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Programming Language
• Computer Programming is a set of instructions that helps the developer to perform
certain tasks that return the desired output for the valid inputs.

How Do Computers Work?

• A computer is a machine that processes information and this information can be any
data that is provided by the user through devices such as keyboards, mouse,
scanners, digital cameras, joysticks, and microphones. These devices are
called Input Devices and the information provided is called input.

• The computer requires storage to store this information and the storage is called
Memory.

• Computer Storage or Memory is of Two Types:

1. Primary Memory or RAM (Random Access Memory): This is the internal

storage that is used in the computers and is located on the motherboard.
RAM can be accessed or modified quickly in any order or randomly. The
information that is stored in RAM is lost when the computer is turned off.

2. Secondary Memory or ROM (Read-Only Memory): Information (data)

stored in ROM is read-only, and is stored permanently. The ROM stored
instruction is required to start a computer.

• Processing: Operations done on this information (input data) is called Processing.

The Processing of input is done in the Central Processing Unit which is popularly
known as CPU.

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• Output Devices: These are the computer hardware devices that help in converting
information into human-readable form. Some of the output devices include Visual
Display Units (VDU) such as a Monitor, Printer, Graphics Output devices, Plotters,
Speakers, etc.

• A developer can analyse the problem and come up with simple steps to achieve a
solution to this problem, for which he/she uses a programming algorithm. This can
be compared to a recipe for a food item, where ingredients are inputs and finished
delicacy is the output required by the client.

• In the development environment, the products, software, and solutions can be

designed as scenarios, use cases, and data flow diagrams.

• Based on the client’s requirements, the solution required could be desktop, web or
mobile-based

Basic Programming Concepts

Developers should have essential knowledge on the following concepts to become
skilled in Computer Programming:

1. Algorithm: It is a set of steps or instruction statements to be followed to accomplish

specific tasks. A developer can design his algorithm to achieve the desired
output. For Example, a recipe to cook a dessert. The algorithm describes the steps
to be followed for completing a specific task, but it does not say how to achieve any
of the steps.

2. Source code: Source code is the actual text that is used to construct the program
using the language of choice.
For Example, it is mandatory to have the main method in Java and the text used is
as shown below.
public static void main(String arg[ ]) {
//Steps to be performed
}

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3. Compiler: Compiler is a software program that helps in converting the source code
into binary code or byte code, also called machine language, that is easy for a
computer to understand, and can be further executed using an interpreter to run the
program.

4. Data Type: Data used in the applications can be of a different type, it can be a
whole number (integer), floating-point (decimal point numbers), characters or
objects. For Example, double currency = 45.86, where double is a data type used
for storing numbers with decimal points.

5. Variable: Variable is a space holder for the value stored in the memory and this
value can be used in the application. For Example, int age = 25, where age is a
variable.

6. Conditionals: Knowledge of how to use a certain condition, such that a set of code
should execute only if a certain condition is true. In case of a false condition, the
program should exit and should not continue the code further.

7. Array: Array is the variable that stores elements of a similar data type. Knowledge
of using an array in coding/programming will be a great benefit.

8. Loop: Loop is used to execute the series of code until the condition is true. For
Example, in Java, loops can be used as for loop, do-while, while loop or enhanced
for loop.
The code for loop is as shown below:
for (int I =0; i<10; i++) {[Link](i); }

9. Function: Functions or methods are used to accomplish a task in programming, a

function can take parameters and process them to get the desired output. Functions
are used to reuse them whenever required at any place repeatedly.

10. Class: Class is like a template that contains state and behaviour, which
corresponding to programming is field and method. In Object-Oriented languages
like Java, everything revolves around Class and Object.

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Essentials of a Programming Language

• Just like any other language we use to communicate with others, a programming
language is a special language or a set of instructions to communicate with
computers. Each programming language has a set of rules (like English has
grammar) to follow and it is used to implement the algorithm to produce the desired
output.

Top Computer Programming Languages

The below table enlists the top Computer Programming Languages and their
applications in real life.

Programming
Popularity Practical Applications of Languages
Language

Desktop GUI application (AWT or Swing api), Applets,

online shopping sites, internet banking, jar files for
Java 1
secured file handling, enterprise applications, mobile
applications, gaming software.

Operating Systems, Embedded systems, Database

C 2 management systems, Compiler, gaming and
animation.

Machine learning, Artificial Intelligence, Data analysis,

Python 3
face detection and image recognition Software.

Banking and trading enterprise software, virtual

C++ 4
machines and compilers.

Visual Windows services, controls, control libraries, Web

5
Basic .NET applications, Web services.

Desktop applications like a file explorer, Microsoft office

C# 6 applications like Word, Excel, Web browsers, Adobe
Photoshop.

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Programming
Popularity Practical Applications of Languages
Language

Client side and server side validations, DOM handling,

JavaScript 7
developing web elements using jQuery (JS library).

Static and dynamic websites and applications, Server

PHP 8
side scripting.

Querying database, CRUD operations in database

SQL 9 programming, creating a stored procedure, triggers,
database management.

Apple’s OS X, iOS operating system and APIs, Cocoa

Objective – C 10
and Cocoa Touch.

The selection of particular programming languages depends on many factors such as:

1. Targeted Platform and Project/Solution Requirement: Whenever a software

solution provider comes across the requirement, there are many options to choose
an appropriate programming language. For Example, if a user wants the solution to
be on mobile, then Java should be the preferred programming language for Android.

2. Influence of Technical Partners with the Organization: If Oracle is a tech partner

with the company, then it is agreed to implement software marketed by Oracle in the
solution for every project and product developed. If Microsoft is a tech partner with
the company, then ASP can be used as a development framework for building web
pages.

3. Competency of available Resources & Learning Curve: The developers

(resources) should be available and competent to quickly learn the selected
programming language so that they can be productive for the project.

4. Performance: The selected language should be scalable, robust, platform-

independent, and secure and should be efficient in displaying results within the
acceptable time limit.

5. Support from the Community: In the case of open-source programming language,

the acceptance, and popularity for the language as well as online support from the
growing support group should be available.

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Types of Computer Programming

Languages
• Computer Programming language can be divided into two types i.e. Low-level
Language, and High-level Language.

Low-level Language
• Hardware dependent

• Difficult to understand

• Low-level Language can be further divided into two categories:

1. Machine Language: Machine dependent, difficult to modify or program, For

Example, every CPU has its machine language. The code written in machine
language is the instructions that the processors use.

2. Assembly Language: Each computer’s microprocessor that is responsible

for arithmetic, logical and control activities needs instructions for
accomplishing such tasks and these instructions are in assembly language.
The use of assembly language is in device drivers, low-level embedded
systems, and real-time systems.

High-level Language
• Independent of hardware

• Their codes are very simple and developers can read, write and debug as they are
similar to English like statements.

• High-level Language can be further divided into three categories:

1. Procedural Language: Code in the procedural language is a sequential step

by step procedure that gives information like what to do and how to do.
Languages such as FORTRAN, COBOL, Basic, C, and Pascal are a few
examples of procedural language.

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2. Non-procedural Language: Code in non-procedural language specify what

to do, but does not specify how to do. SQL, Prolog, LISP are a few examples
of non-procedural language.

3. Object-oriented Language: Use of objects in the programming language,

where the code is used to manipulate the data. C++, Java, Ruby, and Python
are a few examples of Object-oriented language.

Basic Operations of a Programming

Environment
• Five basic elements or operations of programming are listed below:

1. Input: Data can be input using the keyboard, touch screen, text editor, etc. For
Example, to book a flight, the user can enter his login credentials and then select a
departure date and return date, the number of seats, starting place and destination
place, Name of Airlines, etc., from desktop, laptop or mobile device.

2. Output: Once authenticated, and upon receiving the request to book the tickets with
the mandatory inputs, a confirmation of booking for the selected date and destination
will be displayed on the screen, and a copy of the tickets and invoice information is
sent to the user’s registered email id and mobile number.

3. Arithmetic: In case of flight booking, update of the number of seats booked and
those seats need some mathematical calculations, further name of the passenger,
no. of seats reserved, date of journey, journey start date, and starting place,
destination place, etc. should be filled into the airlines server database system.

4. Conditional: It is required to test if a condition is satisfied or not, based on the

condition, the program may execute the function with parameters else it will not get
executed.

5. Looping: It is required to repeat /perform the task until the condition holds. Types of
loops can be While loop, Do-while loop, For loop.

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For Example,

for (int i = 0; i < 10; i++)

[Link](i);

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OSI Model

Overview
 OSI stands for Open System Interconnection is a reference model that describes how information from
a software application in one computer moves through a physical medium to the software application in
another computer.

 OSI consists of seven layers, and each layer performs a particular network function.

 OSI model was developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in 1984, and it is now
considered as an architectural model for the inter-computer communications.

 OSI model divides the whole task into seven smaller and manageable tasks. Each layer is assigned a partic-
ular task.

 Each layer is self-contained, so that task assigned to each layer can be performed independently.

7 layer of OSI Model

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 The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model describes seven layers that computer systems use to
communicate over a network.

 It was the first standard model for network communications, adopted by all major computer and
telecommunication companies in the early 1980s.

 The modern Internet is not based on OSI, but on the simpler TCP/IP model. However, the OSI 7-layer
model is still widely used, as it helps visualize and communicate how networks operate, and helps isolate
and troubleshoot networking problems.

 OSI was introduced in 1983 by representatives of the major computer and telecom companies, and was
adopted by ISO as an international standard in 1984.

Function of OSI Model Layer

There are the seven OSI layers. Each layer has different functions. A list of seven layers are given below:

1. Physical Layer

2. Data-Link Layer

3. Network Layer

4. Transport Layer

5. Session Layer

6. Presentation Layer

7. Application Layer

Physical Layer
 The lowest layer of the OSI reference model is the physical layer. It is responsible for the actual physical
connection between the devices.

 It deals with a electrical and mechanical specifications of the interface and transmission medium (type of
medium).

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 The physical layer contains information in the form of bits.

 It is responsible for transmitting individual bits from one node to the next.

Functions of Physical Layer

Physical layer Function

Bit representation encode bits(0’s and 1’s) into electrical or optical signals

Transmission rate The number of bits sent each second

Physical characteristics To transmission media

Synchronizing the sender and receiver clocks(both are not have same bit rate).

Physical Topology how devices are connected – ring, star, mesh, bus topology

Transmission mode simplex, half-duplex, full duplex

Data link layer

Responsible for delivery of data between two systems on the same network (hop to hop delivery)

Functions of Physical Data link layer

Data link layer Function

divides the stream of bits received from network layer into manageable data
Farming
units called frames

Add a header to the frame to define the physical address of the source and the
Physical Addressing
destination machines(MAC

If the receiver is less than rate of at which data are produced in the sender.[The
Flow Control
flow control mechanism to avoid overwhelming the receiver

Adds reliability mechanisms to detect and retransmit damaged or lost frames.

Error Control This is achieved by adding a trailer to the end of a frame Also, recognize
duplicate frames

When two (or) more devices connected to the same link, then this layer
Access Control
protocol determine which devices has control over the link at any given time

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Network Layer
 The main aim of this layer is to deliver packets from source to destination across multiple links (networks).

 If two computers (system) are connected on the same link, then there is no need for a network layer.

 It routes the signal through different channels to the other end and acts as a network controller.

 It also divides the outgoing messages into packets and to assemble incoming packets into messages for
higher levels.

Functions of Network Layer

1. It translates logical network address into physical address. Concerned with circuit, message or packet
switching.

2. Routers and gateways operate in the network layer. Mechanism is provided by Network Layer for
routing the packets to final destination.

3. Connection services are provided including network layer flow control, network layer error control and
packet sequence control.

4. Breaks larger packets into small packets.

Transport layer
 Layer 4 of the OSI Model: Transport Layer provides transparent transfer of data between end users,
providing reliable data transfer services to the upper layers.

 The transport layer controls the reliability of a given link through flow control, segmentation and de-
segmentation, and error control.

 Responsible for source-to destination delivery of the entire message.

Main functions of this layer are:

1. Service-point addressing. Computers often run many programs at the same time.

2. Segmentation and Reassembly.

3. Connection Control

4. Multiplexing and De-multiplexing.

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5. Flow control.

6. Error Control.

Session Layer
 Layer 5 of the OSI Model: Session Layer is the layer of the ISO Open Systems Interconnection
(OSI) model that controls the dialogues (connections) between computers.

 It establishes, manages, and terminates the connections between the local and remote application.

Main functions of this layer are:

 Authentication: Authentication is a process of verifying the user. The session layer may ask the devices to
enter valid login credentials, so as to maintain a secure data connection.

 Authorization: Authorization is the process of determining the user's authority to access the data. The
session layer determines whether the device has permission to access those data elements or not.

 Dialog control – allows two systems to enter into a dialog, keep a track of whose turn it is to transmit

 Synchronization – adds check points (synchronization points) into stream of data

Presentation Layer
 The presentation layer formats or translates data for the application layer based on the syntax or
semantics that the application accepts. Because of this, it at times also called the syntax layer.

 This layer can also handle the encryption and decryption required by the application layer

Main Functionalities of a presentation layer

1. Data Translation: Data translation refers to transforming data from one form to the other. The
presentation layer transforms the high-level user language data to the equivalent low-level machine-level
language, and vice versa. Some of the standards used by this layer for translation are ASCII, EBCDIC, etc.

2. Data Encryption and Decryption: Data encryption is the process of converting a plain text into cypher text
for security. Encryption is applied to the data at the sender's side. Data decryption is the process of
converting a ciphertext into plain text. It is applied to the data at the receiver's side. The presentation layer
uses the SSL(Secure Socket Layer) for data encryption and decryption.

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3. Data Compression: Data compression is the process of reducing the number of bits in the data. It can
either be lossy or lossless in nature. Lossless compression is mostly preferred for some important data
items.

Application Layer
 The Application layer is the topmost layer of the OSI model. This layer is mostly used by the network
applications, that use the network.

 It mainly acts as an interface between the user and the network services.

 The Application layer provides services for network applications with the help of protocols. Some of the
most widely used application layer protocols are HTTP, HTTPS, FTP, NFS, DHCP, FMTP, SNMP, SMTP,
Telnet, etc.

Main functionalities of an application layer

 File Transfer: The Application layer mainly facilitates the file transfer between two network devices with
the help of FTP (File Transfer Protocol).

 Web Surfing: Web surfing is possible only in the application layer. Some protocols like HTTP (Hypertext
Transfer Protocol), HTTPs (Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure), etc. enables web surfing.

 Emails: Electronic-mails can be sent from one device to another on the network only through the
application layer. Some protocols like SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol), etc. are used for sending
emails over the network.

 Network Virtual Terminal: The Application layer facilitates the remote host login in the network with
the help of protocols like Telnet, etc. It can also be referred to as the software version of the physical
terminal in the network.

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Markup Languages
 HyperText Markup Language.

 Used on the Internet and the World Wide Web (WWW).

 Web page developer puts brief codes called tags in the page to indicate how the page should be
formatted.

XML
 Extensible Markup Language.

 A language for defining other languages

Other Facts
 BASIC means Beginner's All purpose symbolic instruction code

 PERL stands for Practical Extraction and Reporting Language.

 ALGOL is a high level language designed specially for programming Scientific Computations.

 ALGOL mean ALGORITHMIC Language.

 LISP stands for LIST PROCESSING language.

 LISP language was designed for Artificial Intelligence research.

 CSS stands for Cascading Style Sheets.

 HTML stands for Hyper Text Markup Language.

 PHP (Hypertext Preprocessor): PHP is a server side scripting language that is embedded in HTML. It
is used to manage dynamic content, databases, session tracking, even build entire e-commerce sites.

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Protocol Data Unit of OSI Model

OSI vs. TCP/IP Model

TCP MODEL:

 It stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol. The TCP/IP model is a concise version of
the OSI model. It contains four layers, unlike seven layers in the OSI model

 The TCP/IP reference model has four layers: Network interface, Internet, Transport, and Application.

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 OSI model is a generic model that is based upon functionalities of each layer. TCP/IP model is a protocol-
oriented standard.

 OSI model distinguishes the three concepts, namely, services, interfaces, and protocols. TCP/IP does not
have a clear distinction between these three.

 OSI model gives guidelines on how communication needs to be done, while TCP/IP protocols layout
standards on which the Internet was developed. So, TCP/IP is a more practical model.

 In OSI, the model was developed first and then the protocols in each layer were developed. In the TCP/IP
suite, the protocols were developed first and then the model was developed.

 The OSI has seven layers while the TCP/IP has four layers.

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Number System
 Number systems are the technique to represent numbers in the computer system
architecture, every value that you are saving or getting into/from computer memory
has a defined number system.

 Computer architecture supports following number systems:

1. Binary number system

2. Octal number system

3. Decimal number system

4. Hexadecimal (hex) number system

Binary Number System

 A Binary number system has only two digits that are 0 and 1. Every number (value)
represents with 0 and 1 in this number system. The base of binary number system is
2, because it has only two digits.

Octal number system

 Octal number system has only eight (8) digits from 0 to 7. Every number (value)
represents with 0,1,2,3,4,5,6 and 7 in this number system. The base of octal number
system is 8, because it has only 8 digits.

Decimal number system

 Decimal number system has only ten (10) digits from 0 to 9. Every number (value)
represents with 0,1,2,3,4,5,6, 7, 8 and 9 in this number system. The base of decimal
number system is 10, because it has only 10 digits.

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Hexadecimal number system

 A Hexadecimal number system has sixteen (16) alphanumeric values from 0 to
9 and A to F. Every number (value) represents with 0,1,2,3,4,5,6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C,
D, E and F in this number system. The base of hexadecimal number system is 16,
because it has 16 alphanumeric values. Here A is 10, B is 11, C is 12, D is 13, E is
14 and F is 15.

Representation
 Table of the Numbers Systems with Base, Used Digits, Representation, C language
representation:

Number system Base Used digits Example C Language

int
Binary 2 0,1 (11110000)2
val=0b11110000;
Octal 8 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7 (360)8 int val=0360;
Decimal 10 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9 (240)10 int val=240;
0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9
Hexadecimal 16 , (F0)16 int val=0xF0;
A,B,C,D,E,F

Number System Conversions

 There are three types of conversion:

 Decimal Number System to Other Base [for example: Decimal Number

System to Binary Number System]

 Other Base to Decimal Number System [for example: Binary Number

System to Decimal Number System]

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 Other Base to Other Base [for example: Binary Number System to

Hexadecimal Number System]

Decimal Number System to Other Base

 To convert Number system from Decimal Number System to Any Other Base is
quite easy; you have to follow just two steps:

1. Divide the Number (Decimal Number) by the base of target base system (in
which you want to convert the number: Binary (2), octal (8) and Hexadecimal
(16)).

2. Write the remainder from step 1 as a Least Signification Bit (LSB) to Step
last as a Most Significant Bit (MSB).

Decimal to Binary Conversion Result

Decimal Number is : (12345)10

Binary Number is
(11000000111001)2

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Decimal to Octal Conversion Result

Decimal Number is : (12345)10

Octal Number is
(30071)8

Decimal to Hexadecimal Conversion Result

Example 1
Hexadecimal Number is
Decimal Number is : (12345)10 (3039)16

Hexadecimal Number is
(2D5)16
Example 2 Convert
Decimal Number is : (725)10 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15
to its equivalent...
A, B, C, D, E, F

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Other Base System to Decimal Number Base

 To convert Number System from Any Other Base System to Decimal Number
System, you have to follow just three steps:

1. Determine the base value of source Number System (that you want to
convert), and also determine the position of digits from LSB (first digit’s
position – 0, second digit’s position – 1 and so on).

2. Multiply each digit with its corresponding multiplication of position value and
Base of Source Number System’s Base.

3. Add the resulted value in step-B.

 Explanation regarding examples:

Below given examples contains the following rows:

1. Row 1 contains the DIGITs of number (that is going to be converted).

2. Row 2 contains the POSITION of each digit in the number system.

3. Row 3 contains the multiplication: DIGIT* BASE^POSITION.

4. Row 4 contains the calculated result of step C.

5. And then add each value of step D, resulted value is the Decimal
Number.

Binary to Decimal Conversion

Binary Number is : (11000000111001)2

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Octal to Decimal Conversion Result

Octal Number is : (30071)8 =12288+0+0+56+1
=12345
Decimal Number is: (12345)10

Hexadecimal to Decimal Conversion Result

Hexadecimal Number is : (2D5)16

=512+208+5
=725
Decimal Number is: (725)10

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Internet Domain Name System

 When DNS was not discovered, used had to download a Host file consisting host
names and their relative IP address. But with jump in the number of hosts of
internet, the size of host file also increased. This created increased traffic on
downloading this file. To fix this problem the DNS system was developed.
 Domain Name System aids to resolve the host name to an address. It utilizes a
hierarchical naming scheme and distributed database of IP addresses and
associated names.

IP Address
 IP address is an exclusive logical address given to a device available on the
network. An IP address exhibits the given properties:
 IP address is the unique address assigned to each host present on Internet.
IP address is 32 bits (4 bytes) long.
 IP address consists of two components: network component and host
component.
 Each of the 4 bytes is represented by a number from 0 to 255, separated with
dots. For example [Link]
 IP address is 32-bit string while domain names are easy to remember
characters. For example, when we enter an email address we always enter a
symbolic string such as webmaster@[Link].

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Uniform Resource Locator (URL)

 Uniform Resource Locator (URL) means a web address which exclusively identifies
a document over the internet.
 This document may be a web page, image, audio, video or anything that available
on the web.
 For example, [Link]/courses/[Link] is an URL to the [Link]
which is stored on testbook web server under courses directory.
 URL Types
 There are two types of URL as given below:
 Absolute URL
 Relative URL

Absolute URL
 Absolute URL is the entire address of a resource available on the web. This
completed address consists of protocol utilized, server name, path name and file
name.
 For example http:// [Link]/[Link]. where:
 http is the protocol.
 [Link] is the server name.
 [Link] is the file name.
 The protocol side defines the web browser how to execute the file. Just like that we
have some different protocols also that can be utilized to create URL are:
 FTP
 https
 Gopher
 mailto
 News

Relative URL
 Relative URL is half of the address of a webpage. Different from an absolute URL,
the protocol and server part are neglected from relative URL.
 Relative URLs are useful for internal links i.e. to create links to file that are
component of same website as the Webpages on which user is creating the link.

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 For example, to link an image on [Link]/courses/IBPS_PO, we can use the

relative URL which can take the form like /courses/IBPS_PO.jpg.
 Difference between Absolute and Relative URL

Absolute URL Relative URL

for linking web pages on different websites For linking web pages within the same website.

Difficult to manage. Easy to Manage

transforms when the server name or directory Stays same even if we change the server name
name changes or directory name.

Take time to access Comparatively faster to access.

Domain Name System Architecture

The Domain name system comprises of Domain Names, Domain Name Space, Name
Server that have been described below:

Domain Names
 Domain Name is a symbolic string related with an IP address. There are different
domain names available; some of them are generic such as com, Edu, gov, net etc,
while some country level domain names such as au, in, za, us etc.
 The given table shows the Generic Top-Level Domain names:

Domain Name Meaning

Com Commercial business

Edu Education

Gov U.S. government agency

Int International entity

Mil U.S. military

Net Networking organization

Org Non profit organization

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 The given table shows the Country top-level domain names:

Domain Name Meaning

au Australia
in India
cl Chile
fr France
us United States
za South Africa
uk United Kingdom
jp Japan
es Spain
de Germany
ca Canada
ee Estonia
hk Hong Kong

Domain Name Space

 The domain name space means a hierarchy in the internet naming system. This
hierarchy has various levels (from 0 to 127), with a root node on the top. The given
diagram shows the domain name space hierarchy:

 Considering above diagram every sub tree reflects a domain. Every domain can be
segmented into sub domains and these can be further segmented and so on.

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Name Server
 Name server consists of DNS database. This database contains many names and
their corresponding IP addresses. As it is not possible for an individual server to
maintain entire DNS database, therefore, the information is shared among many
DNS servers.
 Hierarchy of server is the hierarchy of names.
 Whole name space is segmented into the zones

Zones
 Zone is aggregation of nodes
(sub domains) under the main
domain. The server keeps a
record of a database called
zone file for every zone.
 If the domain is not further
segmented into sub domains
then domain and zone reflects
the same thing.
 The information related to the
nodes in the sub domain is
saved in the servers at the lower levels. However, the initial server stores reference
to these lower levels of servers.

Types of Name Servers

Given are the three varieties of Name Servers that handles the entire Domain Name
System:
 Root Server
 Primary Server
 Secondary Server

Root Server
 Root Server is the topmost level server which contains the complete DNS tree. It
does not maintain the information related to domains but delegates the authority to
the other server.

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Primary Servers
 Primary Server maintains a file about its zone. It has authority to develop, maintain,
and update the zone file.

Secondary Server
 Secondary Server shifts entire information about a zone from another server which
can be primary or secondary server. The secondary server does not have
permission to create or update a zone file.

DNS Working
 DNS transforms the domain name into IP address automatically. Given steps will
take user through the steps included in domain resolution process:

 When we type [Link] into the browser, it asks the local DNS Server for
its IP address.

 This is the local DNS at ISP side:

 When the local DNS fails to find the IP address of requested domain name, it
transfers the request to the root DNS server and again enquires about IP address of
it.

 The root DNS server replies with delegation that I do not know the IP address of
[Link] but know the IP address of DNS Server.

 The local DNS server then asks the com DNS Server the same question.

 The com DNS Server replies the same that it does not know the IP address of
[Link] but knows the address of [Link].

 Then the local DNS asks the [Link] DNS server the same question.

 Then [Link] DNS server replies with IP address of [Link].

 Now, the local DNS sends the IP address of [Link] to the computer that
sends the request.

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Internet Connectivity
Internet Service Providers (ISP)
 Internet Service Provider (ISP) is a network company offering access to internet.
They offer different services:
 Internet Access
 Domain name registration
 Dial-up access
 Leased line access

ISP Types
 ISPs can broadly be categorised into six segments as shown in the given diagram:

Access Providers
 They provide accessibility to web through telephone lines, cable wi-fi or fiber optics.

Mailbox Providers
 Such providers offer mailbox hosting facilities.

Hosting ISPs
 Hosting ISPs provides e-mail, and other web hosting facilities such as virtual
machines, clouds etc.

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Virtual ISPs
 Such ISPs offer internet accessibility through other ISP services.

Free ISPs
 Free ISPs do not seek money for internet services.

Connection Types
 There are multiple methods to connect to the internet. Given are some of these
connection types available:
1. Dial-up Connection
2. ISDN
3. DSL
4. Cable TV Internet connections
5. Satellite Internet connections
6. Wireless Internet Connections

Dial - Up Connection
 Dial-up connection utilizes telephone line to let PC access the internet. It requires a
modem to establish dial-up connection. This modem acts as a mediator between PC
and the telephone line.
 There is also a communication program that aids the modem to process a calling
facility to specific number provided by an ISP.
 Dial-up connection uses following protocols:
1. Serial Line Internet Protocol (SLIP)
2. Point to Point Protocol (PPP)
 The given diagram shows the accessing internet using modem:

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ISDN
 ISDN is a short form of Integrated Services Digital Network. It creates the connection
using the phone lines which transfers digital signals in place of analog signals.
 There are two methods to deliver ISDN services:
1. Basic Rate Interface (BRI)
2. Primary Rate Interface (PRI)
 Key points:
1. The BRI ISDN contains three distinct modes on a single ISDN line: one
64kbps B (Bearer) channel and one 16kbps D (Delta or Data) channels.
2. The PRI ISDN contains 23 B channels and one D channels with both have
working capacity of 64kbps uniquely making a total transmission bandwidth of
1.54Mbps.
 The given diagram shows accessing internet using ISDN connection:

DSL
 DSL is a short form of Digital Subscriber Line. It is a kind of broadband connection
as it facilitates connection over commonly used telephone lines.
 Given are the few versions of DSL methods available today:
1. Asymmetric DSL (ADSL)
2. Symmetric DSL (SDSL)
3. High bit-rate DSL (HDSL)
4. Rate adaptive DSL (RDSL)
5. Very high bit-rate DSL (VDSL)
6. ISDN DSL (IDSL)

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 All of the above technologies varies in their upload and download bandwidth, bit
transfer rate and level of service.
 The given diagram shows that how we can connect to internet through DSL
technology:

Cable TV Internet Connection

 Cable TV Internet facility is provided via Cable TV lines. It utilizes coaxial cable
which is capable of transmitting data at much higher speed compared to common
telephone line.
 Key Points:
1. A cable modem is useful to access this facility, provided by the cable
operator.
2. The Cable modem consists of two connections: one for internet service and
another for Cable TV signals.
3. Since Cable TV internet connections comprises a fixed amount of bandwidth
with a group of customers, that is why, data transfer rate also fluctuates on
number of customers using the internet at the same time.
 The given diagram shows that how internet is used using Cable TV connection:

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Satellite Internet Connection

 Satellite Internet connection facilitates high bandwidth connection to the internet.
There are two kinds of satellite internet connection: one-way connection or two-way
connection.
 In one way connection, it is possible to only download data but if we need to upload,
we need a dialup access from ISP over telephone line.
 In two way connection, it is possible to download as well as upload the data using
the satellite. It does not need any dialup connection.
 The given diagram explains how internet is accessed through satellite internet
connection:

Wireless Internet Connection

 Wireless Internet Connection utilizes of radio frequency bands to connect to the
internet and facilitates a very high speed. The wireless internet connection can be
achieved through either Wi-Fi or Bluetooth.
 Key Points:
1. Wi-Fi wireless technology is uses IEEE 802.11 standards which permits the
electronic device to connect to the internet.
2. Bluetooth wireless technology utilizes of short-wavelength radio waves and
helps to establish personal area network (PAN).

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IP ADDREESS
 An IP address is a numerical label assigned to the devices connected to a computer
network that uses the IP for communication. IP address act as an identifier for a
specific machine on a particular network. It also helps you to develop a virtual
connection between a destination and a source.
 IP Full Form: The IP address stands for Internet Protocol address is also called IP
number or internet address. It helps you to specify the technical format of the
addressing and packets scheme. Most networks combine TCP with IP.
Types of IP address
 There are mainly four types of IP addresses:
 Public,
 Private,
 Static
 Dynamic.
 Public IP Addresses
 A public IP address is an address where one primary address is associated
with your whole network. In this type of IP address, each of the connected
devices has the same IP address.
 This type of public IP address is provided to your router by your ISP.

Private IP Address
A private IP address is an IP address that's reserved for internal use behind a router or
other Network Address Translation (NAT) device, apart from the public. Private IP
addresses are in contrast to public IP addresses, which are public and can't be used
within a home or business network. Sometimes a private IP address is also referred to
as a local IP address.

Dynamic IP address
 Dynamic IP addresses always keep changing. It is temporary and are allocated to a
device every time it connects to the web. Dynamic IPs can trace their origin to a
collection of IP addresses that are shared across many computers..

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 Dynamic IP addresses are another important type of internet protocol addresses. It

is active for a specific amount of time; after that, it will expire.
 Static IP Addresses
 A static IP address is an IP address that cannot be changed. In contrast, a dynamic
IP address will be assigned by a Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)
server, which is subject to change. Static IP address never changes, but it can be
altered as part of routine network administration.
 Static IP addresses are consistent, which is assigned once, that stays the same
over the years. This type of IP also helps you procure a lot of information about a
device.
Version of IP address
Two types of IP addresses are 1)IPV4 and 2) IPV6.
IPV4
 IPv4 was the first version of IP. It was deployed for production in the ARPANET in
1983. Today it is the most widely used IP version. It is used to identify devices on a
network using an addressing system.
 The IPv4 uses a 32-bit address scheme allowing to store 2^32 addresses, which is
more than 4 billion addresses. To date, it is considered the primary Internet
Protocol and carries 94% of Internet traffic.
IPV6
It is the most recent version of the Internet Protocol. Internet Engineer Taskforce
initiated it in early 1994. The design and development of that suite is now called IPv6.
This new IP address version is being deployed to fulfill the need for more Internet
addresses. It was aimed to resolve issues which are associated with IPv4. With 128-bit
address space, it allows 340 undecillion unique address space.

Different Classes of IP Address

Following are the different classes of IP address:
 Class A
 Class B
 Class C
 Class D
 Class E

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 Class A
 This Class IP address always has its first bit as 0, next 7 bits as a network address
and following 24 bits as the host address.
 The range of IP addresses is [Link] to [Link].
 This means that it allows 2^7 networks and 2^24 hosts per network.
 This class of IP address is used for a very large network. Ex. Big Organisation
Class B
 Class B IP address always has its first bits as 10, next 14 bits as a network address
and following 16 bits as the host address.
 The range of IP addresses is [Link] to [Link].
 This means that it allows 2^14 networks and 2^16 hosts per network.
 This class of IP address is used for a medium network like multinational companies.
Class C
 Class C IP address always has its first bits as 110, next 21 bits as a network ad-
dress and following 8 bits as the host address.
 The range of IP addresses is the first block from [Link] to [Link] and the
last block from [Link] to [Link].
 This means that it allows 2^21 networks and 2^8 hosts per network.
 This class is used for a small network such as small companies or colleges.
Class D
 Class D IP address always has its first bits as 1110.
 There is no segregation of host and network addresses.
 It allows multicast which means a datagram directed to multiple hosts.
Class E
 The address begins with 1111.
 It is reserved for future use, research, and development purpose.

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Different Types Of Network

Vulnerabilities
Network vulnerabilities come in many forms but the most common types are:
 Malware, short for malicious software, such as Trojans, viruses, and worms that are
installed on a user’s machine or a host server.
 Social engineering attacks that fool users into giving up personal information such
as a username or password.
 Outdated or unpatched software that exposes the systems running the application
and potentially the entire network.
 Misconfigured firewalls / operating systems that allow or have default policies
enabled.
Malware (Malicious Software)
 Malware, or malicious software, is any program or file that is harmful to a computer
user. Types of malware can include computer viruses, worms, Trojan horses and
spyware.
 These malicious programs can perform a variety of functions such as stealing,
encrypting or deleting sensitive data, altering or hijacking core computing
functions and monitoring users' computer activity.
 The most common types of malware include:
 Viruses
 Keyloggers
 Worms
 Trojans
 Ransomware
 Logic Bombs
 Bots/Botnets
 Adware & Spyware
 Rootkits
Viruses
 A computer virus, much like a flu virus, is designed to spread from host to host and
has the ability to replicate itself. Similarly, in the same way that viruses cannot
reproduce without a host cell, computer viruses cannot reproduce and spread
without programming such as a file or document.

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Keyloggers
Keyloggers are activity-monitoring software programs that give hackers access to your
personal data. The passwords and credit card numbers you type, the webpages you
visit – all by logging your keyboard strokes. The software is installed on your computer,
and records everything you type.
Worms
A computer worm is a type of malware that spreads copies of itself
from computer to computer. A worm can replicate itself without any human interaction,
and it does not need to attach itself to a software program in order to cause damage.
Trojans
A Trojan horse or Trojan is a type of malware that is often disguised as legitimate
software. Trojans can be employed by cyber-thieves and hackers trying to gain access
to users' systems. Users are typically tricked by some form of social engineering into
loading and executing Trojans on their systems.
Ransomware
Ransomware is malware that employs encryption to hold a victim's information at
ransom. A user or organization's critical data is encrypted so that they cannot access
files, databases, or applications. A ransom is then demanded to provide access.
Logic Bombs
A logic bomb is a program which has deliberately been written or modified to produce
results when certain conditions are met that are unexpected and unauthorized by
legitimate users or owners of the software. Logic bombs may be within stand-alone
programs or they may be part of worms or viruses.
Bots/Botnets
A bot is a computer that has been compromised through a malware infection and can
be controlled remotely by a cybercriminal. The cybercriminal can then use the bot (also
known as a zombie computer) to launch more attacks, or to bring it into a collection of
controlled computers, known as a botnet.
Adware & Spyware
Adware (or advertising software) is the term used for various pop-up advertisements
that show up on your computer or mobile device. Adware has the potential to become
malicious and harm your device by slowing it down, hijacking your browser and
installing viruses and/or spyware.
Rootkits
 Rootkits are a type of malware that are designed so that they can remain hidden on
your computer.

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 Rootkit is a term applied to a type of malware that is designed to infect a target PC

and allow an attacker to install a set of tools that grant him persistent remote
access to the computer. In recent years, a new class of mobile rootkits have
emerged to attack smartphones, specifically Android device.
 Introduction to basic Networking terminology
Interfaces
 Interfaces are networking communication points for your computer. Each interface
is associated with a physical or virtual networking device.
 Typically, your server will have one configurable network interface for each Ethernet
or wireless internet card you have.
 In addition, it will define a virtual network interface called the “loopback” or localhost
interface. This is used as an interface to connect applications and processes on a
single computer to other applications and processes. You can see this referenced
as the “lo” interface in many tools.
 Many times, administrators configure one interface to service traffic to the internet
and another interface for a LAN or private network.
 In DigitalOcean, in datacenters with private networking enabled, your VPS will have
two networking interfaces (in addition to the local interface). The “eth0” interface will
be configured to handle traffic from the internet, while the “eth1” interface will
operate to communicate with the private network.
Protocols
 Networking works by piggybacking a number of different protocols on top of each
other. In this way, one piece of data can be transmitted using multiple protocols
encapsulated within one another.
 We will talk about some of the more common protocols that you may come across
and attempt to explain the difference, as well as give context as to what part of the
process they are involved with.
 We will start with protocols implemented on the lower networking layers and work
our way up to protocols with higher abstraction.
Medium Access Control
 Medium access control is a communications protocol that is used to distinguish
specific devices. Each device is supposed to get a unique media access control
address (MAC address) during the manufacturing process that differentiates it from
every other device on the internet.

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 Addressing hardware by the MAC address allows you to reference a device by a

unique value even when the software on top may change the name for that specific
device during operation.
 Medium access control is one of the only protocols from the link layer that you are
likely to interact with on a regular basis.
IP
 The IP protocol is one of the fundamental protocols that allow the internet to work.
IP addresses are unique on each network and they allow machines to address
each other across a network. It is implemented on the internet layer in the IP/TCP
model.
 Networks can be linked together, but traffic must be routed when crossing network
boundaries. This protocol assumes an unreliable network and multiple paths to the
same destination that it can dynamically change between.
 There are a number of different implementations of the protocol. The most common
implementation today is IPv4, although IPv6 is growing in popularity as an
alternative due to the scarcity of IPv4 addresses available and improvements in the
protocols capabilities.
ICMP
 ICMP stands for internet control message protocol. It is used to send messages
between devices to indicate the availability or error conditions. These packets are
used in a variety of network diagnostic tools, such as ping and traceroute.
 Usually ICMP packets are transmitted when a packet of a different kind meets
some kind of a problem. Basically, they are used as a feedback mechanism for
network communications.
TCP
 TCP stands for transmission control protocol. It is implemented in the transport
layer of the IP/TCP model and is used to establish reliable connections.
 TCP is one of the protocols that encapsulates data into packets. It then transfers
these to the remote end of the connection using the methods available on the lower
layers. On the other end, it can check for errors, request certain pieces to be
resent, and reassemble the information into one logical piece to send to the
application layer.
 The protocol builds up a connection prior to data transfer using a system called a
three-way handshake. This is a way for the two ends of the communication to
acknowledge the request and agree upon a method of ensuring data reliability.

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 After the data has been sent, the connection is torn down using a similar four-way
handshake.
 TCP is the protocol of choice for many of the most popular uses for the internet,
including WWW, FTP, SSH, and email. It is safe to say that the internet we know
today would not be here without TCP.
UDP
 UDP stands for user datagram protocol. It is a popular companion protocol to TCP
and is also implemented in the transport layer.
 The fundamental difference between UDP and TCP is that UDP offers unreliable
data transfer. It does not verify that data has been received on the other end of the
connection. This might sound like a bad thing, and for many purposes, it is.
However, it is also extremely important for some functions.
 Because it is not required to wait for confirmation that the data was received and
forced to resend data, UDP is much faster than TCP. It does not establish a
connection with the remote host, it simply fires off the data to that host and doesn’t
care if it is accepted or not.
 Because it is a simple transaction, it is useful for simple communications like
querying for network resources. It also doesn’t maintain a state, which makes it
great for transmitting data from one machine to many real-time clients. This makes
it ideal for VOIP, games, and other applications that cannot afford delays.
HTTP
 HTTP stands for hypertext transfer protocol. It is a protocol defined in the
application layer that forms the basis for communication on the web.
 HTTP defines a number of functions that tell the remote system what you are
requesting. For instance, GET, POST, and DELETE all interact with the requested
data in a different way.
FTP
 FTP stands for file transfer protocol. It is also in the application layer and provides a
way of transferring complete files from one host to another.
 It is inherently insecure, so it is not recommended for any externally facing network
unless it is implemented as a public, download-only resource.
DNS
DNS stands for domain name system. It is an application layer protocol used to provide
a human-friendly naming mechanism for internet resources. It is what ties a domain
name to an IP address and allows you to access sites by name in your browser.

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SSH
 SSH stands for secure shell. It is an encrypted protocol implemented in the
application layer that can be used to communicate with a remote server in a secure
way. Many additional technologies are built around this protocol because of its end-
to-end encryption and ubiquity.
 There are many other protocols that we haven’t covered that are equally important.
However, this should give you a good overview of some of the fundamental
technologies that make the internet and networking possible.
TELNET
Telnet is an application protocol used on the Internet or local area network to provide a
bidirectional interactive text-oriented communication facility using a
virtual terminal connection. User data is interspersed in-band with Telnet control
information in an 8-bit byte oriented data connection over the Transmission Control
Protocol (TCP).
Telnet was developed in 1969 beginning with RFC 15, extended in RFC 855, and
standardized as Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) Internet Standard STD 8, one
of the first Internet standards. The name stands for "teletype network
Web log
It is a sort of online inventory (normally on a specialized topics) that consists of a series
of entries. These entries are arranged in opposite chronological order. The person who
maintains the weblog regularly update it with a new information.
Podcast
It is a digital file that normally contains audio or video record and is available on the
Internet as well.
Chat Rooms
It is a dedicated area on the Internet that facilitates users to communicate.
Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN)
It is a technical expression for public telephone system.
Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN)
It is a set of communication standards that transmits voice, video, data, and other
network services simultaneously.
Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line (ADSL)
It is a sort of digital subscriber line (DSL) technology that facilitates faster data
transmission.
Download
It is a process that saves data from Internet onto a personal computer.
Upload
It is a process that transfers the saved data from a personal computer to Internet
server.

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Dial-up
It is a technique in which a phone line is used in order to connect to the Internet.
Broadband
It is a wide bandwidth data transmission that transports multiple signals and traffic
types swiftly.
Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP)
It is a Protocol, which is used especially for voice transfer over IP network. Likewise, it
facilitates users to make phone-calls by using internet.
Really Simple Syndication (RSS)
It is a technique, which is used for the dissemination of information, articles, etc. Users
normally subscribe to the RSS channel in order to receive news. After subscription,
users do not need to visit the respective website rather they receive emails regarding
the same.
ESSID
ESSID (extended service set identifier) An electronic marker or identifier that serves as
an identification and address for a computer or network device to connect and access
the Internet. It is an identifying name for all 802.11 wireless networks.
Digital signature
A digital code that is attached to an electronically transmitted message that uniquely
identifies the sender.
MAC address
A MAC address is a hardware identification number that uniquely identifies each
device on a network. The MAC address is manufactured into every network card, such
as an Ethernet card or Wi-Fi card, and therefore cannot be changed.
ARP
ARP (Address Resolution Protocol) is a network protocol used to find out the hardware
(MAC) address of a device from an IP address. ... The sending device uses ARP to
translate IP addresses to MAC addresses. The device sends an ARP request message
containing the IP address of the receiving device.
Cryptograph
Cryptography is a method of protecting information and communications through the
use of codes, so that only those for whom the information is intended can read and
process it. The prefix “crypt-” means “hidden” or “vault” — and the suffix “-graphy”
stands for “writing.”

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Encryption
Encryption is the process of taking plain text, like a text message or email, and
scrambling it into an unreadable format — called “cipher text.” This helps protect the
confidentiality of digital data either stored on computer systems or transmitted through
a network like the internet.
Decryption
Decryption is simply the reverse of encryption, the process by which ordinary data, or
plain text, is converted into a cipher. A cipher, often incorrectly identified as a code, is a
system in which every letter of a plain text message is replaced with another letter so
as to obscure its meaning. To decipher a message requires a key, an algorithm that
provides the method by which the message was encrypted.
Host
A network host is any device or a computer connected to a computer network. A
network host provides services, information resources, and applications to users or
other nodes on the network.
ICMP
ICMP is a network level protocol. ICMP messages communicate information about
network connectivity issues back to the source of the compromised transmission. It
sends control messages such as destination network unreachable, source route failed,
and source quench.
SMTP
SMTP stands for Simple Mail Transfer Protocol. SMTP is a set of communication
guidelines that allow software to transmit an electronic mail over the internet is called
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol. It is a program used for sending messages to other
computer users based on e-mail addresses.
Post Office Protocol
 Post Office Protocol (POP) is a type of computer networking and Internet standard
protocol that extracts and retrieves email from a remote mail server for access by
the host machine.
 POP is an application layer protocol in the OSI model that provides end users the
ability to fetch and receive email.
Network Address Translation (NAT)
Network Address Translation (NAT) is designed for IP address conservation. It enables
private IP networks that use unregistered IP addresses to connect to the Internet. NAT
operates on a router, usually connecting two networks together, and translates the
private (not globally unique) addresses in the internal network into legal addresses,
before packets are forwarded to another network.

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NNTP
 Stands for "Network News Transfer Protocol." NNTP is the protocol used to connect
to Usenet servers and transfer newsgroup articles between systems over the
Internet. It is similar to the SMTP protocol used for sending email messages, but is
designed specifically for newsgroup articles.
RARP
 RARP is abbreviation of Reverse Address Resolution Protocol which is a protocol
based on computer networking which is employed by a client computer to request
its IP address from a gateway server’s Address Resolution Protocol table or cache.
The network administrator creates a table in gateway-router, which is used to map
the MAC address to corresponding IP address.
URL
 Also known as a internet address or web address, a URL (Uniform Resource
Locator) is a form of URI and standardized naming convention for addressing
documents accessible over the Internet and Intranet. An example of a URL is
[Link] which is the URL for the Computer Hope website
 virtual network
 A network that emulates a physical network and is a combination of hardware and
software network resources.
WAP
 WAP stands for Wireless Application Protocol. It is a protocol designed for micro-
browsers and it enables the access of internet in the mobile devices. It uses the
mark-up language WML (Wireless Markup Language and not HTML), WML is
defined as XML 1.0 application.
 It enables creating web applications for mobile devices. In 1998, WAP Forum was
founded by Ericson, Motorola, Nokia and Unwired Planet whose aim was to
standardize the various wireless technologies via protocols.

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Microsoft Word

Introduction
 Let us consider an office scene. Many letters are typed in the office. The officer dictates a letter. The typist
first types a draft copy of the letter. The officer goes through it to check mistakes regarding spelling errors,
missing words, etc. and suggests corrections. The typist changes the letter as suggested by the officer. This
is a simple example of word processing.

 There are many software packages to do the job of word processing. Some of them work in DOS
environment. Example are WordStar, Word Perfect and Professional Write. But in these days working in
WINDOWS is becoming more and more popular. So let us consider software for word processing which
works in WINDOWS. Our choice is MS-WORD because it is the most popular software in these days.

 MS-WORD is a part of the bigger package called MS OFFICE, which can do much more than word
processing. In fact when you open up MS OFFICE you will find four main components in it. They are MS-
WORD (for word processing), MS EXCEL (for spreadsheet), MS ACCESS (for database management) and MS
POWERPOINT (for presentation purposes). However, we will limit ourselves to MS-WORD only in this

Objectives
After going through this lesson you should be in a position to :

 start the MS-WORD package

 be familiar with the MS-WORD screen

 advantages and Features of Word Processing

 some common Word Processing Packages

 how to invoke Ms-Word

 learn the capabilities of Ms-Word

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What is Word Processing

 Word Processor is a Software package that enables you to create, edit, print and save documents for
future retrieval and reference. Creating a document involves typing by using a keyboard and saving it.
Editing a document involves correcting the spelling mistakes, if any, deleting or moving words sentences
or paragraphs.

Advantages of Word Processing

 One of the main advantages of a word processor over a conventional typewriter is that a word processor
enables you to make changes to a document without retyping the entire document.

Features of Word Processing

 Most Word Processor available today allows more than just creating and editing documents. They have
wide range of other tools and functions, which are used in formatting the documents. The following are
the main features of a Word Processor

 Text is typing into the computer, which allows alterations to be made easily.

 Words and sentences can be inserted, amended or deleted.

 Paragraphs or text can be copied /moved throughout the document.

 Margins and page length can be adjusted as desired.

 Spelling can be checked and modified through the spell check facility.

 Multiple document/files can be merged.

 Multiple copies of letters can be generated with different addresses through the mail-merge
facility.

Some Common Word Processing Packages

The followings are examples of some popular word processor available

 Soft word

 WordStar

 Word perfect

 Microsoft word

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Important Features Of Ms-word

 Ms-Word not only supports word processing features but also DTP features. Some of the important
features of Ms-Word are listed below:

 Using word you can create the document and edit them later, as and when required, by adding more
text, modifying the existing text, deleting/moving some part of it.

 Changing the size of the margins can reformat complete document or part of text.

 Font size and type of fonts can also be changed. Page numbers and Header and Footer can be included.

 Spelling can be checked and correction can be made automatically in the entire document. Word count
and other statistics can be generated.

 Text can be formatted in columnar style as we see in the newspaper. Text boxes can be made.

 Tables can be made and included in the text.

 Word also allows the user to mix the graphical pictures with the text. Graphical pictures can either be
created in word itself or can be imported from outside like from Clip Art Gallery.

 Word also provides the mail-merge facility.

 Word also has the facility of macros. Macros can be either attached to some function/special keys or to a
tool bar or to a menu.

 It also provides online help of any option.

Getting Started With Ms-word

 We have already told you that for working in Ms-Word you should be familiar with WINDOWS. If you
have not covered WINDOWS so far then read that first and then go through MS-WORD. By now you must
be aware of the fact that a software package is improved from time to time. These improvements are
sold in the market as new versions of the same software. Thus you will find many versions of MS-WORD
being used in different offices. In this lesson we will cover the version MS-WORD 97, which is latest in the
market and contain many improvements over the older versions. However, you do not have to worry if
you have an older version such as WORD 6.0 or WORD 95. All the commands available in these older
versions are also available in WORD 97 and they are compatible.
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 While working in MS-WORD you have to work with a mouse. Also one can work, to some extent, through
the keyboard. The use of mouse is simpler as it is fully menu driven. In MS-WORD every command is
available in the form of ‘icons’.

 You can go inside MS-WORD by the following way:

 Take the mouse pointer to START button on the task bar. Click the left mouse button.

 Move the pointer to programs. You will notice another menu coming up to the right.

 In that menu identify where Microsoft word is placed. Move the cursor horizontally to come out
of programs.

 Move into the rectangular area meant for Microsoft word. Click the left mouse button there. The
computer will start MS-WORD.

Let us discuss the important components of the screen.

 Title Bar: The title bar displays the name of the currently active word document. Like other WINDOWS
applications, it can be used to alter the size and location of the word window.

 Tool Bars: Word has a number of tool bars that help you perform task faster and with great ease. Two
of the most commonly tool bars are the formatting tool bar and the standard tool bar. These two toolbars
are displayed just below the title bar. At any point of time any tool bar can be made ON or OFF through
the tool bar option of View Menu.

 Ruler Bar: The Ruler Bar allows you to format the vertical alignment of text in a document.

 Status Bar: The Status Bar displays information about the currently active document. This includes the
page number that you are working, the column and line number of the cursor position and so on.

 Scroll Bar: The Scroll Bar helps you scroll the content or body of document. You can do so by moving
the elevator button along the scroll bar, or by click in on the buttons with the arrow marked on them to
move up and down and left and right of a page.

 Workspace: The Workspace is the area in the document window were you enter/type the text of your
document.

 Main Menu: The Word main menu is displayed at the top of the screen as shown in the Figure. The
main menu further displays a sub menu. Some of the options are highlighted options and some of them
appear as faded options. At any time, only highlighted options can be executed, faded options are not
applicable. Infect if the option is faded you will not be able to choose it. You may not that any option
faded under present situation may become highlighted under different situations

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Main Menu Options

 The overall functions of all the items of main menu are explained below.

File
 You can perform file management operations by using these options such as opening, closing, saving,
printing, exiting etc.

New Ctrl+N
Open Ctrl+O
Close ALT + F4
Save Ctrl+S
Save As CTL + A
Print Ctrl+P

File Sub menu

 Edit

 Using this option you can perform editing functions such as cut, copy, paste, find and replace etc.

Undo Clear Ctrl+Z

Repeat Clear Ctrl+Y
Cut Ctrl+X
Copy Ctrl+C
Paste Ctrl+V
Clear Delete
Select All Ctrl+A
Find Ctrl+F
Replace Ctrl+H
Go To Ctrl+G

Edit Sub menu

 View

 Word document can be of many pages. The different pages may have different modes. Each mode has its
limitations. For example in normal mode the graphical picture cannot be displayed. They can only be
displayed in page layout mode. Using the option “View” you can switch over from one mode to other. It
displays the following Sub menu.

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Online Layout
Page Layout
Normal
Outline
Master Document
Tool Bars Ruler
Footnotes
Comments
Header and Footer
Full Screen
Zoom

Insert
 Using this menu, you can insert various objects such as page numbers, footnotes, picture frames etc. in
your document. It displays the following Sub menu.

Break
Page Numbers
Date and Time
AutoText
Symbol
Comment
Footnote
Caption
Cross-reference
Index & Tables
Picture
Text Box
File
Object
Bookmark
Hyperlink

Format
 Using this menu, you can perform various type of formatting operations, such as fonts can be changed,
borders can be framed etc. It displays the following Sub menu.

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Paragraph…
Font Bullets and Numbering
Borders and Shading
Tabs…
Drop Cap…
Text Direction…
Change Case…
Columns
Auto Format… Style Gallery…
Style…
Background…
Object

Tools
 Using this menu, you can have access to various utilities/tools of Word, such as spell check, macros, mail
merge etc. It displays the following Sub menu.
Language…
Word Count AutoSummarise
Spelling and Grammar
Auto Correct..
Look Up Reference

Merge Documents…
Track Change Protect Document…
Mail Merge
Letter Wizard…
Macro…
Envelops and Lebels Templates and Add-Ins…
Customize…
Options…
Table
 This menu deals with tables. Using this menu you can perform various types of operations on the table. It
displays the following Sub menu.

Draw Table
Delete Cells…
Insert Table Merge Cells…
Split Cells
Select Column
Select Row
Select Table
Distribute Rows Evenly
Distribute Columns Evenly
Table Auto Format
Cell Height and Width…
Headings
Sort …
Formula…
Convert Text to table
Split Table
Hide Grid Lines
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Window
 This menu allows you to work with two documents simultaneously. This would require two windows to
be opened so that each one can hold one document. Using this menu, you can switch over from one
window to another. It displays the following Sub menu.

Arrange All
New Window Split
[Link]

Help
 Using this menu, you can get on-line help for any function.

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Word Shortcut Keys

 Ctrl + A -- Select all contents of the page.

 Ctrl + B -- Bold highlighted selection.

 Ctrl + C -- Copy selected text.

 Ctrl + X -- Cut selected text.

 Ctrl + N -- Open new/blank document.

 Ctrl + O -- Open options.

 Ctrl + P -- Open the print window.

 Ctrl + F -- Open find box.

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 Ctrl + I -- Italicise highlighted selection.

 Ctrl + K -- Insert link.

 Ctrl + U -- Underline highlighted selection.

 Ctrl + V -- Paste.

 Ctrl + Y -- Redo the last action performed.

 Ctrl + Z -- Undo last action.

 Ctrl + G -- Find and replace options.

 Ctrl + H -- Find and replace options.

 Ctrl + J -- Justify paragraph alignment.

 Ctrl + L -- Align selected text or line to the left.

 Ctrl + Q -- Align selected paragraph to the left.

 Ctrl + E -- Align selected text or line to the center.

 Ctrl + R -- Align selected text or line to the right.

 Ctrl + M -- Indent the paragraph.

 Ctrl + T -- Hanging indent.

 Ctrl + D -- Font options.

 Ctrl + Shift + F -- Change the font.

 Ctrl + Shift + > -- Increase selected font +1.

 Ctrl + ] -- Increase selected font +1.

 Ctrl + [ -- Decrease selected font -1.

 Ctrl + Shift + * -- View or hide non printing characters.

 Ctrl + (Left arrow) -- Move one word to the left.

 Ctrl + (Right arrow) -- Move one word to the right.

 Ctrl + (Up arrow) -- Move to the beginning of the line or paragraph.

 Ctrl + (Down arrow) -- Move to the end of the paragraph.

 Ctrl + Del -- Delete word to the right of the cursor.

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 Ctrl + Backspace -- Delete word to the left of the cursor.

 Ctrl + End -- Move cursor to end of the document.

 Ctrl + Home -- Move cursor to the beginning of the document.

 Ctrl + Space -- Reset highlighted text to default font.

 Ctrl + 1 -- Single-space lines.

 Ctrl + 2 -- Double-space lines.

 Ctrl + 5 -- 1.5-line spacing.

 Ctrl + Alt + 1 Change text to heading 1.

 Ctrl + Alt + 2 Change text to heading 2.

 Ctrl + Alt + 3 Change text to heading 3.

 F1 -- Open help.

 Shift + F3 -- Change case of selected text.

 Shift + Insert -- Paste.

 F4 -- Repeat the last action performed (Word 2000+).

 F7 -- Spell check selected text and/or document.

 Shift + F7 -- Activate the thesaurus.

 F12 -- Save as.

 Ctrl + S -- Save.

 Shift + F12 -- Save.

 Alt + Shift + D -- Insert the current date.

 Alt + Shift + T -- Insert the current time.

 Ctrl + W -- Close document.

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Ms Word Basic Terms

 Wizard: A wizard is an interactive feature built into the word processing application (particularly in
Microsoft Word) that will walk you step-by-step through a specialized process. One example of a Wizard
included in Microsoft Word is the Mail Merge Wizard which provides assistance with automatically
creating letters, mailing labels or envelopes from a list of names and addresses.

 Word Processing: Word Processing refers to the act of using a computer to create, edit, save and print
documents.

 Word Wrap: Word Wrap refers to the function of a word processor that will automatically force text to
a new line when the right margin is reached while typing. Word Wrap eliminates the need for pressing
the Enter key on the keyboard at the end of every line.

 Charts: graphs that use lines, columns, and pie shapes to represent numbers and data.

 Desktop Publishing: the ‘big brother’ of word processing, the process of using a word processor type
package to create things such as newsletters, flyers, brochures etc. combining both text and graphics.

 Digital Signature: a secure electronic stamp of authentication on a document.

 Drawing Canvas: an area that contains drawing shapes and pictures.

 Embedded Object: an object that becomes part of the destination file and is no longer a part of the
source file.

 Endnotes: notes or references that appear at the end of the document.

 Fill Effect: the pattern, colour, or texture in a graphic object or chart.

 Font: a set of characters that all use the same basic design.

 Font Effects: a way to change the appearance of text such as bold, italics, underline etc.

 Font Size: the size of a font, usually expressed as a number of points.

 Footer: text or graphics that are printed on every page or section, usually at the bottom but can be
anywhere on a page

 Forms: printed or online documents.

 Graphic: a picture or drawing object.

 Header: text or graphics that are printed on every page or section, usually at the top but can be
anywhere on a page.

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 Indent Markers: markers along the ruler that control how text wraps on the left or right side of a
document.

 Index: a list of the topics, names and terms used in a document along with the corresponding page
numbers. An index is usually found at or near the end of a document (also see Table of Contents)

 Landscape: a term used to describe page orientation, where the page is wider than it is tall.

 Linked Object: an object such as a graphic etc, which is included within a document in such a way that
it is linked to the source file, so that when ever the source changes, the object automatically updates.

 Macro: A recorded series of commands, menu selections and key presses that automate repetitive
tasks.

 Mail Merge: The process of combining a standard ‘form’ letter with a set of names and addresses to
create many letters that appear to be individually written.

 Main Document: the standard ‘form’ letter used in a mail merge process.

 Manual Page Break: a page break inserted into a document by the author at a specific position rather
than one created automatically when a page has no more room for text.

 Merge Field: a placeholder that indicates where Word inserts information from a data source during a
mail merge

 Normal View: the default editing view which is usually used to write and edit documents.

 Note Separator: the line that divides the notes from the body of the document.

 Note Text: the content of a footnote or endnote.

 Office Assistant: a help that answers questions for the Microsoft Office suite of programs.

 Office Clipboard: a storage area that allows the user to temporarily store snippets of information, and
retrieve them later.

 AutoCorrect: a feature that corrects commonly misspelled words automatically as they are typed.

 Bookmark: a method to mark locations within a document so that they can be easily returned to later.

 Bullet: a small graphic, commonly a large dot, that starts each item in a list.

 Character Style: a style for selected words and lines of text within a paragraph

 Outline View: a view that shows the structure of a document which consists of headings and body text.

 Page Orientation: the way in which pages are laid out in a printed document.

 Paragraph: a piece of text that has had the enter key pressed before its first line, and after its last.
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 Paragraph Styles: Styles for entire paragraphs, including their fonts, tabs, alignments etc.

 Point: a measure of the size of text for a font. One point is approximately 1/72 of an inch.

 Portrait: a page orientation where the page is taller than it is wide.

 Print Layout View: a view that shows how a document will appear when it is printed.

 Reference Mark: a number or character in the main text of a document that indicates additional
information is included in a footnote or endnote.

 Reviewing Pane: a pane that shows information regarding the changes made to a document.

 Section Break: a section of the document that can be formatted differently to other parts of the
document.

 Selection Area: a blank area to the left of a documents left margin that you can click to select parts of
the document.

 Soft Page Break: a page break that is automatically inserted into a document by Word when a there
is too much text to fit on the current page.

 Spelling and grammar checker: a feature that attempts to check and correct errors in spelling and
grammar that the writer may have missed.

 Style: a collection of formatting choices that can be applied throughout a document.

 Tab Stop: a location along the ruler that you use to align text.

 Table AutoFormat: a set of predefined styles that are intended to make table formatting easier.

 Table of Contents: a list of the main headings and sub headings that indicate to the reader the
contents of a document.

 Template: a document that stores formatting, text styles and document information that is then
used as the basis for another document.

 Theme: a unified look in a document that incorporates heading and text styles.

 Thesaurus: a feature that looks up alternative words with the similar meanings.

 Watermark: semi-transparent text or picture that are ‘behind’ the main text of the document.

 Web Layout View: a view showing how a document will appear when viewed as a web page.

 Web Page: a special page written using the HTML language that is intended for viewing in a web
browser.

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 WordArt: a tool within Microsoft Office that allows you to manipulate text in a variety of different,
graphical ways.

 Word Processing: the process of creating, editing and printing a computer written text document.

 Word Wrap: the movement of text to the next line when typing goes beyond the right margin.

 Workgroup Template: a template available to other users over a network.

 Scroll Bars: Since many documents are too long to fit legibly on a single computer screen, vertical and
horizontal scroll bars are included to allow you to move through the document and change the area of
the document that is currently being viewed on the screen.

 Clipboard: The clipboard is a temporary holding area the computer uses for any item that has been
copied or cut. When an item such as text is placed on the clipboard, it can then be pasted elsewhere in
the document. Items will stay on the clipboard until they are deleted or erased. The manner in which the
clipboard is cleared depends on the application being used. Quite often, the clipboard is cleared when
another item is cut or copied or if the application is closed.

 Header: The header is an area that appears at the top of every page in a document that can contain
one or more lines of text. One common use of the header is to include information about the document
(such as the title) on every page in the document.

 Footer: The footer is an area that appears at the bottom of every page in a document that can contain
one or more lines of text. One common use of the footer is to insert the current page number on every
page in the document.

 Font: A font is a set of letters and numbers of one particular typeface. The font includes not only the
typeface, but other characteristics such as size, spacing and emphasis. An example of a font would be
Arial, 12 point, italic.

 Formatting: The process of formatting a document involves specifying how the document will look in its
final form on the screen and when printed. Common formatting options include the font, font size, color,
alignment, spacing, margins and other properties.

 Indent: The space between the margin of the page and the text. Most word processors allow for both
left and right indentation. One other common use of indention is what is known as a "first line indent"
where only the first line of a paragraph is indented and the remaining lines of text lie directly against the
left margin of the page.

 Line Spacing: Line spacing refers to the amount of white space between lines of text in a paragraph.
Commonly used line spacing settings are single spaced and double spaced.

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Types of Computers
A computer is an electronic device that manipulates information, or data. It has the abil-
ity to store, retrieve, and process data. You may already know that you can use
a computer to type documents, send email, play games, and browse the Web.
COMPUTER stands for Common Operating Machine Purposely Used for Technological
and Educational Research.

Type Specifications

PC (Personal Computer) It can hold a single user at a time and this computer system has
moderately powerful microprocessor.

Workstation It can also hold a single user at a time, similar to personal

computer, but it has a more powerful microprocessor.

Mini Computer This is a multi-user system, i.e., capable of supporting even

hundreds of users simultaneously.

Main Frame This one is also a multi-user system. The software technology is
different from minicomputer.
This an extremely fast computer used to solve problems beyond
Supercomputer human capabilities. This can execute hundreds of millions of
instructions per second.

PC (Personal Computer)
 This can be defined as a small, relatively less expensive computer designed for an
individual user. PCs are driven by the microprocessor chip that enables
manufacturers to fabricate an entire CPU on one chip. Personals in businesses
keeps a personal computers for desktop publishing, word processing, accounting, ,
and for running spreadsheet and database management applications. Individuals
owing it home, use it for playing games, surfing the Internet, etc.

 Even though personal computers are meant to be used as single-user systems,

these machines are normally linked together to create a network. If we consider
operating power, presently premium models of the Mac and PC facilitate the
equivalent computing power and graphics capability as compared to less expansive
workstations from Sun Microsystems, Hewlett-Packard, and Dell.

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Workstation
 It is a machine used for desktop publishing, software development, engineering
applications (CAD/CAM), and other similar types
of applications which needs a moderate amount
of execution power and relatively high quality
graphics capabilities.

 These machines generally come with a large,

high-resolution graphics display, huge amount of
RAM, inbuilt network support, and a graphical
user interface. Majority of workstations
comprises of mass storage device like a disk drive, but a special type of workstation,
known as diskless workstation, comes without a disk drive.

 Generally, UNIX and Windows NT are common operating systems for workstations.
Similar to PC, workstations can also handle single-user but are typically connected
together to form a local-area network, although they may operate as stand-alone
systems.

Minicomputer
 It is a medium size, multi-processing machine capable of serving up to 250
users simultaneously.

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Mainframe
This is very large sized and expensive machine capable
enough to support hundreds or even thousands of users
at a time. Mainframe performs large quantity of programs
concurrently and supports many executions of programs
simultaneously.

Supercomputer
 Supercomputers are logically one of the fastest
machines currently available. These are very
expensive and are deployed for specialized
operations that require immense amount of
mathematical calculations (number crunching).
 Few examples are - fluid dynamic calculations,
weather forecasting, nuclear energy research,
scientific simulations, (animated) graphics, electronic
design, and analysis of geological data (e.g. in petrochemical prospecting).

Components of Computers
All types of computers are based on the same basic logical structure and execute the
following 5 basic operations for converting raw input data into useful information for their
users.
1. Take Input: The process of feeding data and instructions to the comput-
er.
2. Store Data: Saving unprocessed/processed data and instructions so
that they are ready for processing as and when required.
3. Processing Data: Executing arithmetic and logical operations on the da-
ta provided in order to transform it into useful information.
4. Output Information: Producing useful information/results for the user,
like printed report or visual information.

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Input Unit
This part of computer encapsulates devices with the help of which user feed data to the
computer. It creates an interface between the user and the computer. The input devices
transform the information into a form acceptable by the computer.

Output Unit
This part of computer encapsulates devices with the help of which user receive the
information from the computer. Output devices transform the output from computer into
a form understandable by the users.

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

 The brain of the computer is the Central Processing
Unit. CPU executes all types of data processing
functions. It saves data/intermediate results/instructions
(program), and controls the operation of all parts of the
computer.
 Following are the points to remember for Central Processing Unit (CPU):
 CPU is taken as the brain of the computer.
 CPU facilitates all types of data processing operations.
 It saves data, intermediate results, and instructions (program).
 It handles the operating of all parts of the computer.
 CPU itself has following three components.
 Memory or Storage Unit
 Control Unit
 ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)

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Memory or Storage Unit

 This part of the computer system works to store instructions, data, and intermediate
results. This unit passes data to other parts of the computer when required. It is also
referred as internal storage unit or most commonly, the main memory or the primary
storage or Random Access Memory (RAM).
 It comes in various speed, power, and capability. Primary memory and secondary
memory are two important types of memories used in the computer system.
Responsibilities of the memory unit are −
1. Works to store all the data and the instructions required for processing.
2. Works to store intermediate results of processing.
3. Works to store the final results of processing before these results are
forwarded to an output device.
4. All inputs and outputs are supplied through the main memory.

Control Unit
 This unit manages the operations of all parts of the computer but does not carry out
any calculations or comparisons or actual data processing operations.
 Responsibilities of this unit are −
1. For facilitating the transfer of data and instructions among other units of a
system.
2. It manages and coordinates all the units of the system.
3. It receives the instructions from the memory, interprets them, and directs the
operation of the system.
4. It interacts with Input/output units to transfer of data/results from storage.
5. It does not performs processes or store data.

Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

This unit consists of two subsections namely,
1. Arithmetic Section: Responsibility of the arithmetic unit is to execute
arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. Complete
set of complex operations are executed by making iterative use of the above
operations.
2. Logic Section: Responsibility of logic unit is to execute logic operations like

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Input Devices
Some of the Commonly used input units used in a computer system are follows:
1. Keyboard
2. Mouse
3. Joy Stick
4. Light pen
5. Track Ball
6. Scanner
7. Graphic Tablet
8. Microphone
9. Magnetic Ink Card Reader (MICR)
10. Optical Character Reader (OCR)
11. Bar Code Reader
12. Optical Mark Reader (OMR)

Keyboard
 Keyboard is the most basic, and very commonly
used input device which helps to input data to the
computer. The layout of the buttons in a normally
used keyboard is similar to the traditional
typewriter, but there are a few additional keys
provided by different manufacturers for performing
additional functions.
 Normally available keyboards in market were of two sizes 84 keys and 101/102
keys, but now keyboards with 104 keys or 108 keys are also available for Windows
and Internet.
 Following is the description of the buttons on the keyboard:

1. Typing Keys
 These buttons include the letter keys (A-Z) and digit keys (09) which normally
give the same layout like typewriters.

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2. Numeric Keypad
 These buttons are used to input the numeric data or cursor movement.
Normally, it consists of a set of 17 keys that are laid out in the similar
configuration used by most addition machines and calculators.

3. Function Keys
 The 12 function keys are provided on the keyboard which are arranged in a
row at the top of the keyboard. Each of these keys has a unique function and
is used for some specific task.

4. Control keys
 These buttons are used to cursor and screen control. It also adds four
directional arrow keys. Following are also included in control keys: Home,
End, Insert, Delete, Page Up, Page Down, Control (Ctrl), Alternate (Alt),
Escape (Esc).

5. Special Purpose Keys

 A regular keyboard also contains some special purpose buttons like Enter,
Shift, Caps Lock, Num Lock, Space bar, Tab, and Print Screen.

Mouse
 It is the most commonly used pointing device. It is a
very famous cursor-control device and the earlier
versions of it was built over a small palm size box
with a round ball at its base, which tracks the
movement of the mouse and feed digital signals to
the CPU when the mouse buttons are pressed.
Currently, mouse have a sensor at bottom to detect
cursor position.
 Basic versions if it has two buttons called the left and the right click button and a
wheel is present between the buttons to provide scroll function. The movement of
mouse on flat surface is used to control the position of the cursor on the display, but
it cannot be used to feed text into the system directly.

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Advantages
 Easy to use
 Not very expensive
 The cursor movement is faster than the arrow keys of the keyboard.

Joystick
 Just like a mouse, Joystick is also a pointing device, which is used
to travel the cursor position on a display. It is a perpendicular stick
having a spherical ball at its both lower and upper ends. The
spherical ball connected at the circuit having sensors moves in a
socket. The joystick controller can be traversed in all directions.
 The functionality of the joystick is just like a mouse. Its applications
are generally in Computer Aided Designing (CAD) and playing computer games.

Light Pen
 Just like a pen, light pen is a digital pointing device. This
device is used to select an item displayed in the menu or
to draw anything on the display. It contains a photocell
and an optical sensor placed in a small tube at the tip.
 When the light pen tip is travelled on the display, its
photocell sensing element calculates the screen location
and sends the digital signal to the CPU.

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Track Ball
 Track ball is another type of input device similar to
the mouse. It is mostly helpful with notebook or
laptop computer, instead of a mouse. It consists a
ball on the top which is half inserted and
connected to the sensors. By moving fingers on
the ball, the cursor can be moved.
 Because the whole device is not moved to move the cursor, a track ball requires
less space as compared to the mouse. This device comes in different shapes like a
ball, a button, or a square.

Scanner
 Scanner is another input device, which works very
much like a photocopy machine. It can be used when
some information on paper is to be transferred to the
hard disk of the computer in digital format for further
manipulation.
 Scanner captures high resolution images from the source
which are then converted into a digital format that can be saved on the disk and
shared digitally. These digital images can be edited before they are printed.

Digitizer
 Digitizer is also an input device which is used to convert
analog information into digital form. Using digitizer, signal
from the television or camera can be converted into a
series of numbers that could be saved in a computer hard
drive. They can be helpful with the computer to create a
picture of whatever the camera had been pointed at.

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 Digitizer is also called Tablet or Graphics Tablet because it transforms graphics and
pictorial data into binary inputs to the system. A special kind of graphic tablet as
digitizer is used for fine works of drawing and image related applications.

Microphone
 Microphone is a very common input device used to input
sound that is then stored in a digital form.
 Now a days microphones are used in almost every
industry and devices related to sound recording or
transmission.
 The microphone is used for different applications like adding sound to a multimedia
presentation or for mixing music.

Magnetic Ink Card Reader (MICR)

 MICR input device is commonly seen in banks as there are huge
amount of cheques to be processed every day. The important
details like bank's code number and cheque number are printed
on the cheques with a specially designed ink based on the
particles of magnetic material that readable by the sensors of the
machine.
 This process of reading is known as Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR).
The main benefits of using MICR is that it is comparatively fast and less prone to
errors.

Optical Character Reader (OCR)

 It is an input device which is used to read a printed text similar to
the scanner, but the method of reading and the type of output
generated is different.

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 The format to be fed to the OCR is predefined and can’t be used like an ordinary
scanner.
 OCR, unlike scanner, scans the text optically, character by character, converts them
into a machine readable digital code instead of creating high resolution images, and
stores the text on the system memory.

Bar Code Readers

 Bar Code Reader is an input device used to read
special format bar coded data (data in the form of
light and dark lines). Bar coded data is commonly
used to create price tags, in labelling goods,
numbering the books, etc. It can be a handheld
scanner or can be embedded in a stationary scanner
on the table top.

 A flash of light from the device strikes to the surface of the object and reflects back
to the sensors present behind the source of light to collect the input.

 Bar Code Reader can only scan a bar code image, converts it into an alphanumeric
value, which is then transferred to the computer that the bar code reader is
connected to.

Optical Mark Readers (OMR)

 OMR is a special type of input machine. This
kind of optical scanner is used to recognize the
type of mark made by pen or pencil. It is used
where one out of a predefined alternatives is to
be selected and marked.
 The format to be fed to the OMR is predefined and can’t be used like an ordinary
scanner.
 It is specially used for automation of the answer sheet analysis of examinations
having multiple choice questions.

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Output Devices
Following are some of the commonly used output devices used in a computer system:
1. Monitors
2. Printer

Monitors
 Monitors or Visual Display Unit (VDU), are the primary output device of a computer
system. It creates images from tiny dots, so called pixels that are arranged in a well-
defined rectangular form. The depth and sharpness of the image depends upon the
number and sized of the pixels.
 There are two types of digital screen used for monitors:
1. Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT)
2. Flat-Panel Display

Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT)

 The CRT display consists small picture elements
known as pixels. The tinier the pixels, the greater
the image clarity or resolution. It requires a very
large number of pixels emitting light to create a
character, just like the letter ‘e’ in the word help.
 A limited number of characters can be arranged on
a screen at a time. The screen can be categorized
into a series of character boxes - fixed place on the
screen where a standard character can be shown.
The capability of earlier screens was of displaying 80 characters of data horizontally
and 25 lines vertically.
 There are some disadvantages of CRT −
1. Large in Size
2. High power consumption

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Flat-Panel Display Monitor

 The flat-panel display is a class of video output
devices that have decreased volume, weight and
power requirement as compared to the CRT. It is
possible to hang them on walls or wear them on
wrists. In everyday evolving technology, uses of flat-
panel displays include calculators, video games,
monitors, laptop computer, and graphics display.
 The flat-panel display is categorized into following
two categories −
1. Emissive Displays − Emissive displays
panels are output devices that transforms electrical energy into light. For
instance, plasma panel and LED (Light-Emitting Diodes).
2. Non-Emissive Displays − Non-emissive displays are based on optical
effects to transform sunlight or light from some other source into graphics
patterns. For example, LCD (Liquid-Crystal Device).

Printers
 Printer is a very commonly used output device, which is used to print information on
paper.
 There are two types of printers −
1. Impact Printers
2. Non-Impact Printers

Impact Printers
 Impact printers print by hitting the characters on the ribbon containing ink, which is
then pressed on the paper.
 following are the characteristics of Impact Printers −
1. Very low consumable costs
2. Very noisy
3. Useful for bulk printing due to low cost

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4. There is physical contact of the embossed characters with the paper to

produce an image
 These printers are of two types −
1. Character printers
2. Line printers

Character Printers
 Character printers are the type of printers that are capable of printing only one
character at a time.
 These can be further categorized into two types:
1. Dot Matrix Printer (DMP)
2. Daisy Wheel

Dot Matrix Printers

 In the earlier days, one of the most commonly used printers were Dot Matrix Printer.
These printers were used most commonly because of their ease of usage, printing
and affordable printing price. Every character to be printed on paper is created by
rearranging matrix of metallic pins of size (5x7, 7x9, 9x7 or 9x9) at very fast speed
which come out to create a character which is why it is known as Dot Matrix Printer.
 Advantages:
 Inexpensive
 Widely Used
 Other language characters can be printed
 Disadvantages:
 Slow Speed
 Too much heat generation
 Poor Quality

Daisy Wheel
 Head is fixed on a wheel and pins creating characters are like petals of Daisy
(flower) that is why it is known as Daisy Wheel
Printer. These printers are commonly used for word-
processing tasks in offices that need a very less
number of letters to be sent here and there with very
nice quality.

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 Advantages:
 More reliable than DMP
 Better quality
 Fonts of character can be easily changed
 Disadvantages:
 Slower than DMP
 Noisy
 More expensive than DMP

Line Printers
 These printers are capable of printing one line at a time.
 These are of two types −
1. Drum Printer
2. Chain Printer

Drum Printers
 The head of this printer is in the shape of
drum in that is why it is known drum printer.
The printing drum surface is divided into a
number of tracks which are equivalent to the
size of the paper. For instance, if a paper is of
width of 200 characters, then the drum will
have 200 tracks. A fixed character set is
embossed on the track which cannot be
altered any means. To use a different character set, a different drum needs to be
purchased like the one with 48 character set, or 64 and 96 characters set. Single
rotation of drum containing permanent characters prints a single line. These printers
are offer fast printing speed and can print 300 to 2000 lines per minute.
 Advantages:
 Very high speed
 Disadvantages:
 Very expensive
 Characters fonts cannot be changed
 obsolete

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Chain Printers
 In this type printer, a chain consisting of character set is used, that is why it is known
as Chain Printer. The predefined-standard character set can have 48, 64, or 96
characters.
 Advantages:
 It is easier to change character fonts.
 Different languages can be used by replacing chains with the same printer.
 Disadvantages:
 Noisy

Chain Printers
 In this type printer, a chain consisting of character set is used, that is why it is known
as Chain Printer. The predefined-standard character set can have 48, 64, or 96
characters.
 Advantages:
 It is easier to change character fonts.
 Different languages can be used by replacing chains with the same printer.
 Disadvantages:
 Noisy

Non-Impact Printers
 Non-impact printers do not hit the paper with any embossed character-containing
instrument. These printers are able to print a complete page all at once, this is the
reason why they are also known as Page Printers.

 These printers are of two types −

 Laser Printers
 Inkjet Printers

 Characteristics of Non-impact Printers

 Faster than impact printers
 They are not noisy
 High quality
 Supports many fonts and different character size

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Chain Printers
 These are very commonly used these days and are type of non-impact page
printers. They use laser lights to charge the metallic drum in shape of characters or
objects to be printed which attracts powdered ink. Then this drum is pressed over
the page to create printed output.
 Advantages
 Very high speed
 Very high quality output
 Good graphics quality
 Supports many fonts and different character
size
 Disadvantages
 Expensive
 Produces heat
 Difficult to maintain

Inkjet Printers

 Inkjet printers are also very commonly used printers these days. They use ink
cartridges to print characters by spraying small drops of ink in very precise manner
onto the paper. Inkjet printers are very versatile and can produce relatively high
quality output with presentable features.
 They make very less noise as compared to other printers because no hammering is
done and these have many different modes of printing. Using these printers, color
printing is also possible. Some advanced and
newer models of Inkjet printers are capable
enough to produce multiple number copies of
printing also.
 Advantages
 High quality printing
 More reliable
 Disadvantages
 Expensive as the cost per page is high
 Slow as compared to laser printer

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Booting
Starting a computer or a computer-embedded device is called booting. Booting takes
place in two steps −

 Switching on power supply

 Loading operating system into computer’s main memory

 Keeping all applications in a state of readiness in case needed by the user

The first program or set of instructions that run when the computer is switched on is
called BIOS or Basic Input Output System. BIOS is a firmware, i.e. a piece of
software permanently programmed into the hardware.

If a system is already running but needs to be restarted, it is called rebooting.

Rebooting may be required if a software or hardware has been installed or system is
unusually slow.

There are two types of booting −

 Cold Booting − When the system is started by switching on the power supply it is
called cold booting. The next step in cold booting is loading of BIOS.

 Warm Booting − When the system is already running and needs to be restarted or
rebooted, it is called warm booting. Warm booting is faster than cold booting
because BIOS is not reloaded.

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Internet
 The Internet is a huge collection of networks, a networking infrastructure. It
encapsulates millions of computers together globally, forming a network in which
any computer can communicate with any other computer as long as they are both
connected to the Internet. In other words, it is a worldwide system of cross
connected computer networks, connecting millions of devices through which
exchange of information such as data, news and opinions etc. is possible.

 It utilizes the TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) to aid billions

of users across the globe. So, TCP/IP can be called the backbone of the Internet. It
is considered as a network of networks that consists of thousands of private and
public, academic, business, and government interconnections. The Internet is often
considered as “The Information Highway”, that implies that there is a straight and
clear way of obtaining information. It connects thousands of computer networks.
Each device connected to the Internet is known as host, and is independent.
Through telephone wires, Fiber optical cable and satellite links, Internet users can
share a variety of information.

 The Internet is defined as an Information super Highway, to access information over

the web. However, It can be defined in many ways as follows:

 The Internet is a world-wide global system of interconnected computer

networks.

 The Internet uses the standard Internet Protocol (TCP/IP).

 Each device connected to the internet is identified by its unique IP address.

 IP Address is a unique set of numbers (such as [Link]) which

identifies a computer location.

 A special computer DNS (Domain Name Server) is used to give a name to

the IP Address so that the user can locate a computer by a name.

 For example, a DNS server will resolve a name [Link] to a

particular IP address to uniquely identify the computer on which this website
is hosted.

 The Internet is available to each and every user across the globe.

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Evolution
 The methodology of Internet was coined in 1969 and has undergone various
technological & Infrastructural amendments that are discussed below:
 The origin of the Internet devised from the concept of Advanced Research Project
Agency Network (ARPANET).
 ARPANET was designed by the Department of Defence of The United States.
 The primary motive of ARPANET was to facilitate communication among the
different bodies of the government.
 At that time, there existed only four nodes, formally named Hosts.
 In 1972, the ARPANET spread over the globe with 23 nodes located in different
countries and thus became known as the Internet.
 By the time, with invention of new technologies such as TCP/IP protocols, DNS,
WWW, browsers, scripting languages etc., the Internet provided a medium to
publish and access information over the web.

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Advantages
 The Internet covers almost every aspect of life, one can think of. Here, we will
discuss some of the advantages of Internet:

 The Internet allows us to communicate with the people sitting at remote locations.
There are various apps available on the web that use the Internet as a medium for
communication. Users can find different social networking sites. Following are
examples of few Social Networking sites:
 Facebook
 Twitter
 Yahoo
 Flickr

 Anyone can surf for various kinds of information using the internet. Information
related to different topics such as Technology, Geographical Information, Health &
Science, Social Studies, Information Technology, Products etc can be surfed using a
search engine.
 Apart from communication and source of information, the internet also serves a
medium for entertainment. Following are the various modes for entertainment over
the internet.

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 Online Television
 Online Games
 Songs
 Videos
 Social Networking Apps
 Internet allows us to use many services like:
 Internet Banking
 Matrimonial Services
 Online Shopping
 Online Ticket Booking
 Online Bill Payment
 Data Sharing
 E-mail
 The Internet facilitates the concept of electronic commerce, that aids the business
deals to be processed on electronic systems.

Disadvantages
 However, Internet is evolved to be a powerful medium of information in almost all
areas, yet there are many associated disadvantages discussed below:

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 There is always the possibility to lose personal information such as name, address,
credit card number. Therefore, users must be very vigilant while sharing this type of
information. Users must use credit cards only via authenticated websites.
 Another disadvantage is the Spamming. Spamming corresponds to the unwanted
emails in bulk. These emails serve no purpose and lead to obstruction of the entire
system.
 Virus can easily be spread to the computers connected to the internet. Such virus
attacks may cause the user's system to crash or the user's important data may get
deleted.
 There are different websites that do not supply the authenticated information. This
leads to misconception among many people.

Intranet
 Intranet is defined as a private network of computers within an organization with its
own server and firewall.
Moreover we can define
Intranet as:
 The Internet is a system
in which multiple PCs are
networked to be
connected to each other.
PCs on the intranet are
not available to the world
outside of the intranet.
 Normally each company
or organization holds their
own Intranet network and
members/employees of
that company collaborate
via access to the computers in their intranet.
 Each computer in Intranet is also identified by an IP Address, which is unique
among the computers in that Intranet.

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Benefits
 Intranet is considered as a very efficient and reliable network infrastructure for any
organization. It is profitable in every aspect such as cost-effectiveness,
collaboration, security, productivity and much more.

 Communication: Intranet facilitates easy and cheap interconnection within an

organization. Employees can communicate through chat, e-mail or blogs.
 Time Saving: Information to be shared on Intranet is shared in real time.
 Collaboration: Information is shared among the employees of the organization
according to the need and it can be traversed by the authorized users, comprising
enhanced teamwork.
 Platform Independency: It is possible to connect computers and other
devices on the Intranet with different architectures.
 Cost Effective: Employees may see the data and other documents through a
browser instead of printing them and distributing duplicate copies to the employees,
which considerably decreases the cost.
 Workforce Productivity: Data and information is available all the time and can
be accessed through company workstation. This aids the employees to work faster.
 Business Management: There is a provision to deploy applications that facilitates
the business operations.

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 Security: Since information distributed over on intranet can only be retrieved

within an organization, therefore there is almost no possibility of being stolen.
 Specific Users: Intranet targets only exclusive users within an organization
that is why, once can exactly know with whom is he/she interacting.
 Immediate Updates: Any changes implemented to information are refl ected at
the same time to all the users.
 Issues: Apart from several benefi ts of Intranet, there also exist some
problems. These issues are described in the given diagram:

Application
 Intranet applications are the same as that of Internet applications. Intranet
applications can be also accessed via a web browser. The only difference is that,
Intranet applications reside on local servers while Internet applications reside on
remote servers. Here, we've discussed some of these applications:

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 Document publication applications: Document publication programs facilitate

publishing documents like manuals, software guide, employee profits etc without
using paper.
 Electronic resources applications: It offers digital resources such as software
applications, templates and tools, to be distributed across the network.
 Interactive Communication applications: Like on the internet, it is possible to
have email and chat like applications for Intranet, hence providing an interactive
communication among employees.
 Support for Internet Applications: Intranet offers an environment to deploy
and test applications before placing them on the Internet.
 Internet vs. Intranet: Apart from similarities there are some differences
between the two. Following are the differences between Internet and Intranet:

Intranet Internet
Localized Network. Worldwide Network
Doesn't have access to Intranet Have access to the Internet.
More Expensive Less Expensive
More Safe Less Safe
More Reliability Less Reliability

Extranet
 Extranet refers to a network
within an organization, using the
internet to connect to the
outsiders in a controlled manner.
It aids to interconnect businesses
with their customers and
suppliers and in turn allows
working in a collaborative
manner.

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Implementation
 Extranet is implemented as a Virtual Private Networks (VPN) because it uses the
internet to connect to corporate organizations and there is always a threat to
information security. VPN facilitates a secure network in public infrastructure
(Internet).

 Key Points
1. The packet is wrapped at the boundary of networks in IPSEC compliant
routers.
2. It utilizes an encryption key to associate packets and IP addresses as well.
3. The packet is decoded only by the IPSEC compliant routers or servers.
4. The digital information is shared over VPN via VPN Tunnel and this process
is called tunneling.
 VPN utilizes Internet Protocol Security Architecture (IPSEC) Protocol to facilitate
secure transactions by implementing an additional security layer to TCP/IP protocol.
This layer is implemented by encapsulating the IP packet to a new IP packet as
described in the following diagram:

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Benefits
 Extranet has proven to be a successful model for various kinds of businesses even
if they are small or big. following are few of the advantages of extranet for business
partners, employees, suppliers, and customers:

Issues
 Apart from advantages there are also some issues associated with extranet. These
issues are discussed below:

Hosting
 Where the extranet pages will be held i.e. who will host the extranet pages. In this
context there are two choices:
1. May host it on the user's own server.
2. May host it along with an Internet Service Provider (ISP) in the similar way as
web pages.
 But hosting extranet pages on a user's own server requires high bandwidth internet
connection which is comparatively very costly.

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Security
 Additional firewall security is required if the user hosts extranet pages on the user's
own server which result in a complex security mechanism and increased workload.

Accessing Issues
 Information cannot be accessed in absence of internet connection. However,
information may be accessed within Intranet with no internet connection.

Decreased Interaction
 It reduces the face to face interaction in the business which results in lack of
communication among customers, business partners and suppliers.

Extranet vs. Intranet

The following table shows differences between Extranet and Intranet:

Extranet Intranet

Internal network that can be accessed externally. Internal network that cannot be
accessed externally.
Extranet is an extension of the company's Intranet. Only limited users of a company.
For controlled external communication between Only for communication within a
customers, suppliers and business partners. company.

Internet Services
 Internet Services allow us to access a huge amount of information such as text,
graphics, sound and software over the internet. The diagram given below shows the
four different categories of Internet Services.

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Communication Services
 There are different communication Services available that facilitate exchange of
information among individuals or groups. The following table provides a brief
introduction to such services:

S. No. Service Description

1 Electronic Mail: Used to send electronic messages over the internet.

2 Telnet: Used to log on to a remote computer that is connected to the internet.

Newsgroup: Provides a forum for people to discuss ideas of common
3
interests.
Internet Relay Chat (IRC): Allows the people from all over the globe to
4
communicate in real time.
Mailing Lists: Used to organize groups of internet users to share common
5
information through email.
Internet Telephony (VoIP): Allows the internet users to talk across the
6
internet to any PC equipped to receive the call.
Instant Messaging: Offers real time chat between individuals and groups of
7
people. Example: Yahoo messenger, MSN messenger.

Information Retrieval Services

 There are various Information retrieval services facilitating simple access to
information available on the internet. The table given below provides a brief
introduction to these services:

S. No. Service Description

1 File Transfer Protocol (FTP): Enable the users to transfer fi les.

Archie: It's an updated database of public FTP sites and their content. It helps
2
to find a file by using its name.
Gopher: It is utilized to retrieve, search, and display documents on remote
3
sites.
VERONICA (Very Easy Rodent Oriented Net wide Index to Computer
4 Achieved): VERONICA is a resource based on gopher. It facilitates access to
the information resource saved on gopher’s servers.

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Web Services
 Web services facilitate exchange of information among applications on the web.
Through web services, applications can simply interact with each other.
 The web services are offered using the concept of Utility Computing.

World Wide Web (WWW)

 WWW is also known as W3. It offers a medium to access documents distributed
over several servers all over the internet. These documents can consist of texts,
graphics, audio, video, hyperlinks. The hyperlinks facilitate the users to navigate
through the documents.

Video Conferencing
 Video conferencing or Video teleconferencing is a way of communicating by two-
way video and audio transmission with help of telecommunication technologies.

Modes of Video Conferencing

Point - to - Point
 This mode of conferencing connects two locations only.

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Multi Point
 Such mode of conferencing established connection between more than two
locations via Multipoint Control Unit (MCU).

Internet Protocols
Transmission Control Protocols (TCP)
TCP is basically a connection oriented protocol and offers end-to-end packet delivery. It
acts as a back bone for connection. It exhibits the following key features:
 Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) works at the Transport Layer of OSI Model.
 TCP is a reliable and connection oriented protocol.
 TCP offers:
 Stream Data Transfer.
 Reliability.
 Efficient Flow Control
 Full-duplex operation.
 Multiplexing.
 TCP offers connection oriented end-to-end packet delivery.
 TCP ensures reliability by sequencing bytes with a forwarding acknowledgement
number that indicates to the destination the next byte the source expects to receive.
 It retransmits the bytes not acknowledged within a specified time period.

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TCP Security
 TCP facilitates the following services to the processes at the application layer:
 Stream Delivery Service
 Sending and Receiving Buffers
 Bytes and Segments
 Full Duplex Service
 Connection Oriented Service
 Reliable Service

1. Stream Deliver Service: TCP protocol is stream oriented as it permits the

sending process to send data as stream of bytes and the receiving process to
retrieve data as stream of bytes.

 Sending and Receiving Buffers: It may not be possible for the sending and
receiving process to produce and obtain data at same speed, therefore, TCP needs
buffers for storage at sending and receiving ends.

 Bytes and Segments: The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), at the

transport layer, groups the bytes into small entities, or packets. This packet is known
as segment. Prior transmission of such packets, these segments are encapsulated
into an IP datagram.

 Full Duplex Service: Transmission of the data in duplex mode simply defi nes
the flow of data in both the directions at the same time.

 Connection Oriented Service: TCP facilitates connection oriented service in

the given sequence:

 TCP of the first process informs TCP of the second process and gets its
approval.

 TCP of the first process and TCP of the second process and exchange data
in both the two directions.

 After completion of the exchange of data, when buffers on both of the sides
are empty, the two TCP’s destroy their buffers.

6. Reliable Service: For sake of reliability, TCP uses an acknowledgement

mechanism.

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Internet Protocols (IP)

 Internet Protocol is connectionless and unreliable protocol. It ensures no guarantee
of successful transmission of data.
 In order to make it reliable, it should be paired with reliable protocols such as TCP at
the transport layer.
 Internet protocol shares the data in format of so called a datagram as shown in the
following diagram:

 Points to remember:
1. The length of the datagram is variable.
2. The Datagram can be segmented into two parts: header and data.
3. The associated length of its header is around 20 to 60 bytes.
4. The header contains information for routing and delivery of the packet.

User Datagram Protocols (UDP)

 Like IP, UDP is a connectionless and unreliable protocol. It is not required to make a
connection with the host to transmit the data. Since UDP is an unreliable protocol,
there is no mechanism for ensuring that data sent is received.
 UDP distributes the data in the format of a datagram. The UDP datagram contains
five segments as shown in the following diagram:

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 Points to remember:
1. UDP is utilized by the application that typically transmits a small quantity of
data at one time.
2. UDP provides protocol port utilized i.e. UDP message consists of both source
and destination port number, that makes it easier for UDP software at the
destination to divert the message to the right application program.

File Transfer Protocols (FTP)

FTP facilitates copying of files from one host to another. FTP facilitates the mechanism
for the same in given sequence:
1. FTP defines 2 processes, namely, Control Process and Data Transfer
Process at both ends, i.e., at client as well as at server.
2. FTP creates two different types of connections: one is for the purpose of data
transfer and another is for controlling the information.
3. Control connection is established between control processes while Data
Connection is established between <="" b="">
4. FTP utilizes port 21 for the purpose of control connection and Port 20 for the
purpose of data connection.

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Trivial File Transfer Protocols (TFTP)

 Trivial File Transfer Protocol is also utilized for the transfer of the files but it transfers
the files with no authentication. Opposite to the FTP, TFTP does not differentiate
control and data information. As no authentication exists, TFTP has no security
features therefore it is not recommended to opt for TFTP.
 Key points
1. TFTP utilizes UDP for data transport. Every TFTP message is transmitted in
a separate UDP datagram.
2. The first 2 bytes of a TFTP message defines the type of message.
3. The TFTP session is started when a TFTP client requests to upload or
download a file.
4. The request is transferred from an ephemeral UDP port to the UDP port 69 of
the TFTP server.
 Difference between FTP and TFTP
S. No. Parameter FTP TFTP
1 Operation Transferring Files Transferring Files
2 Authentication Yes No
3 Protocol TCP UDP
4 Ports 21 – Control, 20 – Data Port 3214, 69, 4012
5 Control and Data Separated Separated
6 Data Transfer Reliable Unreliable

Telnet
 Telnet is a protocol used to log in to remote computers on the internet. There are a
number of Telnet clients having user friendly interfaces. The following diagram
elaborates that a person is logged into the computer named A, and from there, he
remotely logged into computer named B:

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Hyper Text Transfer Protocols (HTTP)

 HTTP is a communication protocol. It defines a mechanism for communication
between browser and the web server. It is also known as the request and response
protocol as the communication between browser and server takes place in request
and response pairs.

HTTP Request
 HTTP request comprises of lines which contains:
1. Request line
2. Header Fields
3. Message body
 Key Points
1. The first line i.e. the Request line specifies the request method i.e. Get or Post.
2. The second line defines the header which reflects the domain name of the server
from where [Link] is retrieved.

HTTP Response
 Like HTTP requests, HTTP response also has a certain structure. HTTP response
contains:
1. Status line
2. Headers
3. Message body

Basic Internet Terms

Domain

While every computer has its own unique address, every user using the Internet has a
unique address called a domain. A domain recognizes one or more IP addresses. An
example of a domain is [Link] and is part of the URL such as https://
[Link]. The standard top-level domains are:

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 com - Commercial business

 edu - Educational institutions

 gov - Government agencies

 mil - Military

 net - Networks organization

 org - Organizations (nonprofit)

There are additional top-level domains that are now recognized on the Internet. They
include:

 aero - Air-transport industry

 biz - Businesses

 coop - Cooperatives

 info - Unrestricted use

 museum - museums

 pro - Accountants, lawyers, physicians, and other professionals

 tv - Television

Browser

A piece of software such as Mozilla Firefox and Internet Explorer that allows a computer
to access and display documents, view pictures, hear sound, and view video clips from
the World Wide Web.

E-mail

Mail that's electronically transmitted by your computer. As opposed to snail mail, e-mail
sends your messages instantaneously, anywhere in the world. It has the capability to
send messages at any time and to anyone.

File Transfer Protocol (FTP)

The standard method for downloading and uploading files over the Internet. With FTP,
you can login to a server and transfer files (meaning you can "send" or "receive" files).

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Homepage

The first page that is viewed when the browser starts. It is also the page of a Web site
that provides the introduction or content with links.

Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)

The abbreviation for Hypertext Transfer Protocol. It is the set of rules by which Web
pages are transferred across the Internet.

Internet Protocol (IP) Address

The Internet is composed of local, regional, national, and worldwide computer networks.
Each computer on the Internet can be identified by a set of unique numbers that is
called an internet protocol (IP) address. The IP address is composed of four different
numbers separated by periods such as [Link].

Link or Hypertext Link

An underlined word(s), phrase(s), or graphics on a Web page that transports the reader
to additional or related information on the Internet.

TelNet

A terminal emulation protocol (or Internet program) used to connect a computer to a

remote host or server. Telnet is one of the oldest Internet activities and is primarily used
to access online databases or to read articles stored on university servers.

Uniform Resource Locator (URL)

An addressing scheme that is used on the Internet to locate resources and/or services
on the World Wide Web. Basically the URL is the address of a computer file that has
been put on a computer server to access the Internet.

Web Page

A single hypertext file or a page that is part of a Web site.

Website

A collection of World Wide Web pages or files.

Address

It is a series of letters and numbers that identify a location.

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Cyberspace

Refers to all computer networks on the internet

Navigate

The act of moving from page to page and website to website online.

Piracy

illegally copying copyrighted software, music or movies.

Spam (electronic junk mail) :

It is an unwanted email from someone we don’t know.

Website :

A collection of “pages” or files linked together and available on the world Wide Web.

Attachment:

This is a file that has been added to an e-mail.

Chat:

A real-time communication over the internet.

Cyber bullying

Sending or posting harmful or cruel text or images using the internet or other digital
communication devices.

Icons:

Small pictures that represent the program on your computer.

Post

To leave a message on a newsgroup or bulletin board.

Query

A request for information about certain topic. It is what you put in the box when you
type something into the search engine.

Blog (Web Log)

Usually defines as a personal or noncommercial web site that uses a dated log format.

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Emoticons

An animated faces that express different emotions

Outbox

This is where all of the messages that you send are kept.

Server

A special software package that connects to a network and provides data.

Surf

To search for information on the web in a random , non-linear way.

Bookmark:

A way to quickly access a favorite web site by saving it in your browser.

Hacker:

A popular term for someone who accesses computer information either legally or
illegally.

Internet Service Provider (ISP)

A company that provides internet access to customers

Spamming

A mass mailing sent as Instant Messages to users.

Hypertext Markup language (HTML)

The coded format language used for creating documents on the world wide web and
controlling how web pages appear.

Cookie :

Also known as an HTTP cookie, web cookie, or browser cookie.A small file downloaded
by some web sites to store a packet of information on your browser.

History:

A list of websites the people are using a particular computer have visited.

Netiquette

Proper use of internet.

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Plug-in

A program that extends the capabilities of your computer.

Softcopy

An electronic version of a file on your computer.

Domain Name

A name given to the numerical or internet protocol (IP) address of a web site.

Firewall

This is a system that creates a special “wall” used by network servers to separate their
intranet from internet

Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)

The standard method computers use to communicate via the world wide web.

Pharming

An online scam that attacks the browser’s address bar.

Phishing

An online scam that uses e-mail to “fish” for users’ private information by imitating
legitimate companies.

Streaming (media)

The exchange of video clips, sounds or other types of media over the internet.

Transmission Control Protocol/ internet Protocol (TCP/IP)

The protocol or conventions that computers use to communicate over the internet.

Zip File

Large files that have been compressed to make them easier to send over the internet

List of most popular browser

 Firefox

 Google Chrome

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 Microsoft Edge

 Apple Safari

 Opera

 Brave

 Vivaldi

 DuckDuckgo

 Chromium

 Epic

Best Search Engines in The World

1. Google : Google Search Engine is the best search engine in the world and it is
also one of most popular products from Google. Almost 70 percent of the Search
Engine market has been acquired by Google. The tech giant is always evolving and
looking to improve the search engine algorithm to provide best results to the end-user.
Although Google appears to be the biggest search engine, as of 2015 YouTube is now
more popular than Google (on desktop computers).

2. Bing : Bing is Microsoft’s answer to Google and it was launched in 2009. Bing is the
default search engine in Microsoft’s web browser. At Bing, they are always striving to
make it a better search engine but it’s got a long way to go to give Google competition.
Microsoft’s search engine provides different services including image, web and video
search along with maps. Bing introduced Places (Google’s equivalent is Google My
Business), this is a great platform for business to submit their details to optimise their
search results.

3. Yahoo : Yahoo & Bing compete more with each other than with Google. A
recent report on [Link] tells us that Yahoo have a market share of 7.68
percent. Although a leader as a free email provider, this is declining significantly though
with their recent acknowledgement that User Details & Passwords where hacked last
year.

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4. Baidu : Baidu is the most used search engine in China and was founded in Jan,
2000 by Chinese Entrepreneur, Eric Xu. This web search is made to deliver results for
website, audio files and images. It provides some other services including maps, news,
cloud storage and much more.

5. AOL : [Link] is also among the top search engines. These are the guys that used
to send out CD’s which you’d load onto your PC to install their browser and modem
software. Once the pre-eminent player they now have a market share of 0.59 percent.
Verizon Communication bought AOL for $4.4 billion. It was started back in 1983 as
Control Video Corporation. It was named America Online in 1991 and in 2009 as AOL
Inc. AOL is a global mass media company which is based in New York. The company
also provides advertising services as AOL Advertising, AOL mail and AOL Platform.

6. [Link] : Founded in 1995, [Link], previously known as Ask Jeeves. Their

key concept was to have search results based on a simple question + answer web
format. It is a question & answer community where you can get the answers for your
question and it integrates a large amount of archive data to answer your question.
Because of this dependency on archived and active user contributions the results will
not be as current as those you get in Google, Bing and Yahoo. They’ve tried to counter
where their resources don’t have the answer they take help from a third-party search
engine. Interestingly they don’t name who this is.

7. Excite : Excite is not widely known but is one that still gets into the top 10.
Excite is an online service portal that provides internet services like email, search
engine, news, instant messaging and weather updates. This also provides us with the
latest trends, topics and search for phrases such as: What can President Trump
actually do?

8. DuckDuckGo : DuckDuckGo is a popular search engine known for protecting

the privacy of the users. Unlike [Link] they are quite open about who they use to
generate search results; they’ve partnered with Yahoo, Bing and Yummly. It was
founded back in 2008 by Gabriel Weinberg in California and its revenue come from
Yahoo-Bing search alliance network and Affiliates.

9. Wolfram Alpha : Wolfram Alpha is a computational knowledge search engine which

does not give list of documents or web pages as search results. Results are based on
facts & data about that query. Their mission statement is to make all systematic
knowledge computable and broadly accessible. Launched in 2009, they now have a Pro
solution designed with pricing for Students and Educators. Much as it’s targeted, it’s an
awesome tool for the right market.

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10. Yandex : Launched in 1997, Yandex is most used search engine in Russia.
Yandex also has a great presence in Ukraine, Kazakhstan, Belarus and Turkey. It
provides services like Yandex Maps, Yandex Music, online translator, Yandex Money
and many other services.

11. Lycos : Lycos has a good reputation in search engine industry. Its key areas
served are email, web hosting, social networking, and entertainment websites.

12. [Link] - December 2016 UPDATE: ChaCha ceased trading due to

declining advertising revenues : [Link] is a human-guided search engine and
was founded in 2006. You can ask anything in its search box and you will be answered
in real-time. It also provides mobile search and marketing services. You can also install
its mobile apps on iPhone, iPad and Android.

Social Networking Sites

 Facebook

 WhatsApp

 QQ

 WeChat

 QZone

 Tumblr

 Instagram

 Twitter

 Google+ ( No Longer Available )

 Baidu Tieba

 Skype

 Viber

 Sina Weibo

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 LINE

 Snapchat

 Pinterest

 LinkedIn

 Telegram

 Reddit

 Myspace

Top E-Commerce Site

 Amazon.

 Ali Baba.

 eBay.

 Jingdong.

 Zappos.

 Rakuten.

 Home Depot.

 Flipkart.

 Snapdeal

 Ali Baba

 Snanpdeal

 Myntra

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DBMS or Database
Management System

Meaning of Database (DB)

 Any piece of information can be referred to as a data and the place where this data
is stored in a way that it is easily accessible and can also be modifi ed
whenever required is known as a Database.

 DBMS is actually a tool or collection of programs that enables us to perform any kind
of operation on a data stored in a database. Database Management System allows
you to store, modify and extract information whenever required. It comprises of 4
essential components namely -

1. User: A user may be of any kind like a DB administrator, system

developer and an end user.

2. Database Applications: It may be departmental, personal computer or

an enterprise.

3. DBMS: software which allows us to manage the data stored in

database.

4. Database.

DBMS Examples
 RDBMS (Relational Database  MySQL
Management System)  PostgreSQL
 dBase  Microsoft Access
 Clipper  SQL Server
 FoxPro  Oracle
 FileMaker

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Types of DBMS
There are 4 major types of Database Management Systems:

1. Hierarchical Database - rarely used nowadays, uses one to many relations

for data elements.

2. Network Database - results in complex database structures as it uses many

to many relations.

3. Relational Database Management System (RDBMS) - most popular in the

DBMS market, does not support many to many relations. eg -MySQL, Oracle

4. Object Oriented Database Management System (OODBMS) - products

based on this type of DBMS is still in their infancy, it supports conversion of
data in the form of attributes. E.g.- PostgreSQL

DBMS - Architecture
 DBMS architecture helps in development, implementation, design, and maintenance
of a database that store and organize information for agencies, businesses, and
institutions.

 It is the base of any database management system, which allows it to perform the
functions effectively and efficiently.

 The whole concept of DBMS depends upon its architecture. It can be designed
as centralized, decentralized, or hierarchical.

Types of DBMS Architecture

 1-tier architecture

 2-tier architecture

 3-tier architecture

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In 1-tier architecture,

 In this architecture, the database is directly available to the user. This means that
the user can access the DBMS directly.

 The changes made here will be done directly on the database itself. It does not
provide handy tools for end users.

 1-tier architecture is used for local application development, where programmers

can directly communicate with the database for quick response.

2-tier Architecture

 The 2-tier architecture is similar to the basic client-server. In 2-tier architecture, the
applications on the client end can directly communicate with the database on the
server side. For this interaction, API's such as: ODBC, JDBC are used.

 User interface and application programs are run on the client-side.

 Server side is responsible for providing functionalities such as: query processing and
transaction management.

 To communicate with the DBMS, the client-side application establishes a connection

with the server side.

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3-tier Architecture

 In 3-Tier architecture, there is a layer between the client and the server. In this
architecture, the client cannot communicate with the server directly.

 At the client-end the application interacts with an application server which further
communicates with the database system.

 The end user has no idea about the existence of the database beyond the
application server. The database does not contain any information about any other
user beyond the application.

 3-tier architecture is used in case of large web applications.

Data Models
 A data model is a theory or specification describing how a database is structured
and used.

 A data model is not just a way of structuring data: it also defines a set of operations
that can be performed on the data.

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 The relational model, for example, defines operations such as select, and join.
Although these operations may not be explicit in a particular query language, they
provide the foundation on which a query language is built.

 Common Data Models:

 Hierarchical Model

 Relational Model

 Network Model

 Object Model (Object Oriented Database Management System)

Hierarchical Database Model

 Developed by IBM, is the Oldest database model.

 Represented using a tree-diagram. (Parent-child relationship)

 Each box is called a „Node‟

 The nodes represent a record type.

 A line connecting nodes represents the link.

 Parent-child type is suited for One-to-many relationship between two entities.

 But difficult to implement many-to-many relationship

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Relation Model
 The data is stored in two-dimensional tables (rows and columns). The data is
manipulated based on the relational theory of mathematics.

 Properties of Relational Tables:

 Values Are Atomic

 Each Row is Unique

 Column Values Are of the Same Kind

 The Sequence of Columns is Insignificant

 The Sequence of Rows is Insignificant

 Each Column Has a Unique Name

 A relational database management system (RDBMS) is a DBMS that is based on

the relational model.

 Some well known RDBMS: IBM DB2, Informix, Microsoft SQL Server, Microsoft
Visul Foxpro, MySQL, Oracle, Sybase, Teradata, Microsoft Access

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Network Database Model

A network model is a database model that is designed as a flexible approach to
representing objects and their relationships. A unique feature of the network model is its
schema, which is viewed as a graph where relationship types are arcs and object types
are nodes.

Advantages
The major advantage of network model are-

1.) Conceptual simplicity-Just like the hierarchical model,the network model is also
conceptually simple and easy to design.

2.) Capability to handle more relationship types-The network model can handle the
one to many and many to many relationships which is real help in modeling the real life
situations.

3.) Ease of data access-The data access is easier and flexible than the hierarchical
model.

4.) Data integrity- The network model does not allow a member to exist without an
owner.

5.) Data independence- The network model is better than the hierarchical model in
isolating the programs from the complex physical storage details.

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Disadvantages
1.) System complexity- All the records are maintained using pointers and hence the
whole database structure becomes very complex.

2.) Operational Anomalies- The insertion,deletion and updating operations of any

record require large number of pointers adjustments.

3.) Absence of structural independence-structural changes to the database is very

difficult.

Object Model
 The ODBMS which is an abbreviation for object-oriented database management
system is the data model in which data is stored in form of objects, which are
instances of classes. These classes and objects together make an object-
oriented data model.

 An object-oriented database (OOD) is a database system that can work with

complex data objects — that is, objects that mirror those used in object-
oriented programming languages. In object-oriented programming, everything is
an object, and many objects are quite complex, having different properties and
methods.

Advantages

 Add semantic content

 Visual presentation includes semantic content

 Database integrity

 Both structural and data independence

Disadvantages

 Lack of OODM standards

 Complex navigational data access

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 Steep learning curve

 High system overhead slows transactions

Database Languages
 Database languages are used to read, update and store data in a database.
Database Languages are the set of statements, that are used to define and
manipulate a database.

 Database Languages are used to create and maintain database on computer.

There are large numbers of database languages like Oracle, MySQL, MS Access,
dBase, FoxPro etc. SQL statements commonly used in Oracle and MS Access can
be categorized as data definition language (DDL), data control language (DCL) and
data manipulation language (DML).

 A Database language has Data Definition Language (DDL), which is used to

construct a database & it has Data Manipulation Language (DML), which is used to
access a database.

 Data Definition Language. DDL stands for Data Definition Language. ...

 Data Manipulation Language. DML stands for Data Manipulation Language.

 Data Control Language. DCL stands for Data Control Language. ...

 Transaction Control Language. TCL is used to run the changes made by the
DML statement.

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DDL (Data Definition Language)

 DDL or Data Definition Language actually consists of the SQL commands that can
be used to define the database schema.

 It simply deals with descriptions of the database schema and is used to create and
modify the structure of database objects in the database.

Examples of DDL commands:

 CREATE – is used to create the database or its objects (like table, index, function,
views, store procedure and triggers).

 DROP – is used to delete objects from the database.

 ALTER-is used to alter the structure of the database.

 TRUNCATE–is used to remove all records from a table, including all spaces
allocated for the records are removed.

 COMMENT –is used to add comments to the data dictionary.

 RENAME –is used to rename an object existing in the database.

DML(Data Manipulation Language):

 The SQL commands that deals with the manipulation of data present in the database
belong to DML or Data Manipulation Language and this includes most of the SQL
statements.

Examples of DML:

 INSERT – is used to insert data into a table.

 UPDATE – is used to update existing data within a table.

 DELETE – is used to delete records from a database table.

DCL(Data Control Language):

 DCL includes commands such as GRANT and REVOKE which mainly deal with the
rights, permissions and other controls of the database system.

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Examples of DCL commands:

 GRANT- gives users access privileges to the database.

 REVOKE- withdraw user’s access privileges given by using the GRANT command.

TCL(transaction Control Language)

 TCL commands deal with the transaction within the database.

Examples of TCL commands:

 COMMIT– commits a Transaction.

 ROLLBACK– rollbacks a transaction in case of any error occurs.

 SAVEPOINT–sets a savepoint within a transaction.

 SET TRANSACTION–specify characteristics for the transaction.

Database Schema
 A database schema is the skeleton structure that represents the logical view of the
entire database. It defines how the data is organized and how the relations among
them are associated. It formulates all the constraints that are to be applied on the
data.

 A database schema defines its entities and the relationship among them. It contains
a descriptive detail of the database, which can be depicted by means of schema
diagrams. It’s the database designers who design the schema to help programmers
understand the database and make it useful.

There are mainly three levels of data abstraction:

1. Internal Level: Actual PHYSICAL storage structure and access paths.

2. Conceptual or Logical Level: Structure and constraints for the entire database

3. External or View level: Describes various user views

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 Physical Database Schema: This schema pertains to the particular storage of

information and it’s kind of storage like files, indices, etc. It defines how the
information will be stored in an exceedingly auxiliary storage.

 Conceptual or Logical Level: This schema defines all the logical constraints that
require to be applied on the information stored. It defines tables, views, and integrity
constraints.

 External or View level: View schema is outlined because of the style of a database at
view level that usually describes end-user interaction with database systems.

Database Management System History

 DBMS has evolved a lot since its birth in 1960s

 Beginning with Networking & Hierarchical databases developed by Charles

[Link].

 Relational Model was proposed by Ted Codd in 1970.

 Entity - Relational Model defi ned by Peter Chen in 1976.

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 Maturation of Relational Database and SQL took place in 1970.

 Object Oriented Database developed in 1985.

 Finally first Internet database applications were created in 1995.

 In today's time we use Structured Query Language (SQL), Not only SQL (NoSQL)
and Cloud database.

Functions of DBMS
 Manages data dictionaries that stores definition of various data elements and their
relationships.

 Provides storage for not only a data but also all related data like procedural codes,
data validation and entry forms.

 Transforms and presents data according to the user’s expectations.

 DBMS provides data privacy by using security systems in a multi user database
interface.

 Allows multiple users to access any data at the same point of time without
any discrepancies.

 Ensures easy data recovery and back up in order to protect its integrity.

 It allows users to communicate and transact via emails and many other
communication modes.

Database Management System Purpose

 Database Management System is built to overcome the drawbacks of typical file
processing systems.

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 DBMS has reduced the data inconsistencies and difficulty in accessing data.

 It supports concurrent multiple users and ensures security of data.

 It also solves the integrity problem.

Important Questions
Q. What is database?
A. A database is a logically coherent collection of data with some inherent meaning,
representing some aspect of real world and which is designed, built and populated
with data for a specific purpose.

Q. What is DBMS?
A. A database is a logically coherent collection of data with some inherent meaning,
representing some aspect of real world and which is designed, built and populated
with data for a specific purpose.

Q. What is database system?

A. The database and DBMS software together is called as Database system.

Q. What are the advantages of DBMS?

 Redundancy is controlled.
 Unauthorized access is restricted.
 Providing multiple user interfaces.
 Enforcing integrity constraints.
 Providing backup and recovery.

Q. What are the disadvantage in File Processing System?

 Data redundancy and inconsistency.
 Difficult in accessing data.
 Data isolation.
 Data integrity.
 Concurrent access is not possible.
 Security Problems.

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Q. Define the "integrity rules"?

A. There are two Integrity rules.
 Entity Integrity: States that "Primary key cannot have NULL value"
 Referential Integrity: States that "Foreign Key can be either a NULL value or
should be Primary Key value of other relation.

Q. Describe the three levels of data abstraction?

A. There are three levels of abstraction:
1. Physical level: The lowest level of abstraction describes how data are stored.
2. Logical level: The next higher level of abstraction, describes what data are
stored in database and what relationship among those data.
3. View level: The highest level of abstraction describes only part of entire
database.

Q. What is extension and intension?

 Extension: It is the number of tuples present in a table at any instance. This is
time dependent.
 Intension: It is a constant value that gives the name, structure of table and the
constraints laid on it.

Q. What is System R? What are its two major subsystems?

A. System R was designed and developed over a period of 1974-79 at IBM San Jose
Research Center. It is a prototype and its purpose was to demonstrate that it is
possible to build a Relational System that can be used in a real life environment to
solve real life problems, with performance at least comparable to that of existing
system. Its two subsystems are
 Research Storage
 System Relational Data System.

Q. How is the data structure of System R different from the relational structure?
A. Unlike Relational systems in System R
 Domains are not supported
 Enforcement of candidate key uniqueness is optional
 Enforcement of entity integrity is optional
 Referential integrity is not enforced

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Q. What is Data Model?

A. A collection of conceptual tools for describing data, data relationships data
semantics and constraints.

Q. What is an Entity?
A. It is a 'thing' in the real world with an independent existence.

Q. What is Data Independence?

A. Data independence means that "the application is independent of the storage
structure and access strategy of data". In other words, the ability to modify the
schema definition in one level should not affect the schema definition in the next
higher level. Two types of Data Independence:
 Physical Data Independence: Modification in physical level should not affect
the logical level.
 Logical Data Independence: Modification in logical level should affect the
view level.
NOTE: Logical Data Independence is more diffi cult to achieve

Q. What is a view? How it is related to data independence?

A. A view may be thought of as a virtual table, that is, a table that does not really exist
in its own right but is instead derived from one or more underlying base table. In
other words, there is no stored file that direct represents the view instead a definition
of view is stored in data dictionary. Growth and restructuring of base tables is not
reflected in views. Thus the view can insulate users from the effects of restructuring
and growth in the database. Hence accounts for logical data independence.

Q. What is E-R model?

A. This data model is based on real world that consists of basic objects called entities
and of relationship among these objects. Entities are described in a database by a
set of attributes.

Q. What is Object Oriented model?

A. This model is based on collection of objects. An object contains values stored in
instance variables with in the object. An object also contains bodies of code that
operate on the object. These bodies of code are called methods. Objects that
contain same types of values and the same methods are grouped together into
classes.

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Q. What is an Entity type?

A. It is a collection (set) of entities that have same attributes.

Q. What is an Entity set?

A. It is a collection of all entities of particular entity type in the database.

Q. What is an Extension of entity type?

A. The collections of entities of a particular entity type are grouped together into an
entity set.

Q. What is Weak Entity set?

A. An entity set may not have sufficient attributes to form a primary key, and its primary
key compromises of its partial key and primary key of its parent entity, then it is said
to be Weak Entity set.

Q. What is an attribute?
A. It is a particular property, which describes the entity.

Q. What is a Relation Schema and a Relation?

A. A relation Schema denoted by R(A1, A2, ..., An) is made up of the relation name R
and the list of attributes Ai that it contains. A relation is defined as a set of tuples. Let
r be the relation which contains set tuples (t1, t2, t3, ..., tn). Each tuple is an ordered
list of n-values t=(v1,v2, ..., vn).

Q. What is degree of a Relation?

A. It is the number of attribute of its relation schema.

Q. What is Relationship?
A. It is an association among two or more entities.

Q. What is Relationship set?

A. The collection (or set) of similar relationships.

Q. What is Relationship type?

A. Relationship type defines a set of associations or a relationship set among a given
set of entity types.

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Q. What is degree of Relationship type?

A. It is the number of entity type participating.

Q. What is DDL (Data Definition Language)?

A. A data base schema is specified by a set of definitions expressed by a special
language called DDL.

Q. What is VDL (View Definition Language)?

A. It specifies user views and their mappings to the conceptual schema.

Q. What is SDL (Storage Definition Language)?

A. This language is to specify the internal schema. This language may specify the
mapping between two schemas.

Q. What is Data Storage - Definition Language?

A. The storage structures and access methods used by database system are specified
by a set of definition in a special type of DDL called data storage-definition
language.

Q. What is DML (Data Manipulation Language)?

A. This language that enable user to access or manipulate data as organized by
appropriate data model.
 Procedural DML or Low level: DML requires a user to specify what data are
needed and how to get those data.
 Non-Procedural DML or High level: DML requires a user to specify what data
are needed without specifying how to get those data.

Q. What is DML Compiler?

A. It translates DML statements in a query language into low-level instruction that the
query evaluation engine can understand.

Q. What is Query evaluation engine?

A. It executes low-level instruction generated by compiler.

Q. What is DDL Interpreter?

A. It interprets DDL statements and record them in tables containing metadata.

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Q. What is Record-at-a-time?
A. The Low level or Procedural DML can specify and retrieve each record from a set of
records. This retrieve of a record is said to be Record-at-a-time.

Q. What is Set-at-a-time or Set-oriented?

A. The High level or Non-procedural DML can specify and retrieve many records in a
single DML statement. This retrieve of a record is said to be Set-at-a-time or Set-
oriented.

Q. What is Relational Algebra?

A. It is procedural query language. It consists of a set of operations that take one or two
relations as input and produce a new relation.

Q. What is Relational Calculus?

A. It is an applied predicate calculus specifically tailored for relational databases
proposed by E.F. Codd. E.g. of languages based on it are DSL ALPHA, QUEL.

Q. How does Tuple-oriented relational calculus differ from domain-oriented

relational calculus?
 The tuple-oriented calculus uses a tuple variables i.e., variable whose only
permitted values are tuples of that relation. E.g. QUEL
 The domain-oriented calculus has domain variables i.e., variables that range
over the underlying domains instead of over relation. E.g. ILL, DEDUCE.

Q. What is normalization?
A. It is a process of analyzing the given relation schemas based on their Functional
Dependencies (FDs) and primary key to achieve the properties
1. Minimizing redundancy,
2. Minimizing insertion, deletion and update anomalies.

Q. What is Functional Dependency?

A. A Functional dependency is denoted by X Y between two sets of attributes X and Y
that are subsets of R specifies a constraint on the possible tuple that can form a
relation state r of R. The constraint is for any two tuples t1 and t2 in r if t1[X] = t2[X]
then they have t1[Y] = t2[Y]. This means the value of X component of a tuple
uniquely determines the value of component Y.

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Q. What is 1 NF (Normal Form)?

A. The domain of attribute must include only atomic (simple, indivisible) values.

Q. What is Fully Functional dependency?

A. It is based on concept of full functional dependency. A functional dependency X Y is
fully functional dependency if removal of any attribute A from X means that the
dependency does not hold any more.

Q. What is 2NF?
A. A relation schema R is in 2NF if it is in 1NF and every non-prime attribute A in R is
fully functionally dependent on primary key.

Q. What is 3NF?
A. A relation schema R is in 3NF if it is in 2NF and for every FD X A either of the
following is true
 X is a Super-key of R.
 A is a prime attribute of R.
In other words, if every non-prime attribute is non-transitively dependent on primary key.

Q. What is BCNF (Boyce-Codd Normal Form)?

A. A relation schema R is in BCNF if it is in 3NF and satisfies an additional constraint
that for every FD X A, X must be a candidate key.

Q. What is 4NF?
A. A relation schema R is said to be in 4NF if for every multivalued dependency X Y
that holds over R, one of following is true.
 X is subset or equal to (or) XY = R.
 X is a super key.

Q. What is 5NF?
A. A Relation schema R is said to be 5NF if for every join dependency {R1, R2, ..., Rn}
that holds R, one the following is true
 Ri = R for some i.
 The join dependency is implied by the set of FD, over R in which the left side
is key of R.

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Q. What is Lossless join property?

A. It guarantees that the spurious tuple generation does not occur with respect to
relation schemas after decomposition.

Q. What is Domain-Key Normal Form?

A. A relation is said to be in DKNF if all constraints and dependencies that should hold
on the constraint can be enforced by simply enforcing the domain constraint and key
constraint on the relation.

Q. What are partial, alternate, artificial, compound and natural key?

 Partial Key: It is a set of attributes that can uniquely identify weak
entities and that are related to same owner entity. It is sometime called as
Discriminator.
 Alternate Key: All Candidate Keys excluding the Primary Key are known
as Alternate Keys.
 Artificial Key: If no obvious key, either stand alone or compound is
available, then the last resort is to simply create a key, by assigning a unique
number to each record or occurrence. Then this is known as developing an
artificial key.
 Compound Key: If no single data element uniquely identifi es
occurrences within a construct, then combining multiple elements to create a
unique identifier for the construct is known as creating a compound key.
 Natural Key: When one of the data elements stored within a construct is
utilized as the primary key, then it is called the natural key.

Q. What is indexing and what are the different kinds of indexing?

A. Indexing is a technique for determining how quickly specific data can be found.
Types:
 Binary search style indexing
 B-Tree indexing
 Inverted list indexing
 Memory resident table
 Table indexing

Q. What is system catalog or catalog relation? How is better known as?

A. A RDBMS maintains a description of all the data that it contains, information about
every relation and index that it contains. This information is stored in a collection of
relations maintained by the system called metadata. It is also called data dictionary.

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Q. What is meant by query optimization?

A. The phase that identifies an efficient execution plan for evaluating a query that has
the least estimated cost is referred to as query optimization.

Q. What is durability in DBMS?

A. Once the DBMS informs the user that a transaction has successfully completed, its
effects should persist even if the system crashes before all its changes are reflected
on disk. This property is called durability.

Q. What do you mean by atomicity and aggregation?

 Atomicity: Either all actions are carried out or none are. Users should not
have to worry about the effect of incomplete transactions. DBMS ensures this
by undoing the actions of incomplete transactions.
 Aggregation: A concept which is used to model a relationship between a
collection of entities and relationships. It is used when we need to express a
relationship among relationships.

Q. What is a Phantom Deadlock?

A. In distributed deadlock detection, the delay in propagating local information might
cause the deadlock detection algorithms to identify deadlocks that do not really
exist. Such situations are called phantom deadlocks and they lead to unnecessary
aborts.

Q. What is a checkpoint and when does it occur?

A. A Checkpoint is like a snapshot of the DBMS state. By taking checkpoints, the
DBMS can reduce the amount of work to be done during restart in the event of
subsequent crashes.

Q. What are the different phases of transaction?

A. Different phases are
 Analysis phase
 Redo Phase
 Undo phase

Q. What do you mean by flat file database?

A. It is a database in which there are no programs or user access languages. It has no
cross-file capabilities but is user-friendly and provides user-interface management.

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Q. What is "transparent DBMS"?

A. It is one, which keeps its Physical Structure hidden from user.

Q. What is a query?
A. A query with respect to DBMS relates to user commands that are used to interact
with a data base. The query language can be classified into data definition language
and data manipulation language.

Q. What do you mean by Correlated sub query?

 Sub queries, or nested queries, are used to bring back a set of rows to be
used by the parent query. Depending on how the sub query is written, it can
be executed once for the parent query or it can be executed once for each
row returned by the parent query. If the sub query is executed for each row of
the parent, this is called a correlated sub query.
 A correlated sub query can be easily identified if it contains any references to
the parent sub query columns in its WHERE clause. Columns from the sub
query cannot be referenced anywhere else in the parent query. The following
example demonstrates a non-correlated sub query.
 Example: Select * From CUST Where '10/03/1990' IN (Select ODATE From
ORDER Where [Link] = [Link])

Q. What are the primitive operations common to all record management

systems?
A. Addition, deletion and modification.

Q. Name the buffer in which all the commands that are typed in are stored?
A. 'Edit' Buffer.

Q. What are the unary operations in Relational Algebra?

A. Projection and Selection.

Q. Are the resulting relations of PRODUCT and JOIN operation the same?
A. No.
 Product: Concatenation of every row in one relation with every row in
another.
 Join: Concatenation of rows from one relation and related rows from
another.

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Q. Which part of the RDBMS takes care of the data dictionary? How?
A. Data dictionary is a set of tables and database objects that is stored in a special
area of the database and maintained exclusively by the kernel.

Q. What is RDBMS KERNEL?

A. Two important pieces of RDBMS architecture are the kernel, which is the software,
and the data dictionary, which consists of the system-level data structures used by
the kernel to manage the database You might think of an RDBMS as an operating
system (or set of subsystems), designed specifically for controlling data access; its
primary functions are storing, retrieving, and securing data. An RDBMS maintains its
own list of authorized users and their associated privileges; manages memory
caches and paging; controls locking for concurrent resource usage; dispatches and
schedules user requests; and manages space usage within its table-space
structures.

Q. Name the sub-systems of a RDBMS.

A. I/O, Security, Language Processing, Process Control, Storage Management,
Logging and Recovery, Distribution Control, Transaction Control, Memory
Management, Lock Management.

Q. Which part of the RDBMS takes care of the data dictionary? How?
A. Data dictionary is a set of tables and database objects that is stored in a special
area of the database and maintained exclusively by the kernel.

Q. What is the job of the information stored in data-dictionary?

A. The information in the data dictionary validates the existence of the objects, provides
access to them, and maps the actual physical storage location.

Q. How do you communicate with an RDBMS?

A. You communicate with an RDBMS using Structured Query Language (SQL). Define
SQL and state the differences between SQL and other conventional programming
Languages. SQL is a nonprocedural language that is designed specifically for data
access operations on normalized relational database structures. The primary
difference between SQL and other conventional programming languages is that SQL
statements specify what data operations should be performed rather than how to
perform them.

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Q. What is Storage Manager?

A. It is a program module that provides the interface between the low-level data stored
in database, application programs and queries submitted to the system.

Q. Name the three major set of files on disk that compose a database in Oracle.
A. There are three major sets of files on disk that compose a database. All the files are
binary. These are
 Database files
 Control files
 Redo logs
The most important of these are the database files where the actual data resides.
The control files and the redo logs support the functioning of the architecture
itself. All three sets of files must be present, open, and available to Oracle for
any data on the database to be useable. Without these files, you cannot access
the database, and the database administrator might have to recover some or all
of the database using a backup, if there is one.

Q. What is database Trigger?

A. A database trigger is a PL/SQL block that can defined to automatically execute for
insert, update, and delete statements against a table. The trigger can e defined to
execute once for the entire statement or once for every row that is inserted, updated,
or deleted. For any one table, there are twelve events for which you can define
database triggers. A database trigger can call database procedures that are also
written in PL/SQL.

Q. What are stored-procedures? And what are the advantages of using them?
A. Stored procedures are database objects that perform a user defined operation. A
stored procedure can have a set of compound SQL statements. A stored procedure
executes the SQL commands and returns the result to the client. Stored procedures
are used to reduce network traffic.

Q. What is Buffer Manager?

A. It is a program module, which is responsible for fetching data from disk storage into
main memory and deciding what data to be cache in memory.

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Q. What is Transaction Manager?

A. It is a program module, which ensures that database, remains in a consistent state
despite system failures and concurrent transaction execution proceeds without
conflicting.

Q. What is File Manager?

A. It is a program module, which manages the allocation of space on disk storage and
data structure used to represent information stored on a disk.

Q. What is Authorization and Integrity manager?

A. It is the program module, which tests for the satisfaction of integrity constraint and
checks the authority of user to access data.

Q. What are stand-alone procedures?

 Procedures that are not part of a package are known as stand-alone because
they independently defined.
 A good example of a stand-alone procedure is one written in a SQL*Forms
application.
 These types of procedures are not available for reference from other Oracle
tools.
 Another limitation of stand-alone procedures is that they are compiled at run
time, which slows execution.

Q. What are cursors give different types of cursors?

A. PL/SQL uses cursors for all database information accesses statements. The
language supports the use two types of cursors

 Implicit

 Explicit

Q. What is cold backup and hot backup (in case of Oracle)?

 Cold Backup: It is copying the three sets of fi les (database fi les, redo
logs, and control file) when the instance is shut down. This is a straight file
copy, usually from the disk directly to tape. You must shut down the instance
to guarantee a consistent copy. If a cold backup is performed, the only option
available in the event of data file loss is restoring all the files from the latest
backup. All work performed on the database since the last backup is lost.

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 Hot Backup: Some sites (such as worldwide airline reservations

systems) cannot shut down the database while making a backup copy of the
files. The cold backup is not an available option.

Q. What is meant by Proactive, Retroactive and Simultaneous Update?

 Proactive Update: The updates that are applied to database before it
becomes effective in real world.

 Retroactive Update: The updates that are applied to database after it

becomes effective in real world.

 Simultaneous Update: The updates that are applied to database at the

same time when it becomes effective in real world.

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Cryptography , Software Engineering ,

Data Structure & Memory

Cryptography
What is Cryptography
 The method of protecting information and communications through the use of codes, so that only those
for whom the information is intended can access it is called Cryptography.

 It refers to secure information and communication techniques derived from mathematical concepts and a
set of rule based calculations called algorithms and these algorithm transform messages in ways that are
hard to decipher. These algorithms are used for cryptographic key generation, digital signing, and data
privacy.

History of cryptography
 The first known user of a modern cipher was by Roman emperor Julius Caesar , who did not trust his
messengers when communicating with his governors and officers. For this reason, he created a system in
which each character in his messages was replaced by a character three positions ahead of it in the Roman
alphabet.

 Recently, cryptography has become a battleground of some of the world's best mathematicians and
computer scientists.

 The ability to securely store and transfer sensitive information has proved a critical factor in important
businesses and enterprises.

Cryptography techniques
 Cryptography is closely related to the disciplines of cryptology and cryptanalysis. It includes techniques
such as microdots, merging words with images and other ways to hide information in storage or transit.

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 Today in the era of the internet, cryptography is most often associated with scrambling plaintext,
ordinary text, sometimes referred to as cleartext into ciphertext, a process called encryption, then back
again known as decryption. Individuals who practice this field are known as cryptographers.

 Modern cryptography concerns itself with the following four objectives:

1. Confidentiality. The information cannot be understood by anyone for whom it was unintended.

2. [Link] information cannot be altered in storage or transit between sender and intended receiver
without the alteration being detected.

3. Non-repudiation. The creator/sender of the information cannot deny at a later stage their intentions in
the creation or transmission of the information.

 Authentication. The sender and receiver can confirm each other's identity and the origin/destination of
the information.

 Procedures which meet the above criteria are known as cryptosystems. Cryptosystems are thought to
refer only to mathematical procedures and computer programs but they also include the regulation of
human behavior like choosing hard-to-guess passwords, logging off unused systems and not discussing
sensitive procedures with outsiders.

Cryptographic algorithms
 Cryptosystems are systems which use a set of procedures known as cryptographic algorithms or ciphers
to encrypt and decrypt messages to secure communications among computer systems and applications.

 The cipher suite uses one algorithm for encryption and another algorithm for message authentication and
another for key exchange.

 This process involves:

 public and private key generation for data encryption/decryption

 digital signing and verification for message authentication

 key exchange
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Types of cryptography
 Single-key or symmetric-key encryption algorithms: Symmetric encryption is a type of encryption
where only one key (a secret key) is used to both encrypt and decrypt electronic information. The entities
communicating via symmetric encryption must exchange the key so that it can be used in the decryption
process.

 Public-key or asymmetric-key encryption algorithms: This algorithm uses a pair of keys, a public key
associated with the sender for encrypting messages and a private key that only the originator knows.

 Examples of public-key cryptography include:

 RSA(Ron Rivest, Adi Shamir and Leonard Adleman), used widely on the internet

 Elliptic Curve Digital Signature Algorithm (ECDSA) used by Bitcoin

 Digital Signature Algorithm (DSA) adopted as a Federal Information Processing Standard for
digital signatures by NIST in FIPS 186-4

 Diffie-Hellman key exchange

 To maintain data integrity in cryptography, hash functions, which return a deterministic output from an
input value, are used to map data to a fixed data size.

 Types of cryptographic hash functions include SHA-1 (Secure Hash Algorithm 1), SHA-2 and SHA-3.

 In general there are three types of cryptography:

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Symmetric Key Cryptography:

 It is an encryption system where the sender and receiver of message use a single common key to encrypt
and decrypt messages.

 Symmetric Key Systems are faster and simpler but the problem is that sender and receiver have to
somehow exchange keys in a secure manner.

 The most popular symmetric key cryptography system is Data Encryption System(DES).

Hash Functions:

 There is no usage of any key in this algorithm.

 A hash value with fixed length is calculated as per the plain text which makes it impossible for contents of
plain text to be recovered.

 Many operating systems use hash functions to encrypt passwords.

Asymmetric Key Cryptography:

 Under this system a pair of keys is used to encrypt and decrypt information.

 A public key is used for encryption and a private key is used for decryption.

 Public key and Private Key are different.

 Even if the public key is known by everyone the intended receiver can only decode it because he alone
knows the private key.

Cryptography concerns
 Hackers can bypass cryptography and hack into computers that are responsible for data encryption and
decryption or exploit weak implementations. But cryptography makes it harder for attackers to access
messages and data protected by encryption algorithms.

 Increasing concerns about the processing power of quantum computing to break current cryptography
encryption standards.

 Quantum computing uses quantum bits called qubits that can represent both 0 and 1 and therefore
perform two calculations at once.

 While a large-scale quantum computer may not be built in the next decade, the existing infrastructure
requires standardization of publicly known and understood algorithms.

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Software Engineering
What is software engineering
 Software engineering: It is an engineering branch associated with development of software products
using well-defined scientific principles, methods and procedures. The outcome of software engineering is
an efficient and reliable software product. The term software engineering is made of two words, software
and engineering.

 Software is more than just a program code, a program is an executable code, which serves some
computational purpose, Software is considered to be a collection of executable programming code,
associated libraries and documentations. Software, when made for a specific requirement is called a
software product.

 Engineering on the other hand, is about developing products, using well-defined, scientific principles and
methods.

 The process of developing a software product using software engineering principles and methods is
referred to as software evolution. This includes the initial development of software and its maintenance
and updates, till desired software product is developed, which satisfies the expected requirements.

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 Evolution starts from the requirement gathering process. After which developers create a prototype of
the intended software and show it to the users to get their feedback at the early stage of software
product development. The users suggest changes, on which several consecutive updates and
maintenance keep on changing too.

Software Paradigms
 Software paradigms refer to the methods and steps, which are taken while designing the software. There
are many methods proposed and are in work today, but we need to see where in the software
engineering these paradigms stand. These can be combined into various categories, though each of them
is contained in one another:

 Programming paradigm is a subset of Software design paradigm which is further a subset of Software
development paradigm.

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Software Development Paradigm

 This Paradigm is known as software engineering paradigms where all the engineering concepts pertaining
to the development of software are applied. It consists of –

 Requirement gathering

 Software design

 Programming

Software Design Paradigm

 This paradigm is a part of Software Development and includes –

 Design

 Maintenance

 Programming

 Programming Paradigm

 This paradigm is related closely to the programming aspect of software development. This includes –

 Coding

 Testing

 Integration

Need of Software Engineering

 The need for software engineering arises because of a higher rate of change in user requirements and
the environment on which the software is working.

 Large software - As the size of software becomes large engineering has to step to give it a scientific
process.

 Scalability- If the software process were not based on scientific and engineering concepts, it would be
easier to re-create new software than to scale an existing one.

 Cost- The cost of software remains high if the proper process is not adapted.

 Dynamic Nature- If the nature of software is always changing, new enhancements need to be done in
the existing one. This is where software engineering plays a good role.

 Quality Management- Better process of software development provides better and quality software
products.
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Characteristics of good software

 Well-engineered and crafted software is expected to have the following characteristics:

 Operational

 This tells us how well software works in operations. It can be measured on:

 Budget

 Usability

 Efficiency

 Correctness

 Functionality

 Dependability

 Security

 Safety

 Transitional

 This aspect is important when the software is moved from one platform to another:

 Portability

 Interoperability

 Reusability

 Adaptability

 Maintenance

 This aspect briefs about how well a software has the capabilities to maintain itself in the ever-changing
environment:

 Modularity

 Maintainability

 Flexibility

 Scalability

 In short, Software engineering is a branch of computer science, which uses well-defined engineering
concepts required to produce efficient, durable, scalable, in-budget and on-time software products.
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Software Development Life Cycle

 SDLC for short, is a well-defined, structured sequence of stages in software engineering to develop the
intended software product.

 SDLC Activities : SDLC provides a series of steps to be followed to design and develop a software product
efficiently. SDLC framework includes the following steps:

Communication

 This is the first step where the user initiates the request for a desired software product. He contacts the
service provider and tries to negotiate the terms. He submits his request to the service providing
organization in writing.

Requirement Gathering

 The requirements are collected using a number of practices as given -

 studying the existing or obsolete system and software,

 conducting interviews of users and developers,

 referring to the database or

 collecting answers from the questionnaires.

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Feasibility Study

After requirement gathering, the team comes up with a rough plan of the software process. At this step the
team analyzes if a software can be made to fulfill all requirements of the user and if there is any possibility of
software being no more useful.

System Analysis

At this step the developers decide a roadmap of their plan and try to bring up the best software model
suitable for the project. System analysis includes Understanding of software product limitations, learning
system related problems or changes to be done in existing systems beforehand, identifying and addressing
the impact of a project on organization and personnel etc.

Software Design

Next step is to bring down the whole knowledge of requirements and analysis on the desk and design the
software product. The inputs from users and information gathered in the requirement gathering phase are
the inputs of this step. The output of this step comes in the form of two designs; logical design and physical
design.

Coding

This step is also known as the programming phase. The implementation of software design starts in terms of
writing program code .

Testing

Software testing is done while coding by the developers and thorough testing is conducted by testing experts
at various levels of code such as module testing, program testing, product testing, in-house testing and
testing the product at user’s end. Early discovery of errors and their remedy is the key to reliable software.

Integration

Software may need to be integrated with the libraries, databases and other program(s). This stage of SDLC is
involved in the integration of software with outer world entities.

Implementation

This means installing the software on user machines. At times, software needs post-installation
configurations at the user end. Software is tested for portability and adaptability and integration related
issues are solved during implementation.

Operation and Maintenance

The software is maintained timely by updating the code according to the changes taking place in the user end
environment or technology. This phase may face challenges from hidden bugs and real-world unidentified
problems
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Disposition

This phase includes archiving data and required software components, closing down the system, planning
disposition activity and terminating the system at appropriate end-of-system time.

Software Development Paradigm

 A few of software development paradigms or process models are defined as follows:

Waterfall Model

 Waterfall model is the simplest model of software development paradigm. It says that all the phases of
SDLC will function one after another in a linear manner. That is, when the first phase is finished then only
the second phase will start and so on.

 This model assumes that everything is carried out and takes place perfectly as planned in the previous
stage and there is no need to think about the past issues that may arise in the next phase.

 This model does not work smoothly if there are some issues left at the previous step.

 The sequential nature of the model does not allow us to go back and undo or redo our actions.

 This model is best suited when developers already have designed and developed similar software in the
past and are aware of all its domains.

Iterative Model

 Iterative process starts with a simple implementation of a subset of the software requirements and
iteratively enhances the evolving versions until the full system is implemented.

 At each iteration, design modifications are made and new functional capabilities are added.

 The basic idea behind this method is to develop a system through repeated cycles (iterative) and in
smaller portions at a time (incremental).

Spiral Model

 The spiral model combines the idea of iterative development with the systematic, controlled aspects of
the waterfall model.

 This Spiral model is a combination of iterative development process model and sequential linear
development model i.e. the waterfall model with a very high emphasis on risk analysis.

 It allows incremental releases of the product or incremental refinement through each iteration around
the spiral.

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V – model

 The V-model is an SDLC model where execution of processes happens in a sequential manner in a V-
shape. It is also known as the Verification and Validation model.

 The V-Model is an extension of the waterfall model and is based on the association of a testing phase for
each corresponding development stage.

 This means that for every single phase in the development cycle, there is a directly associated testing
phase. This is a highly-disciplined model and the next phase starts only after completion of the previous
phase.

Big Bang Model

 This model is the simplest model in its form. It requires little planning, lots of programming and lots of
funds. This model is conceptualized around the big bang of the universe.

 As scientists say that after the big bang lots of galaxies, planets and stars evolved just as an event.

 Likewise, if we put together lots of programming and funds, you may achieve the best software product.

 For this model, a very small amount of planning is required. It does not follow any process, or at times the
customer is not sure about the requirements and future needs. So the input requirements are arbitrary.

Data Structure
What is Data Structure
 Data structures is a way of organizing data in a specialized format on a system so that the information
can be organized, processed, stored, and retrieved quickly and effectively. They are a means of handling
information, rendering the data for easy use.

 Every application, piece of software, or program foundation consists of two components: algorithms and
data.

 Data is information, and algorithms are rules and instructions that turn the data into something useful to
programming.

 Put another way, remember these two simple equations:

 Related data + Permissible operations on the data = Data Structures

 Data structures + Algorithms = Programs

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Data Types in Data Structures

 There are three basic data types to understand in data structures. They are as follows

Abstract

 Abstract Data type (ADT) is a type (or class) for objects whose behavior is defined by a set of values and a
set of operations.

 The definition of ADT only mentions what operations are to be performed but not how these operations
will be implemented.

 It does not specify how data will be organized in memory and what algorithms will be used for
implementing the operations.

 It is called abstract , because it gives an implementation-independent view. The process of providing only
the essentials and hiding the details is known as abstraction.

Composite or Compound

 Composite data comprises combined primitive data types and includes arrays, classes, records, strings,
and structs.

 A composite data type or compound data type is any data type which can be constructed in a program
using the programming language's primitive data types and other composite types.

Primitive

 Primitive data is classified as basic data and consists of Boolean, characters, integers, pointers, and fixed-
and floating-point numbers.

 These data types are the building blocks of data structures. Data types tell the interpreter or the
computer how the programmer plans on using the data. Furthermore, data analysts can choose from
different data structure classifications. The trick is to select the structure best suited for your needs and
situation.

Classifications of Data Structure

 There are three main data structure classifications, each consisting of a pair of characteristics.

Linear and Nonlinear.

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 Linear structures arrange data in a linear sequence, such as found in an array, list, or queue.

 In nonlinear structures, the data doesn’t form a sequence but instead connects to two or more
information items, like in a tree or graph.

Static and Dynamic.

 As the term implies, static structures consist of fixed, permanent structures and sizes at compile time.

 The array reserves a set amount of reserve memory set up by the programmer ahead of time.

 Dynamic structures feature non-fixed memory capacities, shrinking or expanding as required by the
program and its execution requirements.

 Additionally, the location of the associated memory can change.

Homogenous and Non-Homogenous.

 Homogenous data structures consist of the same data element type, like element collections found in an
array.

 In inhomogeneous structures, the data don’t have to be the same type, such as structures.

Data Structure Types

Array

 Arrays are collections of data items that are of the same type, stored together in adjoining memory
locations. Each data item is known as an “element.” Arrays are the most basic, fundamental data
structure. Aspiring Data Scientists should master array construction before moving on to other structures
such as queues or stacks.

Graphs.

 Graphs are a nonlinear pictorial representation of element sets. Graphs consist of finite node sets, also
called vertices, connected by links, alternately called edges. Trees, mentioned below, are a graph
variation, except the latter has no rules governing how the nodes connect.

Hash Tables.

 Hash tables, also called hash maps, can be used as either a linear or nonlinear data structure, though
they favor the former.

 This structure is normally built using arrays. Hash tables map keys to values.

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 For example, every book in a library has a unique number assigned to it that facilitates looking up
information about the book, like who has checked it out, its current availability, etc. The books in the
library are hashed to a unique number.

Linked List.

 Linked lists store item collections in a linear order. Each element in a linked list contains a data item and a
link, or reference, to the subsequent item on the same list.

Stack.

 Stacks store collections of items in a linear order and are used when applying the operations. For
example, the order could be “first in, first out” (FIFO) or “last in, first out” (LIFO).

Queue.

 Queues store item collections sequentially like stacks but they operate on the principle of “first in, first
out” only. Queues are linear lists.

Tree.

 Trees store item collections in an abstract hierarchy. They are multilevel data structures that use nodes.

 The bottom nodes are called “leaf nodes,” while the topmost node is known as the “root node.”

Trie

 Not to be confused with a Tree, Tries are data structures that store strings like data items and are placed
in a visual graph.

 Tries are also called keyword trees or prefix trees. Whenever you use a search engine and receive
autosuggestions, you’re witnessing the trie data structure in action.

Memory Allocations in Data Structures

Stack:

 Stacks in computing architectures are regions of memory where data is added or removed in a last-in-
first-out (LIFO) manner.

 In most modern computer systems, each thread has a reserved region of memory referred to as its
stack.

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 When a function executes, it may add some of its local state data to the top of the stack; when the
function exits it is responsible for removing that data from the stack.

 At a minimum, a thread's stack is used to store the location of a return address provided by the caller
in order to allow return statements to return to the correct location.

 The stack is often used to store variables of fixed length local to the currently active functions.

 Programmers may further choose to explicitly use the stack to store local data of variable length. If a
region of memory lies on the thread's stack, that memory is said to have been allocated on the stack,
i.e. stack-based memory allocation (SBMA).

 This is contrasted with a heap-based memory allocation (HBMA). The SBMA is often closely coupled
with a function call stack.

Following are some of the important applications of a Stack data structure:

 Stacks can be used for expression evaluation.

 Stacks can be used to check parenthesis matching in an expression.

 Stacks can be used for Conversion from one form of expression to another.

 Stacks can be used for Memory Management.

 Stack data structures are used in backtracking problems.

Que :

 Like Stacks, Queues can also be represented in memory in two ways.

 Using the contiguous memory like an array

 Using the non-contiguous memory like a linked list

 Using the Contiguous Memory like an Array

 In this representation the Queue is implemented using the array. Variables used in this case are

 QUEUE- the name of the array storing queue elements.

 FRONT- the index where the first element is stored in the array representing the queue.

 REAR- the index where the last element is stored in array representing the queue.

 MAX- defining how many elements (maximum count) can be stored in the array representing the
queue.

 Using the Non-Contiguous Memory like a Linked List

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 In this representation the queue is implemented using the dynamic data structure Linked List. Using a
linked list for creating a queue makes it flexible in terms of size and storage. You don’t have to define the
maximum number of elements in the queue.

 Pointers (links) to store addresses of nodes for defining a queue are.

 FRONT- address of the first element of the Linked list storing the Queue.

 REAR- address of the last element of the Linked list storing the Queue.

 Queue Applications

 Queues are used in various applications in Computer Science-

 Job scheduling tasks of CPU.

 Printer’s Buffer to store printing commands initiated by a user.

 Input commands sent to CPU by devices like Keyboard and Mouse.

 Document downloading from internet.

 User Requests for call center services.

 Order Queue for Online Food Delivery Chains.

 Online Cab Booking applications.

Uses of data structures

One of the most important things to learn when you seek the answer to your question — what is data
structure? Why is data structure useful?

Data structures offer many advantages to IT-related processes, especially as applications get more complex
and the amount of existing data keeps growing. Here are some reasons why data structures are essential.

 They facilitate greater processing speeds. Large amounts of data require faster processing, and data
structures help organize the data into forms that are easier to work with and process.

 They make it easier to search for data. Data structures organize information into workable forms that are
easier to conduct required searches for.

 They are reusable. Once you implement a given data structure, it can be used anywhere. There is no
need to make a new structure. This function saves time and resources.

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 They make it easy to handle multiple requests. You rarely find a single user accessing a database. Instead,
it’s common to have hundreds, if not thousands, of users searching and interacting with a database. Data
structures arrange information so that users don’t have to search every item — they can instantly search
just the required data.

Data Structure and Its Applications

 Data structures have many applications, such as:

Data Storage.

 Data structures facilitate efficient data persistence, like specifying attribute collections and corresponding
structures used in database management systems to store records.

Data Exchange.

 Organized information, defined by data structures, can be shared between applications like TCP/IP
packets.

Resource and Service Management.

 Data structures such as linked lists can enable core operating systems resources and services to perform
functions like file directory management, memory allocation, and processing scheduling queues.

Scalability.

 Big data applications rely on data structures to manage and allocate data storage across many distributed
storage locations. This function guarantees scalability and high performance.

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