the
researcher's critical role in navigating ethical challenges?

12
Generalities

A) The researcher prioritizes the research goals and compromises participant

confidentiality to obtain desired data.
B) The researcher seeks guidance from an ethics review board and makes
adjustments to the research design to ensure ethical conduct.
C) The researcher ignores the ethical concerns and proceeds with the study
without addressing them.
D) The researcher publishes the findings without disclosing the ethical
dilemmas encountered during the study.

Explanation: Ethical considerations are paramount in research. A responsible

researcher recognizes potential ethical issues and takes proactive steps to
address them, such as seeking expert advice and modifying research procedures
if necessary.

Case Scenario 3
A qualitative researcher is interested in understanding the cultural practices of a
particular community. The researcher decides to spend an extended period living
among the community members to observe their daily lives and participate in their
activities. Which qualitative research technique is the researcher primarily
employing in this scenario?

A) Focus groups
B) Participant observation
C) Life history interviews
D) Documentary analysis

Explanation: Participant observation involves immersing oneself in the research

setting to gain firsthand experience and insights into the phenomenon under
study. By living among the community members, the researcher is directly
observing their cultural practices.

13
Generalities

Case Scenario 4
A researcher is conducting a study on the effectiveness of a new teaching
method. During data analysis, the researcher discovers unexpected results that
contradict their initial hypothesis. Which of the following actions best reflects
ethical behavior in this scenario?

A) The researcher manipulates the data to align with the initial hypothesis.
B) The researcher reports the findings accurately, even if they are
unexpected.
C) The researcher discards the data and conducts a new study with a different
sample.
D) The researcher publishes the findings without acknowledging the
unexpected results.

Explanation: Ethical research conduct involves transparency and honesty.

Reporting accurate findings, regardless of whether they support the initial
hypothesis, maintains the integrity of the research process.

Case Scenario 5
A teacher is conducting action research in their classroom to explore the impact
of a new instructional strategy on student learning outcomes. They plan to collect
data through student interviews, classroom observations, and analysis of student
work. How does the teacher's inquiry-based approach contribute to their
development as a qualitative researcher?

A) The inquiry-based approach allows the teacher to control all variables and
isolate the impact of the instructional strategy.
B) The inquiry-based approach encourages the teacher to rely solely on
quantitative data to measure student learning.
C) The inquiry-based approach helps the teacher develop skills in data
collection, analysis, and interpretation, essential for qualitative research.
D) The inquiry-based approach limits the teacher's ability to explore the
complexities of the classroom environment.
Explanation: By engaging in action research, the teacher is actively involved in
the research process, collecting and analyzing qualitative data. This experience
enhances their skills in qualitative research methods and contributes to their
professional development.

14
Generalities

4. Supplementary materials
The following supplementary resources are suggestions to expand information
on the topic covered as part of your autonomous learning process:

• Support Videos

Peter, E. (2018, August 23). Ethics in qualitative research [Video]. YouTube.

[Link]

Vspezzo. (2011, April 29). The qualities of a good qualitative researcher [Video].
YouTube. [Link]

• Supporting References

Lichtman, M. (2012.). Student study site for qualitative research in education: A

user's guide (3rd ed.). SAGE Publications.
[Link]

Metcalfe, A. S. (2016). Educational research and the sight of inquiry: Visual

methodologies before visual methods. Research in Education, 96(1), 78-86. DOI:
10.1177/0034523716664577

• Supporting Links

Islam, M. M. (2017, April 7). Research ethics [PowerPoint slides].

[Link]

Desai, M. K. (2015, March 16). Ethics in research [PowerPoint slides].

[Link]

15
Generalities

5. References
Alfaro, J. A. (2010). Conformación de comunidades epistémicas: Espacio para
la formación de investigadores educativos. Ponencia presentada en el XI
Congreso Nacional de Investigación Educativa, COMIE. Recuperado de
[Link]
1/[Link]
Álvarez-Gayou, J. L. (2004). Cómo hacer investigación cualitativa:
Fundamentos y metodología. Ediciones Paidós.
Aravena, M., Kimelman, E., Micheli, B., Torrealba, R., & Zúñiga, J. (2006).
Investigación educativa I.
Camacho, H., Casilla, D., & de Franco, M. F. (2008). La indagación: Una
estrategia innovadora para el aprendizaje de procesos de investigación.
Laurus, 14(26), 284-306.
Connelly, F. M. (1977). Scientific enquiry and the teaching of science. Ontario
Institute for Studies in Education.
Cortina, A., Orts, A. C., & Navarro, E. M. (1996). Ética. Ediciones Akal.
Grajales, T. (1999). La cosmovisión y el método de la investigación. Ponencia
presentada en el.
Lipman, M., Sharp, A. M., & Oscanyan, F. O. (1992). La filosofía en el aula (J.
Latorre, Trans.). Ediciones de la Universidad de Madrid.
Morales, J. A., Izquierdo, N. V., & Soler, J. C. (2008). La parametrización en la
investigación educativa. Varona, (47), 25-32.
Spradley, J. P. (1979). The ethnographic interview. Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Suárez, D. (2007). Docentes, narrativas e indagación pedagógica del mundo
escolar: Hacia otra política de conocimiento para la formación docente y
la transformación democrática de la escuela. Imprenta de la UBA.
Tójar, J. C., & Serrano, J. (2000). Ética e investigación educativa. Relieve, 6(2).

16
Qualitative Research in Education
UNIT 2
Foundation and approaches
 Table of content
1. Unit 2: Foundation and approaches ...................................................................................... 3

Objective: ........................................................................................................................................... 3
Introduction: ....................................................................................................................................... 3

2. Information on the subtopics .................................................................................................. 4

2.1. Subtopic 1: Frameworks for qualitative research ................................................................ 4

2.2. Subtopic 2: General guidelines .............................................................................................. 7

2.3. Subtopic 3: The paradigms in qualitative research ............................................................. 9

2.4. Subtopic 4: Ontology and axiology (the nature of reality & Values and ethics) ............ 11

3. Unit Comprehension Questions ........................................................................................... 14

• Case scenarios ....................................................................................................................... 14

4. Supplementary materials ....................................................................................................... 16

5. References................................................................................................................................ 17

2
Foundation and approaches

1. Unit 2: Foundation and

approaches
Topic 1: Epistemological foundation

Objective:

This topic aims to explain to students the importance of qualitative methodology,

its most important frameworks and paradigms.

Introduction:
Qualitative research aims to provide a methodology that allows for the analysis
and understanding of the world from various valid perspectives in different
realities. Among the characteristics of qualitative research is that this type of
research focuses on studying individuals to understand them comprehensively
and completely. In addition, it is agreed that qualitative research is inductive since
it is oriented to discover events following guidelines; that is, it seeks answers to
questions centered on social experience. On the other hand, paradigms are

3
Foundation and approaches

assumptions or models that direct the process of human behavior and the action
of research. That is why some authors have different perspectives that are
undoubtedly valid in each situation. Furthermore, terms such as axiology and
ontology are essential in qualitative research in order to establish the behavior to
be followed by the qualitative researcher.

2. Information on the subtopics

2.1. Subtopic 1: Frameworks for qualitative
research

Currently, qualitative research is carried out to explore the reality of the

phenomena that happen in society. In this sense, various realities correlate with
the individual and his environment. Therefore, it can be ensured that there is no
absolute truth but that the truth is relative so that several perceptions and events
coexist involving the human being (Martínez et al., 2011).

Qualitative research originates on the life of people, conducts relationships, and

personal and group interactions considered as active aspects of the phenomenon
under study to understand the phenomenon in depth and seek a solution. For this
reason, a qualitative researcher must recognize that the analysis of a social
phenomenon is not static but in continuous dynamism, thanks to the permanent
trends and interactions in society (Chaves et al., 2015).

As mentioned above, the approach of qualitative research, as cited by Chaves et

al. (2015), has the objective of guiding human behavior and its relative truth, in
the sense of obtaining uniqueness of the individual under study. The qualitative
approach has various characteristics that guide the research process,
highlighting that this type of study is flexible since it demands discussions in its
environment without leaving aside its starting point, "the relationship with the
phenomenon" in the study.

4
Foundation and approaches

General characteristics
Among other essential characteristics of qualitative research for some authors
like Gurdián Fernández (2010), who carried out a study on qualitative
methodology and stated that qualitative research is:

• Inductive: It focuses more on discovery than comparison or verification,

making this its main difference from the quantitative methodology, where
rules and parameters are met, unlike guidelines that follow qualitative
research (Chaves et al., 2015).

• Holistic: Since the qualitative approach analyses people, groups, and the
environment totally, it is also essential to consider that it does not have a
specific logic, which is a characteristic of the phenomenon being studied
(Chaves et al., 2015). In this sense, the researcher is the one who looks
at the environment and the individuals from a unifying perspective, being
all-round and following a logic of significance (Gurdián Fernández, 2010).

• Interactive and reflective: The researcher is sensitive to the events of the

research on the population, either by close or empathetic relationship, and
where communication between the parties must be encouraged.
(Martínez, J. R., 2011).

• Naturalist refers to the logic in the reality under investigation; that is, the
researcher evaluates and understands the individual under study within
the same frame of reference (Gurdián Fernández, 2010).

• Accessible: It is characterized by not imposing previous perspectives. The

qualitative researcher temporarily leaves his personal criteria, beliefs, and
perspectives (Gurdián Fernández, 2010).

• Open: It considers that all perspectives are valid in an unavoidable reality;

it may be in different settings and with different individuals since it does
not have antagonistic data (Gurdián Fernández, 2010). In this sense, a
qualitative investigation is enriched by various sciences such as history,
ethnography, sociology, and ethnology, among others, that try to have an
answer for every event that happens in reality (Ruiz, 2012).

5
Foundation and approaches

• Humanist: A qualitative researcher seeks to study, evaluate, and analyze

the perspectives, beliefs, feelings, and behavior, both personal and group,
of the individuals (Galeano, 2003).

• Rigorous: A qualitative researcher seeks to solve problems using an

exhaustive analysis (deep and detailed) of society's reality to understand
problems between individuals and try to solve those related to reliability
and data value (Chaves et al., 2015).

Indeed, it should be noted that qualitative research uses, within its information
collection procedures, various tools and techniques that the qualitative
researcher must master, such as interviews, group discussions, literature review,
evaluation of experiences, and group or personal inquiry (Hernández et al.,
2010).

Qualitative Research Frameworks

6
Foundation and approaches

2.2. Subtopic 2: General guidelines

The methodology of a qualitative investigation is unique in that it does not attempt
to study the qualities of a phenomenon in isolation. Instead, it undertakes an
integrated study that forms a single unit of analysis, encompassing all qualities of
analysis. Even when analyzing a specific quality, the relationship and links it has
with the whole phenomenon are always kept in mind, ensuring the study achieves
significance (Martínez, M., 2006).

7
 Foundation and approaches

The qualitative approach plays a crucial role in deciphering the nature of present
realities, aiming to understand their behavior and structure. It's important to note
that the qualitative approach, which refers to 'everything integrated', does not
oppose the quantitative approach, which is 'just something specific'. Instead, it
integrates the two, encompassing everything for the study (Martínez, M., 2006).
Therefore, a qualitative investigation, as manifested by Chaves et al. (2015), is
characterized by evaluating the development and natural process that the
phenomena have, which determines that there cannot be any alteration or
manipulation in the study in order not to modify the reality of the phenomenon
and not to change the results of the investigation.

Qualitative research process

Additionally, a qualitative investigation, as cited by Herrera (2017), must comply
with a process that unfolds in five steps explained below:

Definition of the problem: It is not recommended to begin a qualitative study

without defining the research problem, although this might be temporary since
the development of the investigation would bring more issues to include during
1
the research process. Therefore, defining does not mean delimiting a problem
but instead orienting or guiding the researcher to keep the focus of the study
(Ruiz, 1996).
Design or work structure: After defining the research problem, a design
must be flexible and consider all valid perceptions and schemes supporting
2
the research (Ruiz, 1996).
Data collection: The methods used by this type of research are not
standardized, much less have a numerical measurement. The research aims
to deepen the descriptive focus on subjective aspects such as experiences
and emotions, particularly those under study that are part of the target
population. Among the techniques used by qualitative research are
3
observation and personal and group interviews. The data are collected quickly
2
and simply without having to resort to non-existent circumstances of reality or
having the need to go to third parties (Ruiz, 1996).

8
 Foundation and approaches

After gathering the information, the data analysis step is crucial. Each
variable or situation must be studied and scrutinized to detect its significance
4
in the study and determine its scope. This step is essential in drawing
meaningful conclusions from the research (Ruiz, 1996).
Report and validation of results: Validation of results is essential to any
research. Therefore, this research aims to describe, specify, and establish the
5 meaning or reason for the phenomenon under study, that is, to show the
importance of the findings to society (Ruiz, 1996).

2.3. Subtopic 3: The paradigms in qualitative

research
In a qualitative investigation, it is also essential to consider that beyond
possessing a study object, the variables of the relative "reality" that the
phenomenon experiences must be considered. They estimate assumptions that
are related to what we call paradigms. In this sense, as Krause (1995) stated, a
paradigm is the set of beliefs or the model that guides the process of daily life
and the action of research.

Currently, more than one paradigm can be used in qualitative research. However,
its difference is related to the concepts of reality that they present, their
conception, and the behavior of knowing and accessing knowledge. Krause
(1995) states that they can be divided into two large groups: Positivism and post-
positivism. However, there are other paradigms, such as the constructivist
(constructionist) paradigm and the critical and interpretative paradigms, which
were part of the qualitative methodology at a certain point in history.

Since the existence of diverse paradigms, some authors have contradictions

between them to be able to contrast some, as in the case of Taylor, Bogdan, &
Piatigorsky (1986) that confront the Phenomenological approach with Positivism,
unlike Vasilachis de Gialdino (1992), which confronts sociology with the
relationship between the positivist, materialist, and interpretive paradigm. On the
other hand, authors such as Cook & Reichardt (1986) only distinguish between
the quantitative and qualitative paradigms, thereby establishing that different
authors have different perspectives due to the distinction of existing paradigms.

9
Foundation and approaches

Álvarez-Gayou (2004) considers that the emergence of the Qualitative paradigm

was formed in a revolution in scientific research. However, its deepening has not
replaced or displaced the quantitative paradigm, nor will it eliminate it.

In this sense, Guba (1990) classified paradigms based on a scheme of three

fundamental questions and placed three crucial points in the sense of ontological,
epistemological, and methodological levels. The three questions he raised were
the following:

• Ontological question: What is the nature of what is known? What

does reality consist of?
• Epistemological question: What is the nature of the relationship
between the researcher and what he wants to know? It refers to the
"objective" of the investigation.
• Methodological question: What is the process of accessing
knowledge?
In effect, the classification that Guba (1990) presents constitutes a system of
fundamental theories and analyzes four paradigms related to qualitative
research, describing their proposed levels detailed below in the following graph:

Figure .
Analysis of paradigms basedon (Guba, 1990)

10
Foundation and approaches

2.4. Subtopic 4: Ontology and axiology (the

nature of reality & Values and ethics)
Ethical behavior refers to the way the individual (researcher) proceeds, conduct
that is aligned between professional and personal life. Ethical conduct is the basis
of the human being's morality, established by norms and parameters that regulate
his way of acting (Tójar & Serrano, 2000). In any circumstance, human beings
impose dilemmas about what is right or wrong.

The epistemological approach to the framework of an investigation is based on

dimensions such as ontology and axiology that serve the researcher to develop
his conviction activities to carry out an in-depth analysis of the phenomenon
(Echeverría, 2002).

In this sense, knowing these two fundamental pillars is essential to carry out an
investigation that is valid in its results.
Ontology

In ancient times, it was known as "Metaphysics" and refers to the study of

essences in the possibilities of "existence" in an investigation that aims to
discover the basis on which analysis is based. From the epistemological
perspective of de la Pienda, Jesús Avelino (1994), a qualitative researcher must
establish an ontological, epistemological act which identifies two perceptions
exposed in the following graph:

Figure 4.
Ontological epistemological act

11
Foundation and approaches

• Realistic: It defends the existence of the outside world that continues its
current development despite what is considered or not. In this sense, it is
believed that reality exists but that it appears in two existences: the first
corresponds to material things such as atoms, people that would be the
"factual sciences," and

On the other hand, the abstract things that belong to the corresponding ideal
objects to logic (de la Pienda, Jesús Avelino, 1994).

• Idealistic: It refers to the mental reconstruction of the current world, which

establishes that there is no reality beyond the consciousness of men,
which establishes that objects do not have an existence that is very
separate from self-consciousness. Indeed, the world is related to the
consciousness of reality that an individual builds (de la Pienda, Jesús
Avelino, 1994).

Axiology
Axiology, a field of profound importance, is the science that studies human
valuation, i.e., the theory of values. One of the significant contributions of 20th-
century philosophy has been the theory of values, which originated in the second
third of the 19th century. Ortega & Gasset (1923) points out that the issue of
values was first addressed by economists, particularly Adam Smith.

Instead of thinking of values as temporary entities that correspond to acts with

values, it should be taken into account that the values correspond to the
evaluations made by the individual and the same axiology since the individual is
the one who interprets the actions and values them as objectives or subjective,
that is why values are born as a result of applying axiological functions in different
situations and events of the human being (Echeverría, 2002).

One of the branches of values is undoubted "ethics," which is interested in

analyzing the moral values of the human being, identifying what is good and evil,
and specifying which should be proper behavior in some situations for an
individual.

12
Foundation and approaches

Ethics is the basis of the moral norms that govern the conduct of the human being,
which are accepted voluntarily or instilled from childhood. Having moral conduct
allows us to act in the best way before any situation affects us or even puts us in
danger (de la Pienda, 1994).

13
Foundation and approaches

3. Unit Comprehension Questions

• Case scenarios
This is the format for tests and the final exam.

Read the scenarios and determine which qualitative framework is the case
about

A. Maria's teacher collects data for several months on her performance in

written and oral tasks, conducts interviews with Maria and her parents, and
observes her in class to understand the factors affecting her performance
discrepancy.

Framework: __________________

B. Through student surveys and interviews about their anxiety related to

English exams, the researcher aims to develop a theory about the sources
and manifestations of this anxiety.

Framework: __________________

C. To understand the essence of students' feelings of accomplishment after

completing a challenging project, the teacher collects data through
interviews and reflective writing prompts

Framework: __________________

14
Foundation and approaches

D. After introducing a new vocabulary app, the teacher collects student

feedback through surveys and analyzes it to identify common themes
related to its effectiveness.

Framework: __________________

15
Foundation and approaches

4. Supplementary materials
The following supplementary resources are suggestions to expand information
on the topic covered as part of your autonomous learning process:

• Support Videos

Dr Dee. (2019, September 9). Ontology, epistemology, methodology, and

methods in research [Video]. YouTube.
[Link]

• Supporting References

Slevitch, L. (2011). Qualitative and quantitative methodologies compared:

Ontological and epistemological perspectives. Journal of QualityAssurance in
Hospitality & Tourism, 12(1), 73-81.

Bleiker, J., Morgan-Trimmer, S., Knapp, K., & Hopkins,S. (2019). Navigating the
maze: qualitative research methodologies and their philosophical foundations.
Radiography.

• Supporting Links

Al-Ababneh, M. M. (2020). Linking ontology, epistemology and research

methodology. Science & Philosophy, 8(1), 75–91. (PDF) Linking Ontology,
Epistemology and Research Methodology ([Link])

16
Foundation and approaches

5. References
Álvarez-Gayou, J. L. (2004).Cómo hacer investigación cualitativa. fundamentos
y metodología. México: [Link] Ecuador,
Chaves, M. P., Zapata, A. F. R., & Arteaga,I. H. (2015). Investigación cualitativa:
Una reflexión desde la educación como hecho social. Universitaria:
Docencia, Investigación E Innovación, 3(2), 86-100.
Cook, T. D., & Reichardt, C. S. (1986).Métodos cualitativos y cuantitativos en
investigación evaluativa Morata Madrid.
de la Pienda,Jesús Avelino. (1994).Educación, axiologíay utopía Universidad de
Oviedo.
Echeverría, J. (2002).Axiología y ontología: Los valores de la cienciacomo
funciones no saturadas. Argumentos De Razón Técnica,2002,(5): 21-37,
Galeano, M. E. (2003). Diseño de proyectos en la investigación cualitativa
Universidad Eafit.
Guba, E. G. (1990).The paradigm dialog(EG guba ed.).
Gurdián Fernández, A. (2010). El paradigma cualitativo en la investigación socio
educativa.
Hernández Sampieri,R., Fernández Collado,C., & BaptistaLucio, P. (2010).
Herrera, J. (2017). La investigación cualitativa.
Krause, M. (1995). La investigación cualitativa: Un campo de posibilidades y
desafíos.
Martínez, J. R. (2011).Métodosde investigacióncualitativa.
Martínez, M. (2006). La investigación cualitativa (síntesis conceptual).Revista De
Investigación En Psicología, 9(1), 123-146.
Metodología de la investigación.
ORTEGA & GASSET, J. (1923). Introducción a una estimativa.¿ que son los
valores. RevistaTemas De Educación, 7(7),19-40.
Ruiz, J. (1996). Metodología de la investigación cualitativa bilbao: Ediciones
universidad de deusto. Sagastizabal, M.(2006).Aprender Y Enseñar En
Contextos Complejos.(1a Ed.),Buenos Aires: Ediciones Noveduc,
Ruiz, J. (2012).Metodología de la investigación cualitativa. universidad de
deusto, bilbao. Serie Ciencias Sociales, 15

17
Foundation and approaches

Taylor, S. J., Bogdan, R., & Piatigorsky, J. (1986). Introducción a los métodos
cualitativos de investigación. la búsqueda de significados.
Vasilachis de Gialdino, I. (1992). Métodoscualitativos I. los problemas teórico-
epistemológicos.

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Qualitative Research in Education

UNIT 2
Foundation and Approaches
 ÍNDICE

Table of Contents
Unit 2: Foundation and Approaches ....................................................................................................... 3

Topic 2: SOME POPULAR RESEARCH APPROACHES AND THEORIES ........................................................ 3

Objective : ............................................................................................................................................ 3
Introduction : ....................................................................................................................................... 3

1. Subtopic information..................................................................................................................... 4

2.1 Subtopics 1: Ethnography ........................................................................................................... 4

2.2 Subtopic 2: Grounded theory ...................................................................................................... 6

2.1 Subtopic 3: Phenomenological inquiry ........................................................................................ 8

2.2 Subtopic 4: Postmodernism and critical theory research .......................................................... 10

1. Preguntas de comprensión de la unidad ...................................................................................... 12

1. Material complementario............................................................................................................ 13

2. Bibliografía .................................................................................................................................. 14

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Unit 2: Foundation and Approaches

Topic 2: SOME POPULAR RESEARCH APPROACHES
AND THEORIES

Objective :
Introduce students to the different types of qualitative methodologies
considering its main characteristics.

Introduction :
Qualitative research demands a series of activities for the study of a particular
phenomenon such as inquiry, meticulous observation, analysis of variables,
details of perspectives, among other activities that are very common when
studying a phenomenon and using a qualitative methodology. In this sense, the
qualitative field has a wide range of qualitative methodologies that are used in
scientific research and among the most popular are: Ethnography, Grounded
Theory, Phenomenological inquiry, Postmodernism and critical theory research.
Each qualitative methodology differs from the other by having different
characteristics, study tools and the way to analyze the data. It is very important
for a qualitative researcher to differentiate each one of these methodologies in
order to be able to define the best methodology to choose before carrying out any
scientific research that contributes significantly to society in general by
contributing to the development of knowledge.

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1. Subtopic information
2.1 Subtopics 1: Ethnography
Ethnography is one of the most popular qualitative methodologies used in a
study of social phenomena (Bacon-Shone, 2013). The term "ethnography"
means "writing about people", as suggested by Johnson & Christensen (2019)
who affirms that this methodology focuses on describing, analyzing and
detailing the behavior of a social group based on its attitudes, norms, values,
patterns of conduct, principles and interactions that exist between the members
of the study group to which they belong. Through ethnography, the analytical
description or restoration of a culture and social structure of a phenomenon is
pursued. Therefore, it is used to designate anthropological studies (Herrera,
2017).

Analysis unit

The ethnographic unit of analysis can undoubtedly be a country, region, city, or

community of a human group whose interactions are regulated and where
similar ways of life are shared (Martínez, 2006).

A qualitative researcher who uses this type of methodology must be interested

in knowing this social group completely, being aware of what they do, how they
do it, what they use, what they need, that is, to know the lifestyle of that social
group (Johnson & Christensen, 2019).

Pineda (2000) suggests that an ethnographic study is conceived as a

sociocultural investigation, since the perspective is based on an interpretive
paradigm whose purpose is to reveal the realities that are perceived in a social
phenomenon.

In this sense, an ethnographic researcher believes that a group is based on the

sum of all its parts. Therefore, holistic descriptions are used to try to find out
what strength unites them to the members of a group (Johnson & Christensen,
2019). By the same token, ethnographers as cited by Johnson & Christensen
(2019) are interested in describing the aspects of people.

In Latin America, ethnography as cited by Aravena, Kimelman, Micheli,

Torrealba, & Zúñiga (2006) is used to identify existing problems in the
educational field, encompassing perspectives such as: school failure, various
forms of discrimination in schools, indiscipline, interaction pedagogical of
teachers, school climate, among other problems that are common in schools in
this region and need to be solved.

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Types of Ethnographic Research

Johnson & Christensen (2019) states that the types of ethnographic research
are classified in two aspects in a classical way and are detailed below in the
following graph:

• Ethnology: Refers to the comparative study of a culture with the aim of

discovering the patterns of behavior that differentiates them from other
social groups (Johnson & Christensen, 2019).
• Ethnohistory: This type of research deals with studying the cultural past
of a social group. This study is usually carried out before an Ethnology in
order to clarify some perceptions of the study group (Johnson &
Christensen, 2019).

Ethnographic characteristics

Pineda, María de los Angeles Tovar (2000) stated that it is essential to consider
some characteristics before executing an ethnographic methodology which are
outlined below:

• Holistic character: Refers to seeking a complete vision of the social

phenomenon, that is, not studying it in parts but to consider it as a
whole with the aim of having information that covers everything
(Pineda, María de los Angeles Tovar, 2000).
• Phenomenological analysis: Understands the object of study in order
to adopt constructive strategies that allow obtaining valid and
significant information on the phenomenon (Pineda, María de los
Angeles Tovar, 2000).
• Naturalistic orientation: This type of research must have a field study
orientation, since phenomena are studied in their nature, in order to
perceive all their manifestations. Indeed, an investigation with an
ethnographic methodology cannot be carried out in a laboratory, that

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is, it cannot be isolated from the environment of a phenomenon

(Pineda, María de los Angeles Tovar, 2000).
• Hermeneutic character: An ethnographic investigation is a
construction of itself, since it must executes an interpretive perspective
of the social phenomenon (Pineda, María de los Angeles Tovar, 2000).

In summary, a table with key dimensions about the methodology detailed

below is shown based on (Bacon-Shone, 2013):

Analysis of data
Focus Origin Data collection Narrative form
Study a Cultural Observations and Description, analysis Description of the
cultural or social anthropology interviews for and behavior of the group
group long field time interpretation of or individual.
(ex. 6m-1 year) data

2.2 Subtopic 2: Grounded theory

This type of methodology tries to discover theories, hypotheses, and concepts
based on the direct analysis of data, and not by other existing research or
theoretical frameworks (Herrera, 2017).
Herrera (2017) stated that grounded theory is a methodology that is used to
develop theories that are grounded or are built through data collection and
analysis, that is, the new theory is built during research. Glaser & Strauss (1967)
were the ones who proposed the Grounded Theory (GF) as a way of approaching
a social reality and defined it as an “inductive approach in which the immersion
of data serves as a starting point to develop a theory about a phenomenon”
(Guillemette, 2006).
In this sense, as cited by Páramo Morales (2015) this methodology was
developed as a reaction to the extreme positivism that exists in most of the social
research in society. This methodology has been largely confined, as it is seen as
the adoption of "anchored theorizing" in the collection and analysis of data
(Hirschman & Thompson (1997). The collection of data precedes, for the most
part, the analysis of the data to reflect their nature with respect to the established
theories (Páramo Morales, 2015).

Stages of grounded theory

Glaser & Strauss (1967) state that since it is a methodology that builds theories,
it demands a meticulous process of analysis that consists of four stages:

1. Data observation: Refers to the importance of identifying patterns in

order to establish categories in the data.

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2. Composing categories and properties: The influence or incident that

the properties of a category have need to be compared.
3. Delimitation of theory: By the categorization carried out in the
previous phase, small modifications can be made in this phase, since
the theory is relatively completely solidified.
4. Theory of writing: It refers to the hypotheses that are born in the
analysis of data where some are approved and rejected.

Characteristics of a Grounded Theory

The Grounded Theory is characterized by considering the case perspective as a

variable. Some similar cases that have many variables but with different
responses are evaluated in order to see where the key differences are. However,
the cases that obtain a similar response are examined again to verify what the
common conditions are (Giménez, 2007).
This methodology as cited by Giménez (2007) has two strategies to ground this
theory which can be observed in the following graph:

• Constant comparative method: At this point, the researcher carries

out the coding and analysis of data in order to develop concepts and
therefore makes a continuous comparison of variables. In effect, the
researcher explores interactions, identifies properties and perspectives
in order to establish a coherent theory (Giménez, 2007).
• Theoretical sampling: In this strategy, the researcher selects cases
to study according to his interest in evaluating concepts and theories
already established. In this sense, data collection and analysis are
carried out together (Giménez, 2007).

In short, based on Bacon-Shone (2013) a table with essential points of the

methodology are presented below :

Analysis of data
Focus Origin Data collection Narrative form
Develop theories Sociology Interviews are Open, selective Model or theory
based on data from conducted with coding, axial,
the field around 20-30
people to
categorize and
detail a theory.

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2.1 Subtopic 3: Phenomenological inquiry

This methodology focuses on the individual and subjective experience,
in this sense it can be stated that phenomenology "is the systematic
investigation of subjectivity". The Phenomenological inquiry seeks to
know the meaning that individuals give to their experience, the key point
of this methodology is to learn the process of interpretation by which
individuals define their world and therefore their reason for conduct
(Herrera, 2017).
In this sense, the objective of phenomenology as cited by Johnson &
Christensen (2019) is to have access to the lives of individuals in the
research in order to understand their behavior that was built through the
experiences of their life.
Life-world is the German term referred to by the founder of
phenomenology, philosopher Edmund Husserl (1859–1938), which
means “the inner world of consciousness and experience of the
individual” (Johnson & Christensen, 2019).
This type of methodology as cited by Martínez (2006) is the most used
when there is no doubt in the veracity of the information data since the
researcher has no idea of the concepts of the phenomenon, in particular
because they are far from it, such cases as the death of a loved one, the
axiological world of homosexuals, the experience that people have in
situations of extreme poverty, a love break in the event that no one has
lived, experience of winning a bet, among other practices (Maslow,
1970).
In effect, a phenomenological researcher must look at things from the
perspectives of other people and therefore must understand and
interpret them (Herrera, 2017).
What is more, this methodology allows the researcher to understand the
behavior of individuals when living a particular experience (Bacon-
Shone, 2013).

Types of Phenomenology
Each individual can interpret a situation in different ways, in this sense,
experiences or events can mean different things from the perspectives
of different people. In education, it is essential that teachers understand
the perspectives of their students in order to have a more pleasant
contact and understand the needs that they present (Johnson &
Christensen, 2019). However, the phenomenological methodology
assumes that there is something that makes them concrete in their
experiences. Johnson & Christensen (2019) suggest that there are two

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types in this methodology that explain their fundamental points of view

to see the participants as a whole which are presented in the graph
below:

• Essence: It is also called the invariant structure of

experience, it refers to the fact that there is a part in the
experience of individuals that is common to each other and
that relates them. In this sense, the experience that someone
has is universal and is present in particular phenomena (Van
Manen, 2016). For example: the loss of a family member
where every person might acts differently, there are essences
that are very common in people in a situation, as well as
feeling pain or sadness (Johnson & Christensen, 2019).

• Interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA): This type focuses

on understanding how specific individuals in particular contexts give
meaning to their experiences, that is, different people can interpret
phenomena in different ways. In this logic, this type focuses on
recognizing the perspectives of the subjects about their experiences
but recognizing something different instead of describing their
transcendental experience, that is, the experience that all people go
through (Johnson & Christensen, 2019).

In short, based on Bacon-Shone (2013) a table with key dimensions

about the treated methodology is presented:

Focus Origin Data collection Analysis of data Narrative form

Understand the Psychology Usually an Perspectives, Description of
essence of interview is statements, meanings, essence of
experiences about conducted with general experience
a phenomenon. 10 people descriptions

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2.2 Subtopic 4: Postmodernism and critical

theory research
Postmodernism and critical theory are considered two contributions of
great relevance that European culture gave to philosophy in the 20th
century, these two aspects have significantly influenced the field of
scientific research in theoretical frameworks, methodologies for
organizational research in society (Saavedra Mayorga, Gonzales
Miranda, & Marín Idárraga, 2017).

Postmodernism
This methodology is characterized by challenging modernist theoretical
foundations, philosophies and practices, postmodernism has
characteristics that awaken optimistic and pessimistic solutions
(Sullivan, 2010).
Lagunas Arias (2011) states that postmodernism is seen as a genuine
experiment to offer a criticism directed to the basic or classic hypotheses
that underlie the theories of modernism.
In the field of educational research, postmodernism has clear
repercussions and according to Sullivan (2010) it has three main
categories of strategies:
• Adopt a critical perspective: It can be done through an
explanatory thesis application that analyzes phenomena through
the use of postmodern theories. In this sense, for some
educational research is problematized, practices underlie the use
of postmodern concepts and theories. Sullivan (2010) states the
objective of this strategy is to understand what is found “out there”
through the most appropriate theoretical explanation.
• Deconstruction approach: An action research approach is
applied in order to demonstrate how the practice can adopt a new
type of control in the study participants.
• Postmodern version: In this strategy the conceptions of practice
are not simply deconstructed, but the ideas and images
implemented allow for a clearer framework of the fact.

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Critical theory research

Among other suitability questioned is the positivist position in the views
of critical theory. Saavedra Mayorga et al. (2017) state that the basic
principles of "criticality" began in the 20th century in Europe as a
response between the past and the present. This theory was established
as an opposition to traditional Western theory and morals that were
based on positivism and the natural sciences.
This theory affirmed that knowledge is measured by people's
experience, as well as some aspects like historical, political, economic
and social.
Payne & Barbera (2013) states that the central feature of critical theory
refers to research projects in the human sciences which attempt to unify
a single truth and political commitment. In this sense, for critical theory
there is no pure theory that is far from the human being, his experience
or his context. Therefore, knowledge is undoubtedly considered as part
of social life, since all perspectives of reality demand a theoretical value
that in a certain way has a degree of production of scientific knowledge
(Saavedra Mayorga et al., 2017).Slack.

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1. Preguntas de comprensión de
la unidad
1. Is ethnology and ethnohistory the same?
No, ethnology refers to a comparative study between cultures considering
patterns of behavior, unlike ethnohistory, which is the investigation of the past of
a culture or group.

2. Does grounded theory study a culture or social group?

No, grounded theory is one that develops theories from data collection and
analysis.

3. What is the difference between the types of phenomenological

methodologies?

The difference that exists is that the essence manifests that everyone at a given
moment experiences the same sensation regardless of our way of acting, instead
interpretative phenomenological analysis stipulates that each person has a
particular experience that lives differently compared to others.

4. Is an ethnographic investigation holistic?

Yes, an ethnographic investigation seeks to have a complete vision of the study

phenomenon, that is, it does not seek to study the phenomenon in parts but to
cover its entire context.

5. For critical theory, is there a pure theory separate from the human
being?

No, according to the critical theory, there is no theory that is practically distant
from the human being, since the knowledge is produced through experiences in
his environment throughout his life.

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1. Material complementario
The following are supplementary materials as suggestions to broaden the topics
of this unit, see the videos and read the contents as part of your autonomous
learning process:

Videos:

• Qualitative Research Design: Phenomenology

[Link]

• Ethnographic Research

[Link]

Bibliografia de apoyo:

• Creswell, J. W. (2012). Educational research: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed

methods approaches.

Links de apoyo :

• [Link]

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2. Bibliografía
Aravena, M., Kimelman, E., Micheli, B., Torrealba, R., & Zúñiga, J. (2006). Investigacióeducativa
I.

Bacon-Shone, J. (2013). Introduction to quantitative research methods Graduate School, The

University of Hong Kong.

Giménez, R. C. (2007). (2007). Aplicación de la teoría fundamentada (grounded theory) al

estudio del proceso de creación de empresas. Paper presented at the Decisiones Basadas En El
Conocimiento Y En El Papel Social De La Empresa: XX Congreso Anual De AEDEM, 44.

Glaser, B., & Strauss, A. L. (1967). The discovery of grounded theory: Strategies for qualitative
research. 139.

Guillemette, F. (2006). L’approche de la grounded theory; pour innover. Recherches

Qualitatives, 26(1), 32-50.

Herrera, J. (2017). La investigación cualitativa.

Hirschman, E. C., & Thompson, C. J. (1997). Why media matter: Toward a richer understanding
of consumers' relationships with advertising and mass media. Journal of Advertising, 26(1), 43-
60.

Johnson, R. B., & Christensen, L. (2019). Educational research: Quantitative, qualitative, and
mixed approaches SAGE Publications, Incorporated.

Lagunas Arias, D. (2011). Sobre antropología, posmodernidad y teoría crítica. Desacatos, (35),
97-114.

Martínez, M. (2006). La investigación cualitativa (síntesis conceptual). Revista De Investigación

En Psicología, 9(1), 123-146.

Maslow, A. H. (1970). Motivation and personality, ed. 2, new york, 1970.

Páramo Morales, D. (2015). La teoría fundamentada (grounded theory), metodología cualitativa

de investigación científica. Pensamiento & Gestión, (39), 1-7.

Payne, M., & Barbera, J. R. (2013). A dictionary of cultural and critical theory John Wiley &
Sons.

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Pineda, María de los Angeles Tovar. (2000). La investigación cualitativa en educación: Necesidad
y reto para los modelos pedagógicos contemporáneos. Revista Cubana De Psicología, 17(2)

Saavedra Mayorga, J. J., Gonzales Miranda, D. R., & Marín Idárraga, D. A. (2017). Teoría crítica
y posmodernismo en los estudios organizacionales en américa latina. Tratado De Estudios
Organizacionales, 1, 553-589.

Sullivan, G. (2010). Art practice as research: Inquiry in visual arts Sage.

Van Manen, M. (2016). Researching lived experience: Human science for an action sensitive
pedagogy Routledge.

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