Some Basic concepts of Chemistry

Matter
Pure Mixture
Element Heterogenous Mixture
Compound Homogenous Mixture
Element: Only one type of atoms. E.g. H, He, O, N, C

Compound: More than one type of atoms. E.g. H2O, CO2, C6H12O6

Homogenous Mixture: uniform composition (single phase).

Heterogenous Mixture: Non uniform composition (multiple phases).

Phase: Each Distinct Form

Mixture of gases: single phase

Miscible liquid: single phase

Immiscible liquid: multiple phase

Mixture of solid: multiple phase

Laws of Chemical Combination:

1. Law of conservation of mass: Mass is neither created nor destroyed in a

chemical or physical process.
2. Law of definite proportion: A given compound always contains exactly
the same proportion of elements by weight.
3. Law of multiple proportions: If two elements can combine to form more
than one compound, the masses of the other element that combines
with the fixed mass of one element are in the ratio of small whole
numbers.
 e.g. H2O= 2g H and 16g O
H2O2= 2g H and 16g O
2g H: 16:32=1:2
4. Gay Loussac’s Law of Gaseous volumes: When gases combine or are
produced in a chemical reaction, they do so in a simple ratio by volume,
provided all gases are at the same temperature and pressure.
5. Avogadro’s Law: Equal volumes of all gasses at the same temperature
and pressure should contain equal number of molecules.

Dalton’s Atomic Theory:

1. Atom is the smallest independently existing species which cannot be

broken down into further smaller particles.
2. All atoms of a given element have identical properties
3. Atoms of different elements have different properties.
4. Compounds are formed when atoms of different elements combine in a
fixed ratio.
5. Chemical reactions involve reorganisation of atoms. Atoms are neither
created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction.

Atom: An atom is the smallest part of

an element that parts in a chemical
reaction.

Nucleon: Proton and Neutrons

Nucleon number: Number of protons

and number of neutrons

Number of electrons in an atom = number of protons

Number of electrons in cation = number of protons - charge

Number of electrons in anion = number of protons + charge

Sub-Atomic Symbol Mass Relative Charge Relative
Particle Mass Charge
+ -27 -19
Proton p 1.672*10 kg 1 +1.6*10 C +1
-27
Neutron n 1.674*10 kg 1 0 0
- -31 -19
Electron e 9.1*10 kg 1/1836 -1.6*10 C -1
Molecule: Smallest neutral particle of mater which has free existence

Monoatomic molecule: He, Ne

Diatomic molecule: H2 , N2
Triatomic molecule: CO2 , H2O, O3

Atomicity: Number of atoms present in a molecule

Molecule Atomicity
N2 2
NO2 3
H2SO4 7
C6H12O6 24

Number of atoms = Number of molecules * Atomicity

Q. How many atoms are present in 5 molecules of CO2?

A. 15

Q. How many molecules of O3 are formed by 36 atoms of oxygen?

A. 12

Representation of an Element
A
Z X
X: Symbol of Element
Z: Atomic Number
A: Mass Number

Atomic Number: Number of Protons

Mass Number: Number or Protons + Number of Neutrons

Number of Neutrons = Mass Number – Atomic Number

 Atomic Mass
Number Element Number
1 H 1
2 He 4
3 Li 7
4 Be 9
5 B 11
6 C 12
7 N 14
8 O 16
9 F 19
10 Ne 20
11 Na 23
12 Mg 24
13 Al 27
14 Si 28
15 P 31
16 S 32
17 Cl 35
18 Ar 40
19 K 39
20 Ca 40
21 Sc 45
22 Ti 48
23 V 51
24 Cr 52
25 Mn 55
26 Fe 56
27 Co 59
28 Ni 59
29 Cu 63
30 Zn 65
Isotopes: Elements having same atomic number but different Mass Number.
12
C, 13C, 14C*
1
H, 2H, 3H*

*Radioactive
Isobars: Atoms of different elements having same mass number but different
atomic number.
40 40
18 Ar 20 Ca
Isotones: Atoms of different elements having same number of neutrons.
14 14
6 C 8 O
Isodiapheres: Atoms of different elements having same value of (n-p+)
11 13
5 B 8 C
Isoelectronic: Species having same no. of electrons.

Na+ F- O2+ Mg+2

All have 10 electrons

Isosteres: Species which have same number of atoms and same number of
electrons.

N2 O CO2

Atomic Mass Unit (amu)

1amu = 1/12 * mass of one atom of Carbon-12

= 1/12 * 1.9926 * 10-23g

1amu = 1.66 * 10-24g

1amu = 1 Dalton = 1 unified mass (µ)

Atomic Mass:
Mass of one atom of an element
12
6 C : 12amu

Average Atomic Mass:

 11
B: B = 80%
10
B = 20%

Average Atomic Mass = (11*80) + (10*20)

100

=10.8

Gram Atomic Mass (GAM)

Mass of 6.022 * 1023 atoms of any element in grams is known as Gram Atomic
Mass.

Mass of 1 atom of C-12 = 12 amu

= 12 * 1.66 * 10-24 g

Mass of = 6.022 * 1023 atoms of C-12

= 12 * 1.66 * 10-24 * 6.022 * 1023g

= 12g

Molecular Mass
Ma2ss of one molecule
CO2: 44 amu

Gram Molecular Mass (GMM)

Mass of 6.022 * 1023 molecules in grams is known as GMM.

NH3 : 17g
NO2 : 46g

*CO Molecular Mass : 28amu

Gram Molecular Mass : 28g

Formula Mass
Some substances do not exist as a single entity or discrete molecule like
covalent solids. The formula (like NaCl) is used to calculate formula mass
instead of molecular mass of ionic solids.

Formula mass of NaCl: 23+35.5=58.5g

 Formula mass of Na2O: 62amu
62g (gram formula mass/GMM)

Calculation of Avogadro’s Number (NA)

Number of carbon atoms present in 12 grams of Carbon-12

Mass of one atom of C-12 : 1.9926 * 10-23g

Number of C-12 atoms in 1.9926 * 10-23g : 1

1g = 1/1.9926 * 10-23
12g = 12/1.9926 * 10-23

= 6.022 * 1023

Avogadro’s Number (NA) : 6.0221367 * 1023

Mole
Number of carbon atoms present in 12 g of Carbon-12.

• It is a counting unit.
• One mole of any species contains 6.022 * 1023 number of that species.
• 1 mole atoms = 6.022 * 1023 atoms
• 1 mole molecules = 6.022 * 1023 molecules
• 1 mole ions = 6.022 * 1023 ions

1 mole = NA particles
• Mass of one mole atoms = Gram Atomic Mass
• Mass of one mole molecules = Gram Molecular Mass (or Molar Mass)
• Number of atoms = number of moles * NA
• Number of moles = number of atoms/NA
• Mass of atoms = number of atoms * GAM
• Number of moles = moles of atoms/GAM

/ By NA * By GAM
Number of Mass of
MOLE
Atoms/Molecules * By NA / By GAM
Atoms/Molecules
 g-atom : moles of atom
g-molecule : moles of molecule
g-ion : moles of ion

Average Molar Mass

Total Mass = Average Molar Mass

Total Moles

Average Molar Mass =

m1n1 + m2n2 +… = Average Molar Mass

n1 + n2 +…

m : moles
n : GMM

Mass percentage of an element in a compound

No. of moles * GAM *100 = Mass percentage of the element

GMM

Ideal Gas Equation

PV = nRT
P: Pressure
V: Volume
n: number of moles
T: Temperature
R: Ideal gas constant / Universal Gas Constant

R = 0.0821 L atm/mol K
R = 0.083 L bar/mol K
=1/12 L bar/mol K
R = 8.314 joule/mol K
 = 825/3 joule/mol K
R = 1.987 Cal/mol K
1 Cal = 4.2J/4.184J
1L atm = 101.33 J

Molar Volume (Vm)

Volume of one mole of gas.
NTP: Normal temperature and pressure
STP: Standard temperature and pressure
SATP: Standard ambient temperature and pressure

Condition of P and T Molar Volume

NTP 1 atm, 0oC 22.4 L
STP 1 bar, 0oC 22.7 L
SATP 1 bar, 25oC 24.7 L

Moles of Gas = Volume of Gas

Molar Volume

Volume of Gas = Moles of Gas * Molar Volume

Y-Map:

/ By NA * By GAM
Number of Mass of
MOLE
Atoms/Molecules * By NA / By GAM
Atoms/Molecules

/ By Vm * By Vm

Volume of Gas
Empirical Formula and Molecular Formula

• Chemical formula of compounds containing the constituent atoms in

simplest natural number ratio is called Empirical Formula.
• Chemical formula of compounds containing the actual number of each
type of constituent atoms is known as Molecular Formula.
Molecular Formula Empirical Formula
C4H8 CH2
C4H10 C2H5
C6H6 C4H8
C4H8O2 C2H4O

Molecular Formula = n( Empirical Formula )

n = Mw of molecular formula
Mw of empirical formula

Density

Absolute Density

Case I
For solids and liquids:

Absolute Density = mass/volume

Case II
For gases

Absolute Density = molar mass/molar volume

PV = nRT
PV = mass/mw * RT
Pmw = dRT
(d= density)

d = Pmw / RT

Relative Density
Case I
For solids and liquids

Specific Gravity = Density of Substance / Density of Water

Density of water at 4oC: 1g/ml

Specific Gravity = density of substance(in g/ml) / 1g/ml

*Specific Gravity is unitless absolute density

Case II
For gases

Relative density of gas A with respect to gas B

= Absolute Density of Gas A / Absolute Density of Gas B

= Molar Mass of gas A/Molar Volume / Molar Mass of gas B/Molar Volume
= Molar Mass of Gas A / Molar Mass of Gas B

Vapour Density = density of gas / density of H2

Vapour Density = molar mass of gas / 2
molar mass of gas = 2 * vapour density

density of Mixture = Total Mass / Total Volume

Mole Concept in Chemical Reactions (Stoichiometry)

Mole-Mole analysis is used only in balanced chemical equations

N2 + 3H2 2NH3

Stoichiometric Coefficient

General Chemical Equation:

pA + qB rC + sD
p, q, r and s are stoichiometric coefficients

Moles of A/p = Moles of B/q = Moles of C/r = Moles of D/s

Mass Mass

Volume Moles Given Moles Calculate Volume

Number Number

e.g.
2KClO3(s) 2KCl(s) + 3O2(g)

Moles of KClO3/2 = Moles of KCl/2 = Moles of O2/3

Combustion of Hydrocarbons

Alkane: CnH2n+2
Alkene: CnH2n
Alkyne: CnH2n-2

CnH2n+2 + ((3n+1)/2) O2 nCO2 + (n+1)H2O

CnH2n + (3n/2) O2 nCO2 + nH2O

CnH2n-2 + ((3n-1)/2) O2 nCO2 + (n-1)H2O

CxHy + ((4x+y)/2)O2 xCO2 + (y/2)H2O

Limiting Reagent and Excess Reagent

The reagent which is consumed first in a chemical reaction is called
the limiting reagent and the reagent which is left behind in the
reaction is called the excess reagent.

e.g.

N2 + 3H2 2NH3

Case I
2 mol N, 6 mol H No Limiting Reagent
*If mole ratio = Stoichiometric Coefficient ratio, then no limiting
reagent

Case II

2 mol N, 5 mol H H2 is limiting reagent

Case III

1 mol N, 4 mol H N2 is limiting reagent

How to find limiting reagent:

pA + qB → Product

1. Given Moles of A/p

2. Given Moles of B/q
3. The reactant with the least value is the limiting reagent.
4. Limiting reagent decides final product formation and number of
reactants used in the reaction.

2A+ 3B → 5C

Moles of A: 5
Moles of B: 6

A/p ; B/q = 5/2 ; 6/3

2.5>2

B is limiting reagent

(2/5)A + (3/6)B → (5/x)C

[B here gets completely utilized]

5-2/3 * 6 5/3 * 6
5-4 = 1 10
1 mole (remaining moles) 10 moles (remaining)
Total moles left: 11

Q. Determine the minimum moles of Mn3O4 and Al to be taken to

produce minimum 6 moles of Al2O3 along with minimum 15 moles
of Mn according to the following reaction:

3Mn3O4 + 8Al → 4Al2O3 + 9Mn

*For products, take the product with the more amount of moles to
get the answer

Mn will decide the number of moles.

Al:
8/9 * 15 = 40/3 moles = 13.34 moles

Mn3O4:
3/9 * 15 = 5 moles

∴ If moles of products are given, the product with higher ratio of

stoichiometric coefficient to number of moles decides how many
moles are used.

% Yield

% yield = actual yield of reaction * 100

theoretical yield of reaction

Sequential Reaction

2A + B → 3C + D
C + E→ 3F
2F + G → H

A: Given
H: To find out
 Moles of A/2 = moles of C/3
Moles of C/1 = moles of F/3
Moles of F/2 = moles of H/1

∴Moles of H=1/2 * 3/1 * 3/2 * Moles of A

%Purity and %Composition of compounds

% purity = mass of pure sample * 100

mass of impure sample

% composition of A in the mixture = mass of A * 100

total mass
Some Important Reactions

Na2CO3, K2CO3, Rb2CO3, Cs2CO3 ------------> No Reaction

Li2CO3, (NH4)2CO3, Be2CO3, MgCO3, CaCO3, SrCO3 ---------> CO2 + Oxide

2NaHCO3 ---------> Na2CO3 + CO2 + H2O

KClO3 ----------> KCl(s) + O2(g)

: Heat

Parallel Reactions
→When two reactions take place simultaneously.
→Never add Parallel Reactions.

Q. 1 mole of Carbon reacts completely with 0.8 mol of O2 leaving no

reactant to form mixture of CO and CO2. Find moles of CO and CO2
respectively.

2C + O2 -----> 2CO
xmole x/2mol xmole
 C + O2 -----> CO2
ymole ymole ymole

Moles of Carbon: x + y = 1.

Moles of Oxygen: 0.5x + y = 0.8

x = 0.4, y = 0.6

Moles of CO = 0.4 moles.

Moles of CO2 = 0.6 moles.

Principle of Atomic Conservation.

It is based on law of mass conservation.
Number of atoms of any element remains conserved in the
chemical reactions.
When POAC is used: When a single element is totally conserved
into given products.

Balancing of reactions is not given.

E.g.: N2+H2----->NH3

POAC on N atom:
No. of N atoms in N2*moles of N2=No. of N atoms in NH3*moles of NH3
2 * Moles of N2 = 1 * Moles of NH3
POAC on H atom:
No. of H atoms in H2*moles of H2=No. of H atoms in NH3*moles of NH3
2 * Moles of N2 = 3 * Moles of NH3

Q. Apply POAC on Oxygen in the following reaction:

KClO3 -----> KCl + O2

Find Mass of O2 produced when 0.1 mol of KClO3 reacts.

3*0.1 = 2*x
x = 0.15
mass of O2 = 0.15 * 32 = 4.8 grams.

Solution
Solute + Solvent = Solution

• The component which has same physical state as that of the

solution, is called as the solvent, and the other one is called
solute.
• If solute and solvent have same physical state, for e.g. C2H5OH
and H2O:

nH2O > nC2H5OH : H2O is solvent

nH2O < nC2H5OH : C2H5OH is solvent

• Compound A in B: A is solute and B is solvent.

Concentration Terms:

MOLARITY (M)
Moles of solute present in 1 L solution

M = Moles of Solute
Volume of Solution (in L)

Dilution or Mixing of Solution:

Molarity of final solution = Total moles of solute

Total Volume of Solution(in L)

Dilution

MfVf = MiVi
Mf = MiVi/Vf
Vf = Vi + Volume of solvent added.
Mixing

MfVf = M1V1 + M2V2

Mf = M1V1 + M2V2/Vf
Vf = V1 + V2
Addition of Solute:
MfVf = M1V1 + moles of solute added
Vf ≃ V1
Molar = 1M
Semi-Molar = M/2 or 0.5M
Deci-Molar = M/10 or 0.1M

Molarity of Water:
density = 1g/ml
let volume of water be 1L
mass of water = 1kg.
moles of water = 1000/18 = 55.55 moles.
M = 55.55/1 = 55.55M
So, molarity of water = 55.55M

MOLALITY (m)
moles of solute in 1 kg solvent

m = Moles of Solute
mass of Solution (in kg)

Molal = 1m
Semi-molal = m/2 or 0.5m
Deci-molal = m/10 or 0.1m

MOLE FRACTION (X)

mole fraction of solute = mass of solute
moles of solute + moles of solvent
Moles of solute = n1
Moles of solvent = n2
Mole fraction of solute = X1
Mole fraction of solvent = X2
X1 = n1/n1+n2
X2 = n2/n1+n2
X1 + X 2 = 1
% WEIGHT BY WEIGHT (%w/w)
mass of solute present in 100g solution.

%w/w = mass of solute(in g) * 100

mass of solution(in g)
% VOLUME BY VOLUME (%v/v)
mass of solute present in 100g solution.

%v/v = volume of solute(in ml) * 100

volume of solution(in ml)
% WEIGHT BY VOLUME (%w/v)
mass of solute present in 100g solution.

%w/v = mass of solute(in g) * 100

volume of solution(in ml)
STRENGTH
strength = mass of solute(in g)
volume of solution(in ml)
PART PER MILLION (ppm)
ppm = mass of solute(in g) * 106
mass of solution(in g)
PART PER BILLION (ppb)
ppb = mass of solute(in g) * 109
mass of solution(in g)

FORMALITY
Formality = Molarity.
 • All concentration terms are intensive properties.
• Intensive properties do not depend on mass and size.
• We cannot directly add intensive properties.

Interconversion of Concentration Terms

Some Important terms:

M = Molarity
m = Molality
d = density of solution
d1 = density of solute
d2 = density of solvent
X1 = mole fraction of solute
X2 = mole fraction of solvent
Mw1 = GMM of solute
Mw2 = GMM of solvent

Molarity to Molality:

m = 1000M
1000d-M(Mw1)

Molality to Molarity:

M = 1000md
1000 + m(Mw1)

%w/w to %w/v:

%w/v = %w/w * d

%w/v to molarity:

Q. Find molarity of 20% w/v NaOH solution.

mass of NaOH = 20g
moles of NaOH = 0.5 moles
volume of solution = 100ml = 0.1L
Molarity = 0.5/0.1 = 5M.

%w/w to molality:

Q. Find molarity of 20% w/w NaOH solution.

mass of NaOH = 20g
moles of NaOH = 0.5 moles
volume of solution = 100g
volume of solvent = 80g = 0.08kg
Molality = 0.5/0.08 = 6.25M.

Notes
Significant Figures
The uncertainty in the experimental or the calculated values is
indicated by mentioning the number of significant figures. Significant
figures are meaningful digits which are known with certainity.

Rules For Counting Significant Figures:

1. All non-zero digits are significant.

235: 3 significant digits (s.f.)
468.32: 5 s.f.
1.426: 4 s.f.
2. All zeroes between two non-zero digits are significant.
2307: 4 s.f.
320.03: 5 s.f.
2.03: 3 s.f.
3. Zeroes at the left to first non-zero digits are not significant.
0.03: 1 s.f.
0.0052: 2 s.f.
4. If the number is without a decimal part, then terminal of
trailing zeroes is not significant.
6310: 3 s.f.
1500: 2 s.f.
5. Trailing Zeroes in the decimal part are significant.
3.700: 4 s.f.
2.50: 3 s.f.
0.07040: 4 s.f.
0.00500: 3 s.f.
6. Counting numbers of objects have infinite significant figures.
2 balls: ∞ s.f.
20 apples: ∞ s.f.
11 bags: ∞ s.f.
Addition and Subtraction of Significant Figures:
The result has as many decimal places as the least accurate number.
12.11 + 18.0 + 1.012 = 31.122
= 31.1 s.f.
677 + 9.2 + 6.23 = 692.43
=692 s.f.

Multiplication and Division of Significant Figures:

The result must be reported with no more significant figures as there
are in measurement with the few significant figures.
2.5 * 1.25 = 3.125
=3.1 s.f.

Rules for Rounding off the Number:

1. If the rightmost digit to be removed is more than 5, then the

preceding number is increased by 1.
1.386→1.39 s.f.
2. If the rightmost digit to be removed is less than 5, then the
preceding number is not changed.
1.384→1.38 s.f.
3. If the rightmost digit to be removed is 5, then the preceding
number is not changed if it is even, but it is increased by 1 if it is
odd.
6.35→6.4 s.f.
6.65→6.6 s.f.

Notes
GRAPH +Y

-X +X
(0,0)

-Y
Functions

1. Linear Function
2. Constant Function
3. Exponential Function
4. Logarithmic Function
5. Reciprocal Function
6. Square root function

y = mx
Slope = m (+ve)
Straight Line
m = tanΘ

Θ
 y = mx + c
Slope = m (+ve)
Intercept = c (+ve)

y = mx - c
Slope = m (+ve)
Intercept = c (-ve)

y = -mx + c
Slope = m (-ve)
Intercept = c (+ve)

C
y = -mx - c
Slope = m (-ve)
Intercept = c (-ve)

y = mx0
y = constant

y = mx2

y = k√x
y = k⁄x

𝑦 = k⁄x2

f(x) = log b x

log2x
logex

log10x
Logarithm
loge = ln = Natural Log
e = irrational number
e = 2.7182…

loga(1) = 0
loga(a) = 1
loga(x)n= n loga(x)
loga(x*y) = loga(x) + loga(y)
loga(x/y) = loga(x) - loga(y)

n(x) = 2.303*log10(x)

log102 = 0.3010 = 0.30

log103 = 0.4771 = 0.48
log105 = 0.6989 = 0.70
log107 = 0.8450 = 0.85
log1010 = 1
log1011 = 1.0413 = 1.04
log1013 = 1.1139 = 1.11
log1017 = 1.2304 = 1.23
log1019 = 1.2787 = 1.28
log1023 = 1.3617 = 1.36

NOTES