CEE 4551

Transportation and Traffic Engineering

Week 06: Intersection and Interchange Design,
Bus Stop Layout Design
Moinul Hossain
Professor, CEE, IUT
Intersection Design
• Objectives
 Ensure safety for all users, including drivers,
passengers, pedestrians, bicyclists, and others, and,
 Promote efficient movement of all users (motorists,
pedestrians, bicyclists, etc.) through the
intersection.
Safety and efficiency are often competing rather than mutually
reinforcing goals
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Intersection Design
• AASHTO recommends following elements to be
considered:
 Human factors - Reasonable approach speeds, user
expectancy, decision and reaction times, reinforced
natural movement paths and trajectories, unless doing so
presents particular hazard.
 Traffic considerations - Provision of appropriate capacity
for all user demands, distribution of all vehicle types and
turning movements, approach speeds, special
requirements for transit vehicles, pedestrians and
bicyclists
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Intersection Design
• AASHTO recommends following elements to be
considered:
 Physical elements - nature of abutting properties;
particular traffic movements generated by parking,
pedestrians, driveway movements, etc.; intersection angle;
existence and location of traffic control devices; sight
distances and specific geometric characteristics, such as
curb radii.
 Economic factors - cost improvements (construction,
operation, maintenance); the effects of improvements on
the value of abutting properties; effect of improvements
on energy consumption. 4
Intersection Design
• AASHTO recommends following elements to be
considered:
 Functional intersection area - must encompass the
full functional intersection area; includes approach areas
that fully encompass deceleration zones, acceleration
zones and queuing areas (specially for signalized
intersections)

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Intersection Design
• No. of Lanes Required per Leg
 Type of control
 Parking conditions and needs
 Availability of right-of-way
 Considerations of capacity, safety and efficiency
requirements

There is no single solutions and many alternatives may

provide acceptable safety and operation 6
Intersection Design
• Unsignalized Intersection
 Unsignalized intersections may be operated under basic rules of
the road or under STOP (completely stop at intersection before
crossing) or YIELD (reduce speed before crossing) control
 Basic rules of road (all drivers must know):
 In absence of control devices, the driver on the left must
yield to the driver on right when the vehicle on the right is
approaching in a manner that my create an impending
hazard.
 Through vehicles have the right of way over turning vehicles
at uncontrolled intersections.

This lecture is based on Right Hand Drive standard!!! 7

Intersection Design
• Unsignalized Intersection
 Existence of STOP or YIELD controlled intersections need
to consider:
 Should left turn lanes be provided on the major street?
 Should right turn lanes be provided on the major street?
 Should right turn lane be provided on minor
approaches?
 How many basic lanes does each minor approach
require?

This lecture is based on Right Hand Drive standard!!! 8

Intersection Channelization
Channelization can be provided through the use of painted markings or
by installation of raised channelizing islands. It depends on:
• Existence of sufficient ROW to accommodate an effective design
• Factors, e.g., terrain, visibility, demand and cost

Channelization supplements other control measures but can sometimes

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be used to simplify other elements of control
 Intersection Channelization
• Why use channelization at intersections:
 Vehicle paths may be confined so that no more than
two paths cross at any one point
 The angles at which merging, diverging, or weaving
movements occur may be controlled
 Pavement area may be reduced, decreasing the
tendency to wander and narrowing the area of
conflict between vehicle paths
 Clearer indications of proper vehicle paths may be
provided
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 Intersection Channelization
• Why use channelization at intersections:
 Predominant movements may be given priority
 Areas of pedestrian refuge may be provided
 Separate storage lanes may be provided to permit
turning vehicles to wait clear of through traffic lanes
 Space may be provided for the mounting of traffic
control devices in more visible locations
 Prohibited turns may be physically controlled
 Vehicle speeds may be somewhat reduced
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 Intersection Design
• Conflicts – 4 Leg Intersection

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Intersection Channelization - Examples
W

Major street (E-W) with a minor

cross road (N-S)
A Four-Leg Intersection with
Partial Channelization for SB-EB
and EB-SB Movements

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Intersection Channelization - Examples
W

Major SB-EB and EB-SB Movement

A Four-Leg Intersection
Channelization for Major SB-EB and
EB-SB Movements

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Intersection Channelization - Examples
W

4-Leg – Full Channelization for

Right Turns
A Four-Leg Intersection with Full
Channelization of Right Turns

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 Intersection Channelization - Examples
W S

Major Arterial with major

generators
Major arterial is fed by two major
generators (e.g., large shopping
centers) on opposite sides of the
roadway

S
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Intersection Channelization - Examples

Major Arterial with major

generators - Conflicts

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 Intersection Channelization - Example
• Channelizing Right Turns
 Applicable when ‘right
turn on red’ is allowed.
 No acceleration or
deceleration lanes
 Problem: Queued
vehicles may block
access to right turns
Simple Channelized Right Turn
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 Intersection Channelization - Example
• Channelizing Right Turns
 'D' should be long enough to
encompass the longest
expected queue plus one
vehicle
 'Ld' allows right-turning vehicles
to decelerate
 'La' allows right-turning vehicles
to accelerate Channelized Right Turn with
Acceleration and Deceleration
lanes
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 Intersection Channelization - Example
• Channelizing Right Turns
 Generally requires a right turn demand of 500 veh/h or more

Channelized Right Turn with

Acceleration and Deceleration
lanes

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 Intersection Channelization - Example
• Intersection at Skewed Angles
 Intersection with junction angle less than 600 or more than
1200
 particularly hazardous when uncontrolled and combined
with high intersection approach speed

A Skewed Angle Rural Intersection 21

 Intersection Channelization - Example
• Intersection at Skewed
Solutions:
Angles
 Both signalized and
unsignalized
intersections work best
when the angle of the
intersection is 900. Or,

 Sight distances are

easier to define, and
drivers expect
intersections at right
angle. 22
 Intersection Channelization - Examples
Intersection at skewed angles
Solutions:

A Skewed Angle Rural Intersection

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 Intersection Channelization - Example
• Intersection at Skewed Angles
Problem:
Original odd-angle intersection
Solutions:

Realignment 1

Realignment 2

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 Intersection Channelization - Examples
• Conflicts at T-Intersections

Vehicular movement Pedestrian movement 25

 Intersection Channelization - Examples
• T-Intersections- Signalized

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 Intersection Channelization - Examples
• T-Intersections- Signalized

Right turns are completely

eliminated from the signal plan as
volumes are sufficient to allow lane
drops or additions for the right-
turning movements

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 Intersection Channelization - Example
• Offset T-Intersections
 High volume offset intersections cause high safety concern
 Drivers need more sight distance (as compared to perfectly-aligned
900 intersection) to observe vehicles approaching from the right
 Obstructions by buildings
 Distorts the normal trajectory of all movements

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 Intersection Channelization - Example
• Offset T-Intersections – Safety concerns (Right offset)
 Left turn trajectory in conflict with the
through movement at a very early stage of
the turning movement (a)
 Pedestrians either remains longer time
exposed due to a diagonal path or are met by
the left turning vehicles in an unusual
location after completing the turning
movement (b)
 Heightened risk of sideswipe crashes as
vehicles cross between the offset legs. Since
the required angular path is not necessarily
obvious, more vehicles stray from their lane
during crossing. 29
 Intersection Channelization - Example
• Offset T-Intersections – Solutions (Right offset)
 Signalized intersection:
 Designate one existing lane as exclusive
turning lane and provide a fully protected
left-turn phase in the direction of the offset
 Provide each of the offset legs with an
exclusive signal phase (extreme measure)
 For pedestrians:
 Clearly designate the intended path they are
to take by marking, signs and pedestrian
signals
 Barriers can be placed at normal street corner
locations, preventing pedestrians from
entering the street at an inappropriate or
unintended location
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 Intersection Channelization - Example
• Offset T-Intersections – Solutions (Right and Left offset)

 Dashed lane and centerline markings

may be added through the intersection
to help vehicles follow appropriate
paths

 Conflicts at a left-offset intersection

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 Intersection Channelization - Example
• Special Treatment for Heavy Left-Turn Movement
 Creates two new intersections
 Either signal or STOP sign required
 Queues should not block egress from W
either of the jug-handle lanes
 Sufficient ROW needed
 Existing local streets may be used to form
a jug-handle pattern

Jug handle

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 Intersection Channelization - Example
• Special Treatment for
Heavy Left-Turn
Movement
 Generally combined with W
surface diamond ramps to
handle right turns from
the cross street
 Queuing can become a
problem
 High ROW requirements
Surface roof lamp

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 Intersection Channelization - Example
• Special Treatment for Heavy Left-Turn Movement

Continuous flow intersections did not become popular due to high ROW
requirements 34
 Intersection Channelization - Example
• Transform Left-Turns into U-turns

 U-turn section should be located at

sufficient distance to avoid too long queue
formation
 Lane change requirements should be
taken into consideration
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 Intersection Channelization - Example
• Intersection at Skewed Angles

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 Intersection Design
• Roundabout
Roundabouts are near-circular
intersections at grade
They have lower speeds, provide
for easier decision making than
conventional intersections.
They require less maintenance
than traffic signals.
They calm traffic by reducing
vehicle speeds using geometric
design
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Intersection Design
• Roundabout
They have fewer conflict points
Well designed roundabouts can reduce crashes (especially fatal
and severe injury collisions), traffic delays, fuel consumption, and air
pollution.

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Intersection Design

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 Intersection Design
• Roundabout – Mini Roundabouts
Replacing a STOP controlled or uncontrolled intersection
with mini roundabout increases capacity and reduces delay

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 Intersection Design
• Roundabout – Single Lane Roundabouts
Single lane entries and only one circular lane

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 Intersection Design
• Roundabout – Multilane Roundabouts
at least one entry or exit with two or more lanes and more
than one circulating lane

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 Intersection Design
• Roundabout – Inscribed Circle Diameter (ICD)
Design Element 𝐌𝐢𝐧𝐢[𝟏] Single lane Multilane
Number of Lanes 1 1 2+
Inscribed Circle Diameter [2] 45’ – 80’ 80’ – 150’ [3] 135’
Circulating Roadway Width N/A 14’ – 19’ 29’
Entry Widths N/A 16’ – 18’ 25’
Notes:
[1] Reserved for urban/suburban intersections with a 25 mph or less posted speed.
[2] The given diameters assume a circular roundabout; adjust accordingly for other
shapes.
[3] Inscribed circle diameters of less than 100 feet may not be appropriate on a state
route.

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Intersection Design

Roundabout –
Sight distance on
Stopping Sight
Circulatory Roadway Distance

Exit Sight Distance

to Crosswalk 44
 Intersection Design (Roundabout)

Signing and Pavement Marking

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Interchange Design

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Objective
• Identify types of interchange by function
and geometry
• Learn process for optimizing the type of
interchange for a specific site

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Just what is an interchange?
• An interchange is a system of interconnecting
roadways in conjunction with one or more grade
separations that provides for the movement of traffic
between two or more roadways or highways on
different levels. (AASHTO “Green Book” 2001)

• Basically it is a grade-separated intersection, with

connections between 2 or more roads

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But first, two categories…
• Service interchange – freeway to
surface street

• System interchange – freeway to

freeway

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What’s on the Interchange menu?
• Diamond
• Single-point urban interchange
• Partial cloverleaf
• Full cloverleaf
• Trumpet
• Directional
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Your Basic Diamond

Classic Diamond
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 Your Basic Diamond

Source: Empire State [Link]

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When to use
• Service interchange only (why?)
• Mostly rural locations
• Low volumes

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Is a diamond anyone’s best friend?
• Plusses:
– Lower ROW needs than most
– Excellent in low volume situations,
especially where volumes not
expected to increase
– Low cost
– Most common (overall, 79%)

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Is a diamond anyone’s best friend?
• Minuses:
– Two ramp termini may be problem
with high volume side roads
– May require signalization at ramps;
delay issues due to signals on arterial
side road
– High exiting volumes may require
excessively long ramps
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Diamond Variants
• Half diamond
• Tight urban diamond (aka single-
point urban interchange)
• Diamond with roundabout

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 Diamond Variants

Half-diamond, West Des Moines IA [Source: Google Earth]

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 Diamond Variants

Source: Center for Transportation Research & Training (KSU) 58

When is a diamond not a diamond?
• When it’s a parclo (partial
cloverleaf)
• A diamond with one to three loops

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Partial Cloverleaf
• Aka parclo
• Service interchange (7%)
• Higher volumes than diamond
• Variety of arrangements
• Diagonally opposite most common

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Parclo Layouts

Exhibit 10-28: Schematic

of Partial Cloverleaf Ramp
Arrangements, Exit and
Entrance Turns
Source: AASHTO “Green
Book”

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About Parclos
• Use with high turning volumes or
side road volumes
• Exit – low-speed loop reinforces need
to slow down
• Entrance – low-speed loop increases
difficulty of entering high-speed
traffic
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About Parclos
• Site constraints (topography,
development, etc) suggest preferred
configuration
• Remember driver expectancy and
work load
• Loops made for less direct turning
movements and longer paths
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And now, the full Cloverleaf
• Loops and ramps in all four
quadrants
• Service interchange (9%) as well as
system interchange (29%)
• Higher volumes and speeds

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Full Cloverleaf

Exhibit 10-27: Cloverleaf

Interchange with Collector-
Distributor Roads
Source: AASHTO “Green Book”

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Cloverleaf Issues
• Out of route (long) paths for loop users
• Very land intensive
• Merging and weaving sections become
problems when volumes increase
• Multiple exit points – signing and safety
problems

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Cloverleaf Issues
• Need constant radius loops (some
older ones tightened up at end)
• Need C-D roads to address high-
volume weaving and merging as well
as multiple exit points

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Trumpets
• Limited ROW
• Low volumes
• Service (1%) or system (3%)
• Limited applicability

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Trumpets

Exhibit 10-14: Trumpet

Freeway-to-Freeway
Interchange
Source: AASHTO “Green Book”

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Single-Point Urban Interchange
• Aka “SPUI”
• Less ROW
• More $$
• Signalization benefits
• About 1% of service interchanges

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Single-Point Urban Interchange

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Source: AASHTO “Green Book”
Single-Point Urban Interchange

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Single-Point Urban Interchange
• Usually dual lane ramps (higher
volumes)
• Good arterial signal progression
• Somewhat unfamiliar, operationally
• Large skew angles increase costs
• Not pedestrian friendly
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Directional Interchange
• Direct paths for all (most)
movements
• Most expensive
• Land intensive
• System interchanges only (52%)

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Directional Interchange

Note: Weaving adjacent to the

through lanes is eliminated by
providing collector. Distributor
roads as shown by doted lines
Exhibit 10-31: Semi-direct
Interchanges with Weaving

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 Directional Interchange

Exhibit 10-32: Semi-direct Interchanges with No Weaving

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 Interchange Characteristics
Interchange Type Right of Way Required Capacity Cost Notes
Diamond Low Low Low Simplest interchange
SPUI Low Moderate Low- Designed for urban use,
Moderate problems accommodating
pedestrians
Partial Cloverleaf Moderate Moderate Moderate Loops should be arranged to
serve largest left turning
movements
Full Cloverleaf High Moderate High Weaving areas are safety and
capacity concerns
Trumpet Moderate-High Moderate Moderate- Should be used when 3 legs are
High present
Directional Very High High Very High Preferred interchange for
freeway to freeway
connections

Source: Virginia Transportation Research Council (1999)

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The Proper Interchange…
• Selection is very site specific
• Requires considerable experience
• A lot of things to consider

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 Bus Stop Design
• Things to Consider
Proximity to adjacent junctions;
Proximity to pedestrian crossings;
Bends or crests in the road;
On-street parking;
Existing accesses to residential and business
properties; and,
Footway or verge width
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 Bus Stop Design
• Standards for location selection
 No resident has to walk more than 400m from their home to the bus
stop;
The majority of residents have no more than 200m to walk between
their homes and the bus stop;
In the case of residences designed specifically for the elderly and
mobility impaired, there should be not more than 100m between the
development and the bus stop; and,
Where there are gradients, the suggested walking distances should be
reduced by 10m for every 1m rise or fall.
To maximize the catchment area, and wherever possible, the bus stop
should be located close to the junction of the side road to meet the
standards described above 80
 Bus Stop Design
• Bus Stops near Junction

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 Bus Stop Design
• Bus Stops near Junction

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 Bus Stop Design
• Bus Stops near Signal Controlled Crossings

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 Bus Stop Design
• Bus Stops on opposite sides of a two-lane carriageway

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 Bus Stop Design
• Bus Stops – Other Common Configurations

Combination bus bay – lane used for left turn/parking

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 Bus Stop Design
• Bus Stops – Other Common Configurations

Double bus stops

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 Bus Stop Design
• Bus Stops – Multiple Stands

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 Bus Stop Design
• Typical Bus Lay-by

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 Bus Stop Design
• Bus Lay-by – Other Common Configurations

Saw tooth bus lay-by

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 Bus Stop Design
• Bus Lay-by – Other Common Configurations

Bus lay-by on high speed roads 90

Bus Stop Design

Bus Lay-by with

Bicycle Lane

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 Bus Stop Design
• Bus Lay-by with Bicycle Lane

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 Bus Stop Design
• Bus Lay-by with Bicycle Lane

Bicyclist must yield

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Bus Stop Design
• Information at Bus Stops (minimum)
Stop name;
Which buses stop there;
Where they go;
How frequent they are; and,
The time of first and last buses

Displaying Time Table

Bus stop pole and Flag 94

 Bus Stop Design
• Information at Bus Arrival

Electronic Real-time Time Table

Mobile Apps for Bus Route and Time Table
95
Bus Stop Design
• Bus Stop Facilities

Pedal Cycle parking facility along 700 mm

bus stops

Bus stop with perch seats 96

 Bus Stop Design
• Bus stops – All Weather – Full Features

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 Bus Stop Design
• Bus stops – Easy Access Kerb
Bus Stop and Flag

Easy access radius and

transition kerbs

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 Bus Stop Design
• Bus Rapid Transit (BRT)

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 Concluding Remarks
• For further details consult
AASHTO Policy on Geometric Design of Highways
and Streets
Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices
Manual of Traffic Signal Design
Traffic Detector Handbook
Highway Capacity Manual

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Questions….