Software Engineering (3rd ed.), By K.

K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 1
 Software Testing

• What is Testing?
Many people understand many definitions of testing :

1. Testing is the process of demonstrating that errors are not present.

2. The purpose of testing is to show that a program performs its intended

functions correctly.

3. Testing is the process of establishing confidence that a program does

what it is supposed to do.

These definitions are incorrect.

Software Engineering (3rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 2
 Software Testing

A more appropriate definition is:

“Testing is the process of executing a program with

the intent of finding errors.”

Software Engineering (3rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 3
 Software Testing

• Why should We Test ?

Although software testing is itself an expensive activity, yet launching of
software without testing may lead to cost potentially much higher than that
of testing, specially in systems where human safety is involved.

In the software life cycle the earlier the errors are discovered and removed,
the lower is the cost of their removal.

Software Engineering (3rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 4
 Software Testing

• Who should Do the Testing ?

o Testing requires the developers to find errors from their software.
o It is difficult for software developer to point out errors from own
creations.
o Many organisations have made a distinction between development
and testing phase by making different people responsible for each
phase.

Software Engineering (3rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 5
 Software Testing

• What should We Test ?

We should test the program’s responses to every possible input. It means,
we should test for all valid and invalid inputs. Suppose a program requires
two 8 bit integers as inputs. Total possible combinations are 28x28. If only
one second it required to execute one set of inputs, it may take 18 hours to
test all combinations. Practically, inputs are more than two and size is also
more than 8 bits. We have also not considered invalid inputs where so
many combinations are possible. Hence, complete testing is just not
possible, although, we may wish to do so.

Software Engineering (3rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 6
 Software Testing

Fig. 1: Control flow graph

Software Engineering (3rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 7
 Software Testing

The number of paths in the example of Fig. 1 are 1014 or 100 trillions. It is
computed from 520 + 519 + 518 + …… + 51; where 5 is the number of paths
through the loop body. If only 5 minutes are required to test one test path, it
may take approximately one billion years to execute every path.

Software Engineering (3rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 8
 Software Testing
Some Terminologies
➢ Error, Mistake, Bug, Fault and Failure
People make errors. A good synonym is mistake. This may be a syntax
error or misunderstanding of specifications. Sometimes, there are logical
errors.

When developers make mistakes while coding, we call these mistakes

“bugs”.

A fault is the representation of an error, where representation is the mode

of expression, such as narrative text, data flow diagrams, ER diagrams,
source code etc. Defect is a good synonym for fault.

A failure occurs when a fault executes. A particular fault may cause

different failures, depending on how it has been exercised.

Software Engineering (3rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 9
 Software Testing
➢ Test, Test Case and Test Suite
Test and Test case terms are used interchangeably. In practice, both are
same and are treated as synonyms. Test case describes an input
description and an expected output description.
Test Case ID
Section-I Section-II
(Before Execution) (After Execution)
Purpose : Execution History:
Pre condition: (If any) Result:
Inputs: If fails, any possible reason (Optional);

Expected Outputs: Any other observation:

Post conditions: Any suggestion:
Written by: Run by:
Date: Date:
Fig. 2: Test case template
The set of test cases is called a test suite. Hence any combination of test
cases may generate a test suite.
Software Engineering (3rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 10
 Software Testing

➢ Verification and Validation

Verification is the process of evaluating a system or component to

determine whether the products of a given development phase satisfy the
conditions imposed at the start of that phase.
Validation is the process of evaluating a system or component during or at
the end of development process to determine whether it satisfies the
specified requirements .
Testing= Verification+Validation

Software Engineering (3rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 11
 Software Testing
➢ Alpha, Beta and Acceptance Testing
The term Acceptance Testing is used when the software is developed for
a specific customer. A series of tests are conducted to enable the customer
to validate all requirements. These tests are conducted by the end user /
customer and may range from adhoc tests to well planned systematic
series of tests.
The terms alpha and beta testing are used when the software is developed
as a product for anonymous customers.
Alpha Tests are conducted at the developer’s site by some potential
customers. These tests are conducted in a controlled environment. Alpha
testing may be started when formal testing process is near completion.

Beta Tests are conducted by the customers / end users at their sites.
Unlike alpha testing, developer is not present here. Beta testing is
conducted in a real environment that cannot be controlled by the developer.
Software Engineering (3rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 12
 Software Testing

Functional Testing
Input Output
domain domain

System
Input test Output
under
data test data
test

Fig. 3: Black box testing

Software Engineering (3rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 13
 Software Testing
Boundary Value Analysis
Consider a program with two input variables x and y. These input variables
have specified boundaries as:
a≤x≤b
c≤y≤d

Input domain

d
y
c

a b
x
Fig.4: Input domain for program having two input variables
Software Engineering (3rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 14
 Software Testing
The boundary value analysis test cases for our program with two inputs
variables (x and y) that may have any value from 100 to 300 are: (200,100),
(200,101), (200,200), (200,299), (200,300), (100,200), (101,200), (299,200) and
(300,200). This input domain is shown in Fig. 8.5. Each dot represent a test case
and inner rectangle is the domain of legitimate inputs. Thus, for a program of n
variables, boundary value analysis yield 4n + 1 test cases.
Input domain
400
300
y 200
100

0 100 200 300 400

x
Fig. 5: Input domain of two variables x and y with
boundaries [100,300] each
Software Engineering (3rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 15
 Software Testing

Example- 8.I

Consider a program for the determination of the nature of roots of a

quadratic equation. Its input is a triple of positive integers (say a,b,c) and
values may be from interval [0,100]. The program output may have one of
the following words.
[Not a quadratic equation; Real roots; Imaginary roots; Equal roots]
Design the boundary value test cases.

Software Engineering (3rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 16
 Software Testing

Solution

Quadratic equation will be of type:

ax2+bx+c=0
Roots are real if (b2-4ac)>0
Roots are imaginary if (b2-4ac)<0
Roots are equal if (b2-4ac)=0
Equation is not quadratic if a=0

Software Engineering (3rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 17
 Software Testing
The boundary value test cases are :
Test Case a b c Expected output

1 0 50 50 Not Quadratic
2 1 50 50 Real Roots
3 50 50 50 Imaginary Roots
4 99 50 50 Imaginary Roots
5 100 50 50 Imaginary Roots
6 50 0 50 Imaginary Roots
7 50 1 50 Imaginary Roots
8 50 99 50 Imaginary Roots
9 50 100 50 Equal Roots
10 50 50 0 Real Roots
11 50 50 1 Real Roots
12 50 50 99 Imaginary Roots
13 50 50 100 Imaginary Roots

Software Engineering (3rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 18
 Software Testing
Example – 8.2

Consider a program for determining the Previous date. Its input is a triple of
day, month and year with the values in the range
1 ≤ month ≤ 12
1 ≤ day ≤ 31
1900 ≤ year ≤ 2025
The possible outputs would be Previous date or invalid input date. Design the
boundary value test cases.

Software Engineering (3rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 19
 Software Testing
Solution

The Previous date program takes a date as input and checks it for validity.
If valid, it returns the previous date as its output.

With single fault assumption theory, 4n+1 test cases can be designed and
which are equal to 13.

Software Engineering (3rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 20
 Software Testing
The boundary value test cases are:
Test Case Month Day Year Expected output

1 6 15 1900 14 June, 1900

2 6 15 1901 14 June, 1901
3 6 15 1962 14 June, 1962
4 6 15 2024 14 June, 2024
5 6 15 2025 14 June, 2025
6 6 1 1962 31 May, 1962

7 6 2 1962 1 June, 1962

8 6 30 1962 29 June, 1962

9 6 31 1962 Invalid date

10 1 15 1962 14 January, 1962

11 2 15 1962 14 February, 1962

12 11 15 1962 14 November, 1962
13 12 15 1962 14 December, 1962

Software Engineering (3rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 21
 Software Testing
Example – 8.3

Consider a simple program to classify a triangle. Its inputs is a triple of

positive integers (say x, y, z) and the date type for input parameters ensures
that these will be integers greater than 0 and less than or equal to 100. The
program output may be one of the following words:
[Scalene; Isosceles; Equilateral; Not a triangle]
Design the boundary value test cases.

Software Engineering (3rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 22
 Software Testing
Solution
The boundary value test cases are shown below:

Test case x y z Expected Output

1 50 50 1 Isosceles
2 50 50 2 Isosceles

3 50 50 50 Equilateral
4 50 50 99 Isosceles
5 50 50 100 Not a triangle
6 50 1 50 Isosceles
7 50 2 50 Isosceles
8 50 99 50 Isosceles
9 50 100 50 Not a triangle
10 1 50 50 Isosceles
11 2 50 50 Isosceles
12 99 50 50 Isosceles
13 100 50 50 Not a triangle

Software Engineering (3rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 23
 Software Testing
Robustness testing
It is nothing but the extension of boundary value analysis. Here, we would
like to see, what happens when the extreme values are exceeded with a
value slightly greater than the maximum, and a value slightly less than
minimum. It means, we want to go outside the legitimate boundary of input
domain. This extended form of boundary value analysis is called
robustness testing and shown in Fig. 6

There are four additional test cases which are outside the legitimate input
domain. Hence total test cases in robustness testing are 6n+1, where n is
the number of input variables. So, 13 test cases are:

(200,99), (200,100), (200,101), (200,200), (200,299), (200,300)

(200,301), (99,200), (100,200), (101,200), (299,200), (300,200), (301,200)

Software Engineering (3rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 24
 Software Testing

400
300
y 200
100

0 100 200 300 400

x

Fig. 8.6: Robustness test cases for two variables x

and y with range [100,300] each

Software Engineering (3rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 25
 Software Testing
Worst-case testing

If we reject “single fault” assumption theory of reliability and may like to see
what happens when more than one variable has an extreme value. In
electronic circuits analysis, this is called “worst case analysis”. It is more
thorough in the sense that boundary value test cases are a proper subset
of worst case test cases. It requires more effort. Worst case testing for a
function of n variables generate 5n test cases as opposed to 4n+1 test
cases for boundary value analysis. Our two variables example will have
52=25 test cases and are given in table 1.

Software Engineering (3rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 26
 Software Testing
Table 1: Worst cases test inputs for two variables example

Test case Inputs Test case Inputs

number number
x y x y
1 100 100 14 200 299
2 100 101 15 200 300
3 100 200 16 299 100
4 100 299 17 299 101
5 100 300 18 299 200
6 101 100 19 299 299
7 101 101 20 299 300
8 101 200 21 300 100
9 101 299 22 300 101
10 101 300 23 300 200
11 200 100 24 300 299
12 200 101 25 300 300
13 200 200 --

Software Engineering (3rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 27
 Software Testing
Example - 8.4

Consider the program for the determination of nature of roots of a quadratic

equation as explained in example 8.1. Design the Robust test case and worst
test cases for this program.

Software Engineering (3rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 28
 Software Testing

Solution

Robust test cases are 6n+1. Hence, in 3 variable input cases total number
of test cases are 19 as given on next slide:

Software Engineering (3rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 29
 Software Testing
Test case a b c Expected Output

1 -1 50 50 Invalid input`

2 0 50 50 Not quadratic equation

3 1 50 50 Real roots
4 50 50 50 Imaginary roots
5 99 50 50 Imaginary roots
6 100 50 50 Imaginary roots
7 101 50 50 Invalid input
8 50 -1 50 Invalid input
9 50 0 50 Imaginary roots
10 50 1 50 Imaginary roots

11 50 99 50 Imaginary roots
12 50 100 50 Equal roots

13 50 101 50 Invalid input

14 50 50 -1 Invalid input

15 50 50 0 Real roots

16 50 50 1 Real roots
17 50 50 99 Imaginary roots
18 50 50 100 Imaginary roots
19 50 50 101 Invalid input
Software Engineering (3rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 30
 Software Testing
In case of worst test case total test cases are 5n. Hence, 125 test cases will be
generated in worst test cases. The worst test cases are given below:
Test Case a b c Expected output

1 0 0 0 Not Quadratic
2 0 0 1 Not Quadratic
3 0 0 50 Not Quadratic
4 0 0 99 Not Quadratic
5 0 0 100 Not Quadratic
6 0 1 0 Not Quadratic
7 0 1 1 Not Quadratic
8 0 1 50 Not Quadratic
9 0 1 99 Not Quadratic
10 0 1 100 Not Quadratic
11 0 50 0 Not Quadratic
12 0 50 1 Not Quadratic
13 0 50 50 Not Quadratic
14 0 50 99 Not Quadratic

Software Engineering (3rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 31
 Software Testing
Test Case A b c Expected output

15 0 50 100 Not Quadratic

16 0 99 0 Not Quadratic
17 0 99 1 Not Quadratic
18 0 99 50 Not Quadratic
19 0 99 99 Not Quadratic
20 0 99 100 Not Quadratic
21 0 100 0 Not Quadratic
22 0 100 1 Not Quadratic
23 0 100 50 Not Quadratic
24 0 100 99 Not Quadratic
25 0 100 100 Not Quadratic
26 1 0 0 Equal Roots
27 1 0 1 Imaginary
28 1 0 50 Imaginary
29 1 0 99 Imaginary
30 1 0 100 Imaginary
31 1 1 0 Real Roots
Software Engineering (3rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 32
 Software Testing
Test Case A b C Expected output

32 1 1 1 Imaginary
33 1 1 50 Imaginary
34 1 1 99 Imaginary
35 1 1 100 Imaginary
36 1 50 0 Real Roots
37 1 50 1 Real Roots
38 1 50 50 Real Roots
39 1 50 99 Real Roots
40 1 50 100 Real Roots
41 1 99 0 Real Roots
42 1 99 1 Real Roots
43 1 99 50 Real Roots
44` 1 99 99 Real Roots
45 1 99 100 Real Roots
46 1 100 0 Real Roots
47 1 100 1 Real Roots
48 1 100 50 Real Roots
Software Engineering (3rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 33
 Software Testing
Test Case A b C Expected output

49 1 100 99 Real Roots

50 1 100 100 Real Roots
51 50 0 0 Equal Roots
52 50 0 1 Imaginary
53 50 0 50 Imaginary
54 50 0 99 Imaginary
55 50 0 100 Imaginary
56 50 1 0 Real Roots
57 50 1 1 Imaginary
58 50 1 50 Imaginary
59 50 1 99 Imaginary
60 50 1 100 Imaginary
61 50 50 0 Real Roots
62 50 50 1 Real Roots
63 50 50 50 Imaginary
64 50 50 99 Imaginary
65 50 50 100 Imaginary
Software Engineering (3rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 34
 Software Testing
Test Case A b C Expected output

66 50 99 0 Real Roots
67 50 99 1 Real Roots
68 50 99 50 Imaginary
69 50 99 99 Imaginary
70 50 99 100 Imaginary
71 50 100 0 Real Roots
72 50 100 1 Real Roots
73 50 100 50 Equal Roots
74 50 100 99 Imaginary
75 50 100 100 Imaginary
76 99 0 0 Equal Roots
77 99 0 1 Imaginary
78 99 0 50 Imaginary
79 99 0 99 Imaginary
80 99 0 100 Imaginary
81 99 1 0 Real Roots
82 99 1 1 Imaginary

Software Engineering (3rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 35
 Software Testing
Test Case A b C Expected output

83 99 1 50 Imaginary
84 99 1 99 Imaginary
85 99 1 100 Imaginary
86 99 50 0 Real Roots
87 99 50 1 Real Roots
88 99 50 50 Imaginary
89 99 50 99 Imaginary
90 99 50 100 Imaginary
91 99 99 0 Real Roots
92 99 99 1 Real Roots
93 99 99 50 Imaginary Roots
94 99 99 99 Imaginary
95 99 99 100 Imaginary
96 99 100 0 Real Roots
97 99 100 1 Real Roots
98 99 100 50 Imaginary
99 99 100 99 Imaginary
100 99 100 100 Imaginary
Software Engineering (3rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 36
 Software Testing
Test Case A b C Expected output

101 100 0 0 Equal Roots

102 100 0 1 Imaginary
103 100 0 50 Imaginary
104 100 0 99 Imaginary
105 100 0 100 Imaginary
106 100 1 0 Real Roots
107 100 1 1 Imaginary
108 100 1 50 Imaginary
109 100 1 99 Imaginary
110 100 1 100 Imaginary
111 100 50 0 Real Roots
112 100 50 1 Real Roots
113 100 50 50 Imaginary
114 100 50 99 Imaginary
115 100 50 100 Imaginary
116 100 99 0 Real Roots
117 100 99 1 Real Roots
118 100 99 50 Imaginary

Software Engineering (3rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 37
 Software Testing
Test Case A b C Expected output

119 100 99 99 Imaginary

120 100 99 100 Imaginary
121 100 100 0 Real Roots
122 100 100 1 Real Roots
123 100 100 50 Imaginary
124 100 100 99 Imaginary
125 100 100 100 Imaginary

Software Engineering (3rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 38
 Software Testing
Example – 8.5

Consider the program for the determination of previous date in a calendar as

explained in example 8.2. Design the robust and worst test cases for this
program.

Software Engineering (3rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 39
 Software Testing

Solution

Robust test cases are 6n+1. Hence total 19 robust test cases are designed
and are given on next slide.

Software Engineering (3rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 40
 Software Testing
Test case Month Day Year Expected Output
1 6 15 1899 Invalid date (outside range)
2 6 15 1900 14 June, 1900

3 6 15 1901 14 June, 1901

4 6 15 1962 14 June, 1962
5 6 15 2024 14 June, 2024
6 6 15 2025 14 June, 2025

7 6 15 2026 Invalid date (outside range)

8 6 0 1962 Invalid date
9 6 1 1962 31 May, 1962
10 6 2 1962 1 June, 1962
11 6 30 1962 29 June, 1962
12 6 31 1962 Invalid date
13 6 32 1962 Invalid date
14 0 15 1962 Invalid date
15 1 15 1962 14 January, 1962

16 2 15 1962 14 February, 1962

17 11 15 1962 14 November, 1962
18 12 15 1962 14 December, 1962
19 13 15 1962 Invalid date
Software Engineering (3rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 41
 Software Testing
In case of worst test case total test cases are 5n. Hence, 125 test cases will be
generated in worst test cases. The worst test cases are given below:
Test Case Month Day Year Expected output

1 1 1 1900 31 December, 1899

2 1 1 1901 31 December, 1900
3 1 1 1962 31 December, 1961
4 1 1 2024 31 December, 2023
5 1 1 2025 31 December, 2024
6 1 2 1900 1 January, 1900
7 1 2 1901 1 January, 1901
8 1 2 1962 1 January, 1962
9 1 2 2024 1 January, 2024
10 1 2 2025 1 January, 2025
11 1 15 1900 14 January, 1900
12 1 15 1901 14 January, 1901
13 1 15 1962 14 January, 1962
14 1 15 2024 14 January, 2024

Software Engineering (3rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 42
 Software Testing
Test Case A b c Expected output

15 1 15 2025 14 January, 2025

16 1 30 1900 29 January, 1900
17 1 30 1901 29 January, 1901
18 1 30 1962 29 January, 1962
19 1 30 2024 29 January, 2024
20 1 30 2025 29 January, 2025
21 1 31 1900 30 January, 1900
22 1 31 1901 30 January, 1901
23 1 31 1962 30 January, 1962
24 1 31 2024 30 January, 2024
25 1 31 2025 30 January, 2025
26 2 1 1900 31 January, 1900
27 2 1 1901 31 January, 1901
28 2 1 1962 31 January, 1962
29 2 1 2024 31 January, 2024
30 2 1 2025 31 January, 2025
31 2 2 1900 1 February, 1900
Software Engineering (3rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 43
 Software Testing
Test Case Month Day Year Expected output

32 2 2 1901 1 February, 1901

33 2 2 1962 1 February, 1962
34 2 2 2024 1 February, 2024
35 2 2 2025 1 February, 2025
36 2 15 1900 14 February, 1900
37 2 15 1901 14 February, 1901
38 2 15 1962 14 February, 1962
39 2 15 2024 14 February, 2024
40 2 15 2025 14 February, 2025
41 2 30 1900 Invalid date
42 2 30 1901 Invalid date
43 2 30 1962 Invalid date
44 2 30 2024 Invalid date
45 2 30 2025 Invalid date
46 2 31 1900 Invalid date
47 2 31 1901 Invalid date
48 2 31 1962 Invalid date
Software Engineering (3rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 44
 Software Testing
Test Case Month Day Year Expected output

49 2 31 2024 Invalid date

50 2 31 2025 Invalid date
51 6 1 1900 31 May, 1900
52 6 1 1901 31 May, 1901
53 6 1 1962 31 May, 1962
54 6 1 2024 31 May, 2024
55 6 1 2025 31 May, 2025
56 6 2 1900 1 June, 1900
57 6 2 1901 1 June, 1901
58 6 2 1962 1 June, 1962
59 6 2 2024 1 June, 2024
60 6 2 2025 1 June, 2025
61 6 15 1900 14 June, 1900
62 6 15 1901 14 June, 1901
63 6 15 1962 14 June, 1962
64 6 15 2024 14 June, 2024
65 6 15 2025 14 June, 2025
Software Engineering (3rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 45
 Software Testing
Test Case Month Day Year Expected output

66 6 30 1900 29 June, 1900

67 6 30 1901 29 June, 1901
68 6 30 1962 29 June, 1962
69 6 30 2024 29 June, 2024
70 6 30 2025 29 June, 2025
71 6 31 1900 Invalid date
72 6 31 1901 Invalid date
73 6 31 1962 Invalid date
74 6 31 2024 Invalid date
75 6 31 2025 Invalid date
76 11 1 1900 31 October, 1900
77 11 1 1901 31 October, 1901

78 11 1 1962 31 October, 1962

79 11 1 2024 31 October, 2024
80 11 1 2025 31 October, 2025
81 11 2 1900 1 November, 1900
82 11 2 1901 1 November, 1901
Software Engineering (3rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 46
 Software Testing
Test Case Month Day Year Expected output

83 11 2 1962 1 November, 1962

84 11 2 2024 1 November, 2024
85 11 2 2025 1 November, 2025
86 11 15 1900 14 November, 1900
87 11 15 1901 14 November, 1901
88 11 15 1962 14 November, 1962
89 11 15 2024 14 November, 2024
90 11 15 2025 14 November, 2025
91 11 30 1900 29 November, 1900
92 11 30 1901 29 November, 1901
93 11 30 1962 29 November, 1962
94 11 30 2024 29 November, 2024
95 11 30 2025 29 November, 2025
96 11 31 1900 Invalid date
97 11 31 1901 Invalid date
98 11 31 1962 Invalid date
99 11 31 2024 Invalid date
100 11 31 2025 Invalid date

Software Engineering (3rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 47
 Software Testing
Test Case Month Day Year Expected output

101 12 1 1900 30 November, 1900

102 12 1 1901 30 November, 1901
103 12 1 1962 30 November, 1962
104 12 1 2024 30 November, 2024
105 12 1 2025 30 November, 2025
106 12 2 1900 1 December, 1900
107 12 2 1901 1 December, 1901
108 12 2 1962 1 December, 1962
109 12 2 2024 1 December, 2024
110 12 2 2025 1 December, 2025
111 12 15 1900 14 December, 1900
112 12 15 1901 14 December, 1901
113 12 15 1962 14 December, 1962
114 12 15 2024 14 December, 2024
115 12 15 2025 14 December, 2025
116 12 30 1900 29 December, 1900
117 12 30 1901 29 December, 1901
118 12 30 1962 29 December, 1962
Software Engineering (3rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 48
 Software Testing
Test Case Month Day Year Expected output

119 12 30 2024 29 December, 2024

120 12 30 2025 29 December, 2025
121 12 31 1900 30 December, 1900
122 12 31 1901 30 December, 1901
123 12 31 1962 30 December, 1962
124 12 31 2024 30 December, 2024
125 12 31 2025 30 December, 2025

Software Engineering (3rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 49
 Software Testing

Example – 8.6

Consider the triangle problem as given in example 8.3. Generate robust and
worst test cases for this problem.

Software Engineering (3rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 50
 Software Testing
Solution

Robust test cases are given on next slide.

Software Engineering (3rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 51
 Software Testing
` x y z Expected Output
1 50 50 0 Invalid input`

2 50 50 1 Isosceles

3 50 50 2 Isosceles
4 50 50 50 Equilateral
5 50 50 99 Isosceles
6 50 50 100 Not a triangle

7 50 50 101 Invalid input

8 50 0 50 Invalid input
9 50 1 50 Isosceles
10 50 2 50 Isosceles
11 50 99 50 Isosceles
12 50 100 50 Not a triangle
13 50 101 50 Invalid input
14 0 50 50 Invalid input

15 1 50 50 Isosceles

16 2 50 50 Isosceles
17 99 50 50 Isosceles
18 100 50 50 Not a triangle
19 100 50 50 Invalid input
Software Engineering (3rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 52
 Software Testing
Worst test cases are 125 and are given below:

Test Case x y z Expected output

1 1 1 1 Equilateral
2 1 1 2 Not a triangle
3 1 1 50 Not a triangle
4 1 1 99 Not a triangle
5 1 1 100 Not a triangle
6 1 2 1 Not a triangle
7 1 2 2 Isosceles
8 1 2 50 Not a triangle
9 1 2 99 Not a triangle
10 1 2 100 Not a triangle
11 1 50 1 Not a triangle
12 1 50 2 Not a triangle
13 1 50 50 Isosceles
14 1 50 99 Not a triangle

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Test Case A b c Expected output

15 1 50 100 Not a triangle

16 1 99 1 Not a triangle
17 1 99 2 Not a triangle
18 1 99 50 Not a triangle
19 1 99 99 Isosceles
20 1 99 100 Not a triangle
21 1 100 1 Not a triangle
22 1 100 2 Not a triangle
23 1 100 50 Not a triangle
24 1 100 99 Not a triangle
25 1 100 100 Isosceles
26 2 1 1 Not a triangle
27 2 1 2 Isosceles
28 2 1 50 Not a triangle
29 2 1 99 Not a triangle
30 2 1 100 Not a triangle
31 2 2 1 Isosceles
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 Software Testing
Test Case A b C Expected output

32 2 2 2 Equilateral
33 2 2 50 Not a triangle
34 2 2 99 Not a triangle
35 2 2 100 Not a triangle
36 2 50 1 Not a triangle
37 2 50 2 Not a triangle
38 2 50 50 Isosceles
39 2 50 99 Not a triangle
40 2 50 100 Not a triangle
41 2 99 1 Not a triangle
42 2 99 2 Not a triangle
43 2 99 50 Not a triangle
44 2 99 99 Isosceles
45 2 99 100 Scalene
46 2 100 1 Not a triangle
47 2 100 2 Not a triangle
48 2 100 50 Not a triangle
Software Engineering (3rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 55
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Test Case A b C Expected output

49 2 100 50 Scalene
50 2 100 99 Isosceles
51 50 1 100 Not a triangle
52 50 1 1 Not a triangle
53 50 1 2 Isosceles
54 50 1 50 Not a triangle
55 50 1 99 Not a triangle
56 50 2 100 Not a triangle
57 50 2 1 Not a triangle
58 50 2 2 Isosceles
59 50 2 50 Not a triangle
60 50 2 99 Not a triangle
61 50 50 100 Isosceles
62 50 50 1 Isosceles
63 50 50 2 Equilateral
64 50 50 50 Isosceles
65 50 50 99 Not a triangle
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Test Case A B C Expected output

66 50 99 1 Not a triangle
67 50 99 2 Not a triangle
68 50 99 50 Isosceles
69 50 99 99 Isosceles
70 50 99 100 Scalene
71 50 100 1 Not a triangle
72 50 100 2 Not a triangle
73 50 100 50 Not a triangle
74 50 100 99 Scalene
75 50 100 100 Isosceles
76 50 1 1 Not a triangle
77 99 1 2 Not a triangle
78 99 1 50 Not a triangle
79 99 1 99 Isosceles
80 99 1 100 Not a triangle
81 99 2 1 Not a triangle
82 99 2 2 Not a triangle
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Test Case A b C Expected output

83 99 2 50 Not a triangle
84 99 2 99 Isosceles
85 99 2 100 Scalene
86 99 50 1 Not a triangle
87 99 50 2 Not a triangle
88 99 50 50 Isosceles
89 99 50 99 Isosceles
90 99 50 100 Scalene
91 99 99 1 Isosceles
92 99 99 2 Isosceles
93 99 99 50 Isosceles
94 99 99 99 Equilateral
95 99 99 100 Isosceles
96 99 100 1 Not a triangle
97 99 100 2 Scalene
98 99 100 50 Scalene
99 99 100 99 Isosceles
100 99 100 100 Isosceles

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Test Case A b C Expected output

101 100 1 1 Not a triangle

102 100 1 2 Not a triangle
103 100 1 50 Not a triangle
104 100 1 99 Not a triangle
105 100 1 100 Isosceles
106 100 2 1 Not a triangle
107 100 2 2 Not a triangle
108 100 2 50 Not a triangle
109 100 2 99 Scalene
110 100 2 100 Isosceles
111 100 50 1 Not a triangle
112 100 50 2 Not a triangle
113 100 50 50 Not a triangle
114 100 50 99 Scalene
115 100 50 100 Isosceles
116 100 99 1 Not a triangle
117 100 99 2 Scalene
118 100 99 50 Scalene

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Test Case A b C Expected output

119 100 99 99 Isosceles

120 100 99 100 Isosceles
121 100 100 1 Isosceles
122 100 100 2 Isosceles
123 100 100 50 Isosceles
124 100 100 99 Isosceles
125 100 100 100 Equilateral

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Equivalence Class Testing
In this method, input domain of a program is partitioned into a finite number of
equivalence classes such that one can reasonably assume, but not be
absolutely sure, that the test of a representative value of each class is
equivalent to a test of any other value.
Two steps are required to implementing this method:

1. The equivalence classes are identified by taking each input condition and
partitioning it into valid and invalid classes. For example, if an input
condition specifies a range of values from 1 to 999, we identify one valid
equivalence class [1<item<999]; and two invalid equivalence classes
[item<1] and [item>999].

2. Generate the test cases using the equivalence classes identified in the
previous step. This is performed by writing test cases covering all the valid
equivalence classes. Then a test case is written for each invalid equivalence
class so that no test contains more than one invalid class. This is to ensure
that no two invalid classes mask each other.
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Invalid input

Valid System
Outputs
inputs under test

Input domain Output domain

Fig. 7: Equivalence partitioning

Most of the time, equivalence class testing defines classes of the input domain.
However, equivalence classes should also be defined for output domain.
Hence, we should design equivalence classes based on input and output
domain.
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Example 8.7

Consider the program for the determination of nature of roots of a quadratic

equation as explained in example 8.1. Identify the equivalence class test
cases for output and input domains.

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Solution
Output domain equivalence class test cases can be identified as follows:
O1={<a,b,c>:Not a quadratic equation if a = 0}
O1={<a,b,c>:Real roots if (b2-4ac)>0}
O1={<a,b,c>:Imaginary roots if (b2-4ac)<0}
O1={<a,b,c>:Equal roots if (b2-4ac)=0}`

The number of test cases can be derived form above relations and shown
below:
Test case a b c Expected output
1 0 50 50 Not a quadratic equation
2 1 50 50 Real roots
3 50 50 50 Imaginary roots
4 50 100 50 Equal roots

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 Software Testing
We may have another set of test cases based on input domain.
I1= {a: a = 0}
I2= {a: a < 0}
I3= {a: 1 ≤ a ≤ 100}
I4= {a: a > 100}
I5= {b: 0 ≤ b ≤ 100}
I6= {b: b < 0}
I7= {b: b > 100}
I8= {c: 0 ≤ c ≤ 100}
I9= {c: c < 0}
I10={c: c > 100}

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Test Case a b c Expected output

1 0 50 50 Not a quadratic equation

2 -1 50 50 Invalid input
3 50 50 50 Imaginary Roots
4 101 50 50 invalid input
5 50 50 50 Imaginary Roots
6 50 -1 50 invalid input
7 50 101 50 invalid input
8 50 50 50 Imaginary Roots
9 50 50 -1 invalid input
10 50 50 101 invalid input

Here test cases 5 and 8 are redundant test cases. If we choose any value other
than nominal, we may not have redundant test cases. Hence total test cases are
10+4=14 for this problem.
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Example 8.8
Consider the program for determining the previous date in a calendar as
explained in example 8.3. Identify the equivalence class test cases for output
& input domains.

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Solution
Output domain equivalence class are:
O1={<D,M,Y>: Previous date if all are valid inputs}
O1={<D,M,Y>: Invalid date if any input makes the date invalid}

Test case M D Y Expected output

1 6 15 1962 14 June, 1962
2 6 31 1962 Invalid date

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We may have another set of test cases which are based on input domain.

I1={month: 1 ≤ m ≤ 12}
I2={month: m < 1}
I3={month: m > 12}
I4={day: 1 ≤ D ≤ 31}
I5={day: D < 1}
I6={day: D > 31}
I7={year: 1900 ≤ Y ≤ 2025}
I8={year: Y < 1900}
I9={year: Y > 2025}

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Inputs domain test cases are :

Test Case M D Y Expected output

1 6 15 1962 14 June, 1962

2 -1 15 1962 Invalid input
3 13 15 1962 invalid input
4 6 15 1962 14 June, 1962
5 6 -1 1962 invalid input
6 6 32 1962 invalid input
7 6 15 1962 14 June, 1962
8 6 15 1899 invalid input (Value out of range)
9 6 15 2026 invalid input (Value out of range)

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Example – 8.9

Consider the triangle problem specified in a example 8.3. Identify the

equivalence class test cases for output and input domain.

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Solution
Output domain equivalence classes are:

O1={<x,y,z>: Equilateral triangle with sides x,y,z}

O1={<x,y,z>: Isosceles triangle with sides x,y,z}
O1={<x,y,z>: Scalene triangle with sides x,y,z}
O1={<x,y,z>: Not a triangle with sides x,y,z}

The test cases are:

Test case x y z Expected Output

1 50 50 50 Equilateral
2 50 50 99 Isosceles

3 100 99 50 Scalene
4 50 100 50 Not a triangle

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Input domain based classes are:

I1={x: x < 1}
I2={x: x > 100}
I3={x: 1 ≤ x ≤ 100}
I4={y: y < 1}
I5={y: y > 100}
I6={y: 1 ≤ y ≤ 100}
I7={z: z < 1}
I8={z: z > 100}
I9={z: 1 ≤ z ≤ 100}

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Some inputs domain test cases can be obtained using the relationship amongst x,y
and z.

I10={< x,y,z >: x = y = z}

I11={< x,y,z >: x = y, x ≠ z}
I12={< x,y,z >: x = z, x ≠ y}
I13={< x,y,z >: y = z, x ≠ y}
I14={< x,y,z >: x ≠ y, x ≠ z, y ≠ z}
I15={< x,y,z >: x = y + z}
I16={< x,y,z >: x > y +z}
I17={< x,y,z >: y = x +z}
I18={< x,y,z >: y > x + z}
I19={< x,y,z >: z = x + y}
I20={< x,y,z >: z > x +y}

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Test cases derived from input domain are:

Test case x y z Expected Output

1 0 50 50 Invalid input
2 101 50 50 Invalid input

3 50 50 50 Equilateral
4 50 0 50 Invalid input
5 50 101 50 Invalid input
6 50 50 50 Equilateral
7 50 50 0 Invalid input
8 50 50 101 Invalid input
9 50 50 50 Equilateral
10 60 60 60 Equilateral
11 50 50 60 Isosceles

12 50 60 50 Isosceles
13 60 50 50 Isosceles

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Test case x y z Expected Output

14 100 99 50 Scalene
15 100 50 50 Not a triangle

16 100 50 25 Not a triangle

17 50 100 50 Not a triangle
18 50 100 25 Not a triangle
19 50 50 100 Not a triangle
20 25 50 100 Not a triangle

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 Software Testing
Decision Table Based Testing

Condition Entry
Stub
True False
C1
True False True False
C2

C3 True False True False True False ---

Action a1 X X X
Stub
a2
X X X

a3
X X

a4
X X X

Table 2: Decision table terminology

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Test case design

C1:x,y,z are sides of a triangle? N Y

C2:x = y? -- Y N
C3:x = z? -- Y N Y N
C4:y = z? -- N N Y N Y
Y Y N
a1: Not a triangle X
a2: Scalene X
a3: Isosceles X X X
a4: Equilateral X
a5: Impossible X X X

Table 3: Decision table for triangle problem

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Conditions F T T T T T T T T T T
C1 : x < y + z ?
C2 : y < x + z ? -- F T T T T T T T T T

C3 : z < x + y ? -- -- F T T T T T T T T

C4 : x = y ? -- -- -- T T T T F F F F

C5 : x = z ? -- -- -- T T F F T T F F

C6 : y = z ? -- -- -- T F T F T F T F

a1 : Not a triangle X X X

a2 : Scalene X

a3 : Isosceles X X X

a4 : Equilateral X

a5 : Impossible X X X

Table 4: Modified decision table

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Example 8.10

Consider the triangle program specified in example 8.3. Identify the

test cases using the decision table of Table 4.

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Solution
There are eleven functional test cases, three to fail triangle property, three
impossible cases, one each to get equilateral, scalene triangle cases, and
three to get on isosceles triangle. The test cases are given in Table 5.
Test case x y z Expected Output

1 4 1 2 Not a triangle
2 1 4 2 Not a triangle
3 1 2 4 Not a triangle
4 5 5 5 Equilateral
5 ? ? ? Impossible
6 ? ? ? Impossible
7 2 2 3 Isosceles
8 ? ? ? Impossible
9 2 3 2 Isosceles
10 3 2 2 Isosceles
11 3 4 5 Scalene

Test cases of triangle problem using decision table

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Example 8.11

Consider a program for the determination of Previous date. Its input is a triple of day,
month and year with the values in the range
1 ≤ month ≤ 12
1 ≤ day ≤ 31
1900 ≤ year ≤ 2025
The possible outputs are “Previous date” and “Invalid date”. Design the test cases
using decision table based testing.

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Solution
The input domain can be divided into following classes:
I1= {M1: month has 30 days}
I2= {M2: month has 31 days except March, August and January}
I3= {M3: month is March}
I4= {M4: month is August}
I5= {M5: month is January}
I6= {M6: month is February}
I7= {D1: day = 1}
I8= {D2: 2 ≤ day ≤ 28}
I9= {D3: day = 29}
I10={D4: day = 30}
I11={D5: day = 31}
I12={Y1: year is a leap year}
I13={Y2: year is a common year}
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The decision table is given below:
[Link]. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

C1: Months in M1 M1 M1 M1 M1 M1 M1 M1 M1 M1 M2 M2 M2 M2 M2

C2: days in D1 D1 D2 D2 D3 D3 D4 D4 D5 D5 D1 D1 D2 D2 D3

C3: year in Y1 Y2 Y1 Y2 Y1 Y2 Y1 Y2 Y1 Y2 Y1 Y2 Y1 Y2 Y1

a1: Impossible X X

a2: Decrement day X X X X X X X X X

a3: Reset day to 31 X X

a4: Reset day to 30 X X

a5: Reset day to 29

a6: Reset day to 28

a7: decrement month X X X X

a8: Reset month to December

a9: Decrement year

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[Link]. 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

C1: Months in M2 M2 M2 M2 M2 M3 M3 M3 M3 M3 M3 M3 M3 M3 M3

C2: days in D3 D4 D4 D5 D5 D1 D1 D2 D2 D3 D3 D4 D4 D5 D5

C3: year in Y2 Y1 Y2 Y1 Y2 Y1 Y2 Y1 Y2 Y1 Y2 Y1 Y2 Y1 Y2

a1: Impossible

a2: Decrement day X X X X X X X X X X X X X

a3: Reset day to 31

a4: Reset day to 30

a5: Reset day to 29 X

a6: Reset day to 28 X

a7: decrement month X X

a8: Reset month to December

a9: Decrement year

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[Link]. 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45

C1: Months in M4 M4 M4 M4 M4 M4 M4 M4 M4 M4 M5 M5 M5 M5 M5

C2: days in D1 D1 D2 D2 D3 D3 D4 D4 D5 D5 D1 D1 D2 D2 D3

C3: year in Y1 Y2 Y1 Y2 Y1 Y2 Y1 Y2 Y1 Y2 Y1 Y2 Y1 Y2 Y1

a1: Impossible

a2: Decrement day X X X X X X X X X X X

a3: Reset day to 31 X X X X

a4: Reset day to 30

a5: Reset day to 29

a6: Reset day to 28

a7: decrement month X X

a8: Reset month to December X X

a9: Decrement year X X

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[Link]. 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60

C1: Months in M5 M5 M5 M5 M5 M6 M6 M6 M6 M6 M6 M6 M6 M6 M6

C2: days in D3 D4 D4 D5 D5 D1 D1 D2 D2 D3 D3 D4 D4 D5 D5

C3: year in Y2 Y1 Y2 Y1 Y2 Y1 Y2 Y1 Y2 Y1 Y2 Y1 Y2 Y1 Y2

a1: Impossible X X X X X

a2: Decrement day X X X X X X X X

a3: Reset day to 31 X X

a4: Reset day to 30

a5: Reset day to 29

a6: Reset day to 28

a7: decrement month X X

a8: Reset month to December

a9: Decrement year

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Test case Month Day Year Expected output
1 June 1 1964 31 May, 1964
2 June 1 1962 31 May, 1962
3 June 15 1964 14 June, 1964
4 June 15 1962 14 June, 1962
5 June 29 1964 28 June, 1964
6 June 29 1962 28 June, 1962
7 June 30 1964 29 June, 1964
8 June 30 1962 29 June, 1962
9 June 31 1964 Impossible
10 June 31 1962 Impossible
11 May 1 1964 30 April, 1964
12 May 1 1962 30 April, 1962
13 May 15 1964 14 May, 1964
14 May 15 1962 14 May, 1962
15 May 29 1964 28 May, 1964

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Test case Month Day Year Expected output
16 May 29 1962 28 May, 1962
17 May 30 1964 29 May, 1964
18 May 30 1962 29 May, 1962
19 May 31 1964 30 May, 1964
20 May 31 1962 30 May, 1962
21 March 1 1964 29 February, 1964
22 March 1 1962 28 February, 1962
23 March 15 1964 14 March, 1964
24 March 15 1962 14 March, 1962
25 March 29 1964 28 March, 1964
26 March 29 1962 28 March, 1962
27 March 30 1964 29 March, 1964
28 March 30 1962 29 March, 1962
29 March 31 1964 30 March, 1964
30 March 31 1962 30 March, 1962

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Test case Month Day Year Expected output
31 August 1 1964 31 July, 1962
32 August 1 1962 31 July, 1964
33 August 15 1964 14 August, 1964
34 August 15 1962 14 August, 1962
35 August 29 1964 28 August, 1964
36 August 29 1962 28 August, 1962
37 August 30 1964 29 August, 1964
38 August 30 1962 29 August, 1962
39 August 31 1964 30 August, 1964
40 August 31 1962 30 August, 1962
41 January 1 1964 31 December, 1964
42 January 1 1962 31 December, 1962
43 January 15 1964 14 January, 1964
44 January 15 1962 14 January, 1962
45 January 29 1964 28 January, 1964

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Test case Month Day Year Expected output
46 January 29 1962 28 January, 1962
47 January 30 1964 29 January, 1964
48 January 30 1962 29 January, 1962
49 January 31 1964 30 January, 1964
50 January 31 1962 30 January, 1962
51 February 1 1964 31 January, 1964
52 February 1 1962 31 January, 1962
53 February 15 1964 14 February, 1964
54 February 15 1962 14 February, 1962
55 February 29 1964 28 February, 1964
56 February 29 1962 Impossible
57 February 30 1964 Impossible
58 February 30 1962 Impossible
59 February 31 1964 Impossible
60 February 31 1962 Impossible

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 Software Testing
Cause Effect Graphing Technique
▪ Consider single input conditions
▪ do not explore combinations of input circumstances
Steps
1. Causes & effects in the specifications are identified.
A cause is a distinct input condition or an equivalence class of input conditions.

An effect is an output condition or a system transformation.

2. The semantic content of the specification is analysed and transformed into a

boolean graph linking the causes & effects.

3. Constraints are imposed

4. graph – limited entry decision table

Each column in the table represent a test case.

5. The columns in the decision table are converted into test cases.
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The basic notation for the graph is shown in fig. 8

Fig.8. 8 : Basic cause effect graph symbols

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 Software Testing
Myers explained this effectively with following example. “The characters in column 1
must be an A or B. The character in column 2 must be a digit. In this situation, the
file update is made. If the character in column 1 is incorrect, message x is issued. If
the character in column 2 is not a digit, message y is issued”.
The causes are
c1: character in column 1 is A
c2: character in column 1 is B

c3: character in column 2 is a digit

and the effects are

e1: update made
e2: message x is issued
e3: message y is issued

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Fig. 9: Sample cause effect graph

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The E constraint states that it must always be true that at most

one of c1 or c2 can be 1 (c1 or c2 cannot be 1 simultaneously). The
I constraint states that at least one of c1, c2 and c3 must always be
1 (c1, c2 and c3 cannot be 0 simultaneously). The O constraint
states that one, and only one, of c1 and c2 must be 1. The
constraint R states that, for c1 to be 1, c2 must be 1 (i.e. it is
impossible for c1 to be 1 and c2 to be0),

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Fig. 10: Constraint symbols

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Fig. 11: Symbol for masks constraint

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Fig. 12 : Sample cause effect graph with exclusive constraint

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Example 8.12
Consider the triangle problem specified in the example 8.3. Draw the Cause
effect graph and identify the test cases.

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Solution
The causes are
c1: side x is less than sum of sides y and z
c2: side y is less than sum of sides x and y
c3: side z is less than sum of sides x and y
c4: side x is equal to side y
c5: side x is equal to side z
c6: side y is equal to side z

and effects are

e1: Not a triangle
e2: Scalene triangle
e3: Isosceles triangle
e4: Equilateral triangle
e5: Impossible stage

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The cause effect graph is shown in fig. 13 and decision table is shown in table 6.
The test cases for this problem are available in Table 5.
Conditions
C1: x < y + z ? 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
C2: y < x + z ? X 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
C3: z < x + y ? X X 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
C4: x = y ? X X X 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0
C5: x = z ? X X X 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0
C6: y = z ? X X X 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0
e1: Not a triangle 1 1 1
e2: Scalene 1
e3: Isosceles 1 1 1
e4: Equilateral 1
e5: Impossible 1 1 1

Table 6: Decision table

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Fig. 13: Cause effect graph of triangle problem

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Structural Testing
A complementary approach to functional testing is called structural / white box
testing. It permits us to examine the internal structure of the program.

Path Testing
Path testing is the name given to a group of test techniques based on judiciously
selecting a set of test paths through the program. If the set of paths is properly
chosen, then it means that we have achieved some measure of test thoroughness.

This type of testing involves:

1. generating a set of paths that will cover every branch in the program.

2. finding a set of test cases that will execute every path in the set of program
paths.

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Flow Graph
The control flow of a program can be analysed using a graphical representation
known as flow graph. The flow graph is a directed graph in which nodes are either
entire statements or fragments of a statement, and edges represents flow of control.

Fig. 14: The basic construct of the flow graph

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Fig. 15: Program for previous date problem

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Fig. 16: Flow graph of previous date

problem

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DD Path Graph
Table 7: Mapping of flow graph nodes and DD path nodes
Flow graph DD Path graph Remarks
nodes corresponding
node
1 to 9 n1 There is a sequential flow from node 1 to 9
10 n2 Decision node, if true go to 13 else go to 44
11 n3 Decision node, if true go to 12 else go to 19
12 n4 Decision node, if true go to 13 else go to 15
13,14 n5 Sequential nodes and are combined to form new node n5
15,16,17 n6 Sequential nodes
18 n7 Edges from node 14 to 17 are terminated here
19 n8 Decision node, if true go to 20 else go to 37
20 n9 Intermediate node with one input edge and one output edge
21 n10 Decision node, if true go to 22 else go to 27
22 n11 Intermediate node
23 n12 Decision node, if true go to 24 else go to 26

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Flow graph DD Path graph Remarks

nodes corresponding
node
24,25 n13 Sequential nodes
26 n14 Two edges from node 25 & 23 are terminated here
27 n15 Two edges from node 26 & 21 are terminated here. Also a decision node
28,29 n16 Sequential nodes
30 n17 Decision node, if true go to 31 else go to 33
31,32 n18 Sequential nodes
33,34,35 n19 Sequential nodes
36 n20 Three edge from node 29,32 and 35 are terminated here
37 n21 Decision node, if true go to 38 else go to 40
38,39 n22 Sequential nodes
40,41,42 n23 Sequential nodes
43 n24 Three edge from node 36,39 and 42 are terminated here

Cont….
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Flow graph DD Path graph Remarks
nodes corresponding
node
44 n25 Decision node, if true go to 45 else go to 82. Three edges from 18,43 & 10
are also terminated here.
45 n26 Decision node, if true go to 46 else go to 77
46 n27 Decision node, if true go to 47 else go to 51
47,48,49,50 n28 Sequential nodes
51 n29 Decision node, if true go to 52 else go to 68
52 n30 Intermediate node with one input edge & one output ege
53 n31 Decision node, if true go to 54 else go to 59
54 n32 Intermediate node
55 n33 Decision node, if true go to 56 else go to 58
56,57 n34 Sequential nodes
58 n35 Two edge from node 57 and 55 are terminated here
59 n36 Decision node, if true go to 60 else go to 63. Two edge from nodes 58 and
53 are terminated.

Cont….
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Flow graph DD Path graph Remarks
nodes corresponding
node
60,61,62 n37 Sequential nodes
63,64,65,66 n38 Sequential nodes
67 n39 Two edge from node 62 and 66 are terminated here
68 n40 Decision node, if true go to 69 else go to 72
69,70,71 n41 Sequential nodes
72,73,74,75 n42 Sequential nodes
76 n43 Four edges from nodes 50, 67, 71 and 75 are terminated here.
77,78,79 n44 Sequential nodes
80 n45 Two edges from nodes 76 & 79 are terminated here
81 n46 Intermediate node
82,83,84 n47 Sequential nodes
85 n48 Two edges from nodes 81 and 84 are terminated here
86,87 n49 Sequential nodes with exit node

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Fig. 17: DD path graph

of previous date
problem

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Fig. 18: Independent paths of previous date problem

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Example 8.13
Consider the problem for the determination of the nature of roots of a quadratic
equation. Its input a triple of positive integers (say a,b,c) and value may be from
interval [0,100].
The program is given in fig. 19. The output may have one of the following words:
[Not a quadratic equation; real roots; Imaginary roots; Equal roots]

Draw the flow graph and DD path graph. Also find independent paths from the DD
Path graph.

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Cont….
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Fig. 19: Code of quadratic equation problem

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Solution

Fig. 19 (a) : Program flow

graph

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Fig. 19 (b) : DD Path graph

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The mapping table for DD path graph is:
Flow graph DD Path graph Remarks
nodes corresponding
node
1 to 10 A Sequential nodes
11 B Decision node
12 C Intermediate node
13 D Decision node
14,15 E Sequential node
16 F Two edges are combined here
17 G Two edges are combined and decision node
18 H Intermediate node
19 I Decision node
20,21 J Sequential node
22 K Decision node
23,24,25 L Sequential node

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Flow graph DD Path graph Remarks

nodes corresponding
node
26,27,28,29 M Sequential nodes
30 N Three edges are combined
31 O Decision node
32,33 P Sequential node
34,35,36 Q Sequential node
37 R Three edges are combined here
38,39 S Sequential nodes with exit node

Independent paths are:

(i) ABGOQRS (ii) ABGOPRS
(iii) ABCDFGOQRS (iv) ABCDEFGOPRS
(v) ABGHIJNRS (vi) ABGHIKLNRS
(vi) ABGHIKMNRS
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Example 8.14
Consider a program given in Fig.8.20 for the classification of a triangle. Its input is a
triple of positive integers (say a,b,c) from the interval [1,100]. The output may be
[Scalene, Isosceles, Equilateral, Not a triangle].
Draw the flow graph & DD Path graph. Also find the independent paths from the DD
Path graph.

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Fig. 20 : Code of triangle classification problem

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Solution :

Flow graph of
triangle problem is:

Fig.8. 20 (a): Program flow graph

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The mapping table for DD path graph is:
Flow graph DD Path graph Remarks
nodes corresponding
node

1 TO 9 A Sequential nodes

10 B Decision node

11 C Decision node

12, 13 D Sequential nodes

14 E Two edges are joined here

15, 16, 17 F Sequential nodes

18 G Decision nodes plus joining of two edges

19 H Decision node

20, 21 I Sequential nodes

22 J Decision node

23, 24 K Sequential nodes

25, 26, 27 L Sequential nodes

Cont….
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Flow graph DD Path graph Remarks

nodes corresponding
node
28 M Three edges are combined here
29 N Decision node
30, 31 O Sequential nodes
32, 33, 34 P Sequential nodes
35 Q Three edges are combined here
36, 37 R Sequential nodes with exit node

Fig. 20 (b): DD Path graph

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DD Path graph is given in Fig. 20 (b)

Independent paths are:

(i) ABFGNPQR
(ii) ABFGNOQR
(iii) ABCEGNPQR
(iv) ABCDEGNOQR
(v) ABFGHIMQR
(vi)ABFGHJKMQR
(vii)ABFGHJMQR

Fig. 20 (b): DD Path graph

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Cyclomatic Complexity

McCabe’s cyclomatic metric V(G) = e – n + 2P.

For example, a flow graph shown in in Fig. 21 with entry node ‘a’ and exit node ‘f’.

Fig. 21: Flow graph

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The value of cyclomatic complexity can be calculated as :
V(G) = 9 – 6 + 2 = 5

Here e = 9, n = 6 and P =1

There will be five independent paths for the flow graph illustrated in Fig. 21.
Path 1 : acf
Path 2 : abef
Path 3 : adcf
Path 4 : a b e a c f or a b e a b e f
Path 5 : abebef

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Several properties of cyclomatic complexity are stated below:

1. V(G) ≥1

2. V (G) is the maximum number of independent paths in graph G.

3. Inserting & deleting functional statements to G does not affect V(G).

4. G has only one path if and only if V(G)=1.

5. Inserting a new row in G increases V(G) by unity.

6. V(G) depends only on the decision structure of G.

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The role of P in the complexity calculation V(G)=e-n+2P is required to be understood
correctly. We define a flow graph with unique entry and exit nodes, all nodes
reachable from the entry, and exit reachable from all nodes. This definition would
result in all flow graphs having only one connected component. One could, however,
imagine a main program M and two called subroutines A and B having a flow graph
shown in Fig. 22.

Fig. 22
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Let us denote the total graph above with 3 connected components as

V (M  A B) = e − n + 2P

= 13-13+2*3
=6

This method with P  1 can be used to calculate the complexity of a

collection of programs, particularly a hierarchical nest of subroutines.

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Notice that V (M  A B) = V (M ) +V ( A) +V (B) = 6 . In general, the

complexity of a collection C of flow graphs with K connected components is
equal to the summation of their complexities. To see this let Ci,1 ≤ I ≤ K
denote the k distinct connected component, and let ei and ni be the number of edges
and nodes in the ith-connected component. Then

k k

V (C) = e − n + 2 p = ∑ ei − ∑ ni + 2K
i=1 i=1

k k
= ∑ (ei − ni + 2) = ∑ V (Ci )
i=1 i=1

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Two alternate methods are available for the complexity calculations.

1. Cyclomatic complexity V(G) of a flow graph G is equal to the number of

predicate (decision) nodes plus one.
V(G)=  +1
Where  is the number of predicate nodes contained in the flow graph
G.

2. Cyclomatic complexity is equal to the number of regions of the flow

graph.

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Example 8.15
Consider a flow graph given in Fig. 23 and calculate the cyclomatic
complexity by all three methods.

Fig. 23

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Solution
Cyclomatic complexity can be calculated by any of the three methods.

1. V(G) = e – n + 2P
= 13 – 10 + 2 = 5

2. V(G) =π+1
= 4 + 1 =5

3. V(G) = number of regions

=5

Therefore, complexity value of a flow graph in Fig. 23 is 5.

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Example 8.16

Consider the previous date program with DD path graph given in Fig. 17.
Find cyclomatic complexity.

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Solution

Number of edges (e) = 65

Number of nodes (n) =49

(i) V(G) = e – n + 2P = 65 – 49 + 2 = 18

(ii) V(G) = π + 1 = 17 + 1 = 18

(iii) V(G) = Number of regions = 18

The cyclomatic complexity is 18.

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Example 8.17

Consider the quadratic equation problem given in example 8.13 with its DD
Path graph. Find the cyclomatic complexity:

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Solution

Number of nodes (n) = 19

Number of edges (e) = 24
(i) V(G) = e – n + 2P = 24 – 19 + 2 = 7
(ii) V(G) = π + 1 = 6 + 1 = 7

(iii) V(G) = Number of regions =7

Hence cyclomatic complexity is 7 meaning thereby, seven

independent paths in the DD Path graph.

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Example 8.18

Consider the classification of triangle problem given in example 8.14. Find

the cyclomatic complexity.

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Solution
Number of edges (e) = 23
Number of nodes (n) =18
(i) V(G) = e – n + 2P = 23 – 18 + 2 = 7
(ii) V(G) = π + 1 = 6 + 1 = 7

(iii) V(G) = Number of regions =7

The cyclomatic complexity is 7. Hence, there are seven independent paths

as given in example 8.14.

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Graph Matrices
A graph matrix is a square matrix with one row and one column for every node in the
graph. The size of the matrix (i.e., the number of rows and columns) is equal to the
number of nodes in the flow graph. Some examples of graphs and associated
matrices are shown in fig. 24.

Fig. 24 (a): Flow graph and graph matrices

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Fig. 24 (b): Flow graph and graph matrices

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Fig. 24 (c): Flow graph and graph matrices

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Fig. 25 : Connection matrix of flow graph shown in Fig. 24 (c)

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The square matrix represent that there are two path ab and cd from node 1 to
node 2.

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