ME 230

MECHATRONICS Operational Amplifiers

The Operational Amplifier

An Operational Amplifier (a.k.a. or “op-amp”) is an

integrated circuit that amplifies a signal or the
difference in voltage between two inputs. It can also be
used to reverse the polarity of an input voltage.

The op-amp’s internal circuit is formed by many

transistors, resistors and capacitors.

The op-amp is built into circuits to create oscillators,

sensors, filters, mathematical calculations, and varied
instrumentation.
The Operational Amplifier
• An op-amp has 2 input signals, a positive and a negative DC supply connection, and
one output. The DC supply is just for powering the op amp.
• Op-amp is an active device.
• The input labeled with minus sign is called the Inverting input.
• The input labeled with plus sign is called the Noninverting input.
V𝑐𝑐 +
(DC supply connection)

Inverting Input
V−
Output
Vout

Noninverting
Input V+
Vcc −(DC supply connection)

Figures drawn using: [Link]

The Operational Amplifier

Inverting
Input Vcc +(DC supply connection)

V−

Vout
Output
V+
Noninvertin
−
g Input Vcc(DC supply connection)

[Link]

Figures drawn using: [Link]

Inside an Operational Amplifier - Schematic

Figures Source:TI LM741 op-amp [Link]

Operational Amplifier Applications
One example…

Amplify a low-amplitude signal from an ECG

electrode to a larger amplitude signal which
can be converted into a digital signal.
A high-gain op-amp is used.

Notice the amplified signal is then conditioned

by passing it through filters:
• High-pass to remove DC offset between
electrodes
• Low-pass to remove high-frequency noise
• Notch filter to remove AC power
interference (noise)
The Ideal Operational Amplifier

A𝑣 = ∞ Vout 1. Infinite input impedance, Zin =∞

V𝑖𝑛 Zin = ∞ A𝑣 V𝑖𝑛
Zout = 0
2. Infinite gain, Av = ∞
3. Zero output impedance, Zout = 0

Figures drawn using: [Link]

The Ideal Operational Amplifier
1. Infinite input impedance means:
𝑰− = 𝑰+ = 𝟎
2. Infinite gain implies that:
𝐼− = 0
𝑽− = 𝑽+
Recall gain is ratio of output to input signal:
𝑉−
A𝑣 = ∞ Vout given Vin = 𝑽+ - 𝑽−
V𝑖𝑛 Zin = ∞ A𝑣 V𝑖𝑛
Zout = 0 then Av = Vout/(𝑽+ - 𝑽− )
𝑉+ 3. Zero output impedance means that the
output voltage will not vary no matter
𝐼+ = 0
current level is drawn by the external load.
Vout is not affected by the load. Zout = 0

Figures drawn using: [Link]

The Practical Operational Amplifier

Ideal Practical
𝐼− = 0 𝐼− = 0

𝑉− 𝑉−
A𝑣 = ∞ Vout A𝑣 = ∞ Vout
V𝑖𝑛 Zin = ∞ A𝑣 V𝑖𝑛
Zout = 0 V𝑖𝑛 Zin A𝑣 V𝑖𝑛
Zout

𝑉+ 𝑉+

𝐼+ = 0 𝐼+ = 0

Figures drawn using: [Link]

Parameters
1. Open loop gain (𝐀𝐯 ): internal voltage gain, the ratio of −𝑉𝐷
the output voltage to the input in the absence of external
components. 𝑣2
𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑡
2. Common-mode Rejection Ratio: measures the ability
𝑣1
to reject common-mode signals (undesired signals such
as noise).
+𝑉𝐶
Av
𝐂𝐌𝐑𝐑 =
ACM
There is a voltage common to both
3. Maximum Output Voltage Swing (𝐕𝐎𝐩𝐩 ): maximum inputs known as common-mode signal
possible positive or negative peak output voltage
without waveform clipping when the quiescent DC 𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝐴𝑣 (𝑣1 − 𝑣2 )
output voltage (output when no input signal is present)
is zero.
4. Input Offset Voltage: Minimum DC input voltage
required for zero output voltage.
Parameters

5. Input Bias Current: DC current required at the

amplifier inputs to properly operate.
6. Input impedance: Impedance between the inverting 𝑣𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑡
and noninverting input (differential input impedance)
or impedance between each input and the reference
(common-mode input impedance). Operational Amplifier Circuit
7. Input offset current: is the difference between the
input bias currents of the inputs. 𝑣𝑖𝑛

8. Output impedance: Impedance from the output

terminal of the amplifier.
𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑡
9. Slew rate: maximum rate of change of the output to a
step input voltage Δ𝑉/Δ𝑡. Δ𝑉

10. Frequency response and noise specifications. Δ𝑡

Operational Amplifiers Circuits

• So far, there is no additional connection between the operational

amplifier’s inputs and output. In other words, the amplifier is in
open loop.
• An operational amplifier working with its open-loop gain does not
provide a very stable output. Op-amp’s gain, A is in the order of 106
• For a more stable output to input changes, a branch is connected
between the output and the inverting input. This is known as a
feedback loop.
• With a feedback loop, the operational amplifier now has a closed-
loop gain. We need to know how this gain.
Operational Amplifiers Circuits
Characteristics
Voltage Buffer or Voltage Follower • Output voltage is equal to the input voltage (it
“follows” the input voltage), i.e. does not amplify
input voltage.
Feedback loop
• Has very high input impedance (resistance), so
−
𝑉𝑐𝑐 virtually no current flows into it. Has the effect of
isolating the output and input signals.
Vout
• Output side of op-amp has low impedance. This
leads to high current flowing out.
V𝑖𝑛
𝑉𝑐𝑐 + • Feedback loop is on the inverting input.

• Useful in voltage divider circuits. Due to high

impedance, there is a high voltage drop across it.
Due to isolation of input and output, op-amp will
𝐕𝐨𝐮𝐭 supply adequate voltage to load without high power
=𝟏 consumption from the source.
𝑽𝒊𝒏
Figures drawn using: [Link]
Operational Amplifiers Circuits
Characteristics
Inverting Amplifier • Produces output voltage that is of opposite polarity
RF from input signal. So, positive input yields negative
Feedback loop output; negative output yields positive output.

• Input signal goes to the “inverting” or minus input

RN 𝑉𝑐𝑐 −
terminal. Noninverting input terminal is connected to
Vout ground.

V𝑖𝑛 • These op-amps are ideal as DC amplifiers.

𝑉𝑐𝑐 + • The negative feedback loop feeds a part of the output

signal back to “inverting” input terminal.

• Negative feedback helps amplifier control the overall

Vout 𝑅𝐹 gain, but reduces the range of gain.
=− 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑅𝑁
Figures drawn using: [Link]
Operational Amplifiers Circuits
Inverting Amplifier Noninverting Amplifier
RF RF
Feedback loop Feedback loop

RN 𝑉𝑐𝑐 − RN 𝑉𝑐𝑐 −

Vout Vout
V𝑖𝑛 V𝑖𝑛
𝑉𝑐𝑐 + 𝑉𝑐𝑐 +

Vout 𝑅𝐹 Vout 𝑅𝐹
=− = 1+
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑅𝑁 𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑅𝑁
Figures drawn using: [Link]
Operational Amplifiers Circuits
Summing circuit
RF

R1 𝑣1 𝑡 𝑣2 𝑡
𝑉−
𝑣out 𝑡 =− + 𝑅𝐹
𝑣out (𝑡) 𝑅1 𝑅2
R2
𝑣1 (𝑡) 𝑉+ 𝑣out 𝑡 = −( 𝑣1 𝑡 + 𝑣2 𝑡 )
𝑣2 (𝑡) R F = 𝑅2 = 𝑅1 = 𝑅

Figures drawn using: [Link]

Operational Amplifiers Circuits
Comparator
+VSAT 𝑣𝑖𝑛 > 𝑣𝑟𝑒𝑓
𝑉𝑆𝐴𝑇 +
𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑡 (𝑡) 𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑡
−VSAT 𝑣𝑖𝑛 < 𝑣𝑟𝑒𝑓

𝑣𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑟𝑒𝑓 𝑉𝑆𝐴𝑇 −

+VSAT : Positive SATuration Voltage

−VSAT : Negative SATuration Voltage

Comparator compares 𝒗𝒊𝒏 with a known, reference voltage applied to the other input terminal.
Output voltage flips between V+ or V- depending on if 𝒗𝒊𝒏 is > or < the reference voltage 𝒗𝒓𝒇 .

Comparator is an open-loop, bi-stable device; meaning it has only two output states: V+ or V ̄

Figures drawn using: [Link]

 Comparator Op-amp Application
Smoke alarm circuits use comparators.

LEDs in reference (sealed) chamber and input (smoke-penetrable) chamber emit light that
phototransistors Q1 and Q2. Smoke that enters input chamber changes the operating point of Q2. Q1
does not change. Vin changes wrt Vref ->> Op-amp’s output changes due to the presence of smoke.

Figures Source: [Link]

2006/b713e408ddb359fd729360244e747aff_24_op_amps3.pdf