Electric Drives(EE541)

Chopper-controlled DC Motor
Drives
Introduction
• Chopper is a generic name for converters which convert a dc
voltage at one voltage level into a dc voltage at another
voltage level.
• The other term used for choppers is dc to dc converters.
• Chopper-controlled dc drives are used when the source is a
constant dc source such as a battery, a diode rectifier or a
solar PV module.
• Thus, chopper controlled DC drives are suitable where there
is a suitable DC source.
• The term chopper comes from the fact that he variation of
the dc voltage is achieved by “chopping” the constant input
dc voltage by turning a semiconductor device on and off at a
high frequency.
• Modern choppers use fully controllable devices such as
MOSFETs and IGBTs, and are also known as forced-
commutated converters because the turning on and off the
semiconductor device is controlled by an external circuit.
• Compared to phase-controlled DC motor drives, chopper
controlled DC motor drives :
Are easier to control.
Give a wider range of speed control.
Are more robust.
• Chopper and other forced-commutated converters work on
the principle of PWM which will be described further in the
following slides.
Principle of Pulse-Width Modulation
• Choppers use forced-commutated devices.
• These are devices that can be turned on and off using a
control signal applied to the control terminal of the device.
• The most commonly used forced-commutated devices are
MOSFETs and IGBTs.
• Forced-commutated devices are also called switches
(because they are operated in their switch-mode i.e. either
on or off)
• The generic symbol for a forced-commutated device is
shown below.

iT

A + vT - K

• Note that the control terminal (gate) is not shown.

• An elementary chopper circuit is shown below.
• When the switch is on (on-state), we get the following
equation using KVL
− − =0
• But = 0, leading to
=
• Assuming a resistive load, the current is given by
=
• When the switch is off (off-state), we get the following
equation using KVL
− − =0
• But = = 0 since the switch is off and no current
flows.
• Therefore,
=
• The waveforms for the input voltage, output voltage and
switch voltage are shown on the next slide.
vin
V

0 t
vout
V

0 t
ton toff
Ts
vT
Waveforms of
V elementary
chopper
0 t
• Note the following:
• is the on-state time which is the time the switch is on.
• is the off-state time which is the time the switch is
off.
• = + is the periodic time which is the time to
complete one switching cycle.
• = is the switching frequency, which the number of
switching cycles in one second.
• The average output voltage is given by
1
= =

• The ratio of the on-state time to the periodic time is called

the duty ratio of the switch.
• Thus,
=

=
• The output voltage depends on the duty ratio, and varying the
duty ratio gives a variable output voltage.
• The duty ratio can be varied by
Keeping the switching frequency constant and varying the on-
state time.
Keeping the on-state time and varying the switching
frequency.
• The first method is preferred because it leads to predetermined
switching losses, enabling optimal design of the cooling method,
and predetermined harmonics leading to optimal filter design.
• This type of switching is called pulse-width modulation (PWM).
PWM for a Single-Switch Converter
• In a single-switch converter, PWM is implemented as follows:
• Two signals are required:
• A saw-tooth signal at the switching signal called the
carrier signal.
• A DC signal called the modulating signal.
• In general the modulating signal is of the same form as the
desired output of the converter.
• The two signals are compared by a comparator.
• The output of the comparator is a logic level signal which is
either a 1 or a 0.
• A 1 turns the switch on, while a 0 turns the switch off.
• The comparator logic is as follows:
• If ≥ the output is 1.
• If ≤ the output is 0.
• The block diagram of the PWM module is shown on the next
slide.
 Modulating
signal
Comparator Output
and logic
Carrier
signal

PWM module

The waveforms of the PWM module are shown on the next slide.
 vmod
vcarrier

Vst
Vmod

0 t
vout
V

0 t
ton toff
Ts
• Note that the modulating signal must be less than the peak
value of the carrier signal to obtain 0 ≤ ≤ 1.
• The duty ratio can also be calculated as
=

• The duty ratio can be varied by varying the magnitude of the

modulating signal.
One-Quadrant Chopper Controlled DC Motor
Drive
is ia Ra La
T

+ + vT - iD + vL -
+ +
V va ea
- -
-
• The armature inductance stores energy from the source
when the switch is on and dissipates it when the switch is
off.
• This makes the armature current to flow continuously and
reduces the ripple in the current.
• The diode, D, is called a freewheeling diode and conducts
when the switch is off.
• The switch is assumed to be ideal.
• The voltage drop across the armature winding resistance
will be neglected in the analysis.
• When the switch is on the following equations describe the
converter operation:
=
=0
= −
=0
=
1 1
= = −

• The voltage across the inductor is positive and the inductor

draws energy from the source and stores it.
• When the switch is off the following equations describe the
converter operation:
=0
=
=−
=
=0
1 1
= = −

• The voltage across the inductor is negative and the inductor

dissipates its stored energy.
 va
V

0 ton toff t
vL
V-ea
0 t
-ea Waveforms for
ia
the armature
voltage, inductor
Ia(max)
voltage and
Ia(min)
armature current
0 t
 iT
Ia(max)
Ia(min)
0 t
iD
Ia(max)
Ia(min)
0 t

Waveforms for the switch current and the diode current

Example 5.1
A 1 kW, 45 V DC motor has a flux constant of 0.64 Vs/rad and a
rated speed of 600 rpm. The motor is fed from a single-switch
DC chopper with an input voltage of 60 V. The motor has an
armature winding resistance of 0.2 Ω and an armature
inductance of 10 mH.
(a) Sketch the drive described above.
(b) Calculate the duty ratio needed to drive the motor at its
rated speed on full-load in steady-state.
(c) Calculate the duty ratio needed to run the motor at half of
its rated speed on full-load in steady state.
• The principle of speed control of a chopper-controlled DC
motor drive is that varying the duty ratio of the switch varies
the speed of the motor.
• Single-switch chopper drives have the following limitations:
• They can only operate in one quadrant.
• They have limited power rating.
• A more practical chopper-controlled DC motor drive should
operate in four-quadrants and must have a higher power
rating.
Four-Quadrant Chopper-Controlled DC Motor
Drive
• A four-quadrant chopper-controlled DC motor drive is based
on a four-quadrant chopper.
• A four-quadrant chopper, also called a full-bridge DC to DC
converter is based on the buck converter.
• It consists of four switching devices and four anti-parallel
(free-wheeling) diodes.
• Alternatively, it can be said to consist of two half-bridge
converters.
 iin
P
+
T1 T3
D1 D3
ia Ra La
A
+ + vL - +
V va ea
- -
B

T4 T2
D4 D2
-
N

Four-quadrant chopper-controlled DC drive

PWM for a 4-Quadrant Chopper
• The principle of PWM is based on the comparison of two
signals, a carrier signal which has a frequency equal to the
switching frequency, and a constant modulating signal called
a control signal.
• The carrier signal for PWM for a multiple switch converter is
a triangular signal.
• The modulating signal is a DC signal.
• A PWM signal which turns a switch on or off is generated
depending on the respective magnitudes of the two signals.
• There are two PWM strategies commonly used with 4-
quadrant choppers.
• These are:
• Bipolar PWM, where diagonally opposite switches are
treated as a pair and switches in each pair are turned on and
off simultaneously.
• Unipolar PWM also referred to as double PWM switching,
where the switches in each inverter leg are controlled
independently of the other leg.
Bipolar PWM
• In bipolar PWM, a carrier signal which is a triangular signal at
the switching frequency is compared with a constant control
signal.
• The switches are turned on and off in diagonally opposite
pairs.
• Two switch control signals vg1 and vg2 are generated by the
PWM module.
• Each switch control signal turns a pair of switches on and off.
• Thus, vg1 controls T1 and T2, and vg2 controls T3 and T4.
• The switching logic is as follows:
• When ≥
• is high and and are turned on.
• is low and and are turned off.
• When ≤
• is high and and are turned on.
• is low and and are turned off.
PWM waveforms for bipolar switching
Waveforms of full-bridge converter with bipolar switching
Unipolar PWM
• In unipolar PWM, the switches in each leg are controlled
independently of the other leg.
• This is achieved by using two modulating signals:
• for and .
•− for and .
• Two switch control signals are generated:
• and its inverse turn and on and off.
• and its inverse turn and on and off.
• The switches in the same leg should not be on at the same
time.
• The switching logic is as follows:
• When ≥
• is high and is turned on while is turned off.
• When ≤
• is low and is turned on while is turned off.
• When − ≥
• is high and is turned on while is turned off.
• When − ≤
• is low and is turned on while is turned off.
PWM waveforms for unipolar switching
Waveforms of full-bridge converter with unipolar switching
Frequency spectrum of output voltage of full-bridge DC to DC converter with
bipolar PWM and unipolar PWM respectively
• The frequency spectra of the output voltage of the full-
bridge converter with bipolar and unipolar PWM respectively
are shown in the previous slide.
• The frequency spectra show that unipolar PWM has an
output voltage with less harmonic distortion than bipolar
PWM.
• Therefore, unipolar PWM is the preferred choice for
modulation of a full-bridge converter.
Steady-State Analysis
• The steady-state performance of a chopper-controlled dc
motor drive is obtained by considering the average values,
neglecting the harmonics.
• The justification for using average values is that the average
torque is the useful torque that is transmitted to the load.
• The torque components due to the current harmonics
produce an average torque of zero over one switching cycle
and do not contribute to useful power production.
• However, the harmonic currents lead to increased armature
losses because they increase the effective motor current.
• The rotor speed is assumed to be constant and the field is
separately excited and maintained at rated value.
• The average armature current is given by

−
=
• The armature voltage is given by
=
• The electromagnetic torque is given by

−
= =
• The normalized torque is given by

−
=
Rating of the Devices
• To determine the rating of the devices of the full-bridge dc to
dc converter, the armature current is assumed to be constant
with no ripple.
• The rms value of the current in each switch is given by

1+
= + =
2 2
• Where is the maximum allowable armature current.
• The average diode current is given by

1−
=
2

• The minimum voltage rating for both devices (transistors and

diodes) is

= =
• Where is the input voltage.
Closed-Loop Operation
DC supply
+ -

r  ia  +
vc Logic & Field
+ + gate drive va
- -
circuits
winding
-
Speed Current
i controller Converter Tacho
Controller a
mr &limiter
Hc

Load

m
Filter

Block diagram of a closed-loop chopper controlled DC motor drive

Speed Control Loop
• The speed control system of the chopper-controlled dc drive
is similar to that of the phase-controlled dc drive in its outer
speed control loop.
• The inner current control loop is different from that of the
phase-controlled dc drive.
• This is because of the difference in characteristics and
control between the dc chopper and the thyristor converter.
Current Control System
• With the inner current loop alone, the motor drive system is
a torque amplifier.
• The reference value of the current is compared to the actual
(measured) armature current, and the error is fed to a
current controller.
• The output of the current controller, in conjunction with
other constraints, determines the gate drive signals of the
chopper switches.
• There are many different types of current controller. The
most common ones are:
1. PI controller with PWM
2. Hysteresis controller
• The selection of the current controller affects its transient
response and overall speed control system bandwidth.
 PI Controller with PWM

Kp
ia *  vmod
 PWM
  PWM
Comparator
output
Ki  dt vcarrier and Logic
ia

Block diagram of PI current controller with PWM

• The PI controller with PWM is a relatively simple and easy to
understand controller.
• The PI controller can be tuned manually or using a variety of
techniques that can be found in literature.
• The main advantage of this controller is that it has a fixed switching
frequency, which makes it easy to predict the switching losses and to
design harmonic filters.
• Its main drawback is that switching takes place once in every cycle.
Instantaneous current control is therefore not exercised.
• In between two consecutive switchings the current is not controlled
and can exceed its maximum limit.
• The other drawback is that it has a relatively slow dynamic
performance.
Hysteresis Controller

ia  i a vg
+
-
To gate drive
Hysteresis circuits
ia comparator

Block diagram of hysteresis current controller

• The hysteresis controller overcomes the drawback of the PI
controller with PWM by performing instantaneous current
control.
• The current is controlled within a small band around the
desired average current called the hysteresis band.
• The hysteresis band is defined as a differential current
represented Δ .
• The switching logic of the hysteresis controller is:
• If = ∗ − Δ ; =1
• If = ∗ + Δ ; =0
Δia
ia *
Δia

ia

0 t

0 t

Waveforms of hysteresis controller

• The hysteresis band can be set to be constant or it can be
made a fraction of the rated armature current.
• The switching frequency is variable as opposed to PWM
where the switching frequency is constant.
• The main drawback of a variable switching frequency is that
the switching losses are higher at higher switching
frequencies, and it is difficult to design a harmonic filter.
• The main advantage of the hysteresis controller is its
simplicity and fast dynamic response.
 Comparison of current controllers
Characteristic Current Controller
Hysteresis PI with PWM
Switching Variable Fixed by carrier
frequency signal
Response speed Very fast Fast
Ripple current Adjustable Fixed
Filter inductor Dependent on Δ Usually small
Switching losses High Low
Digital Implementation
• With the advent of powerful digital signal processors, digital
signal controllers and other microprocessors; analogue
implementation of controllers for motor drives is no longer
necessary.
• Analogue controllers have a lot of components and to change the
algorithm, one needs to change component values.
• Digital controllers offer a high level of flexibility and the control
algorithm can easily be changed by reprogramming the
microprocessor.
• Digital controllers are also able to handle very complex
algorithms which cannot be executed by analogue controllers.
• One of the key elements in a digital control system is the
sampling frequency.
• The sampling frequency is the number of times the analogue-to-
digital converter (ADC) of the controller takes samples of the
analogue signals from the sensors.
• A higher sampling frequency enables the current controller to
have a higher bandwidth.
• Typical sampling frequencies are 10 kHz, 20 kHz, 50 kHz etc.
• However, the higher the sampling frequency the more
demanding it becomes to the microprocessor, and thus, the
sampling frequency should be selected within the capability of
the microprocessor.
• In one sampling cycle, the controller acquires measured signals
from the sensors, processes them, and gives the switching
output to the gate drives.
• In a PWM system, the switching frequency can be selected to be
equal to the sampling frequency, if the switching frequency is high
enough; or it can be half of the sampling frequency.
• To avoid electromagnetic interference (EMI) from the spikes which
occur due to the turning on and off of the switches, the sampling
should be synchronized with the switching.
• Thus, samples should be taken in between the switchings.
• This is called synchronous sampling and is illustrated in the next
slide.
• In the illustrated example, the sampling frequency is twice the
switching frequency. Sampling is done at the positive peak and the
negative peak of the carrier signal, twice in each switching cycle.
 0 T/2 T

Sampling
instants

Illustration of synchronous sampling

Applications
• Chopper controlled dc motor drives are widely used in
battery powered electric vehicles such as
• fork lifts,
• hoists,
• elevators,
• golf carts,
• people carriers in airport lobbies
• and some variable speed hand tools.